18.4.

2019

Chapter - 4

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Isobars can form patterns, which when they

are recognized, can help us forecast the
weather. These patterns are called pressure
distribution systems. They include:
◦ Depressions, or lows.
◦ Anticyclones, or highs.
◦ Troughs.
◦ Ridges.
◦ Cols.

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In the 19th century the Dutch scientist and meteorologist,

Buys Ballot, produced a law based on the observation of
wind direction and pressure systems.

Buys Ballot’s Law states that:
◦ If an observer stands with his back to the wind in the Northern
Hemisphere then the low pressure is on his left. (In the Southern
Hemisphere low pressure is to the right.)
◦ This law will prove to be a useful tool in both the study of wind
and altimetry.

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Advection:
◦ Advection is a meteorological term for horizontal movement of air.

Depressions (low or a cyclone)

cyclone) :
◦ A depression is a region of
comparatively low pressure shown by
more or less circular and concentric
isobars surrounding the centre, where
pressure is lowest. A depression is
sometimes called a low or a cyclone.
◦ Buys Ballots’ law tells us that the wind
will move around a low pressure
system in an anti-clockwise direction
in the Northern Hemisphere.
◦ There are two types of depression;
◦ Frontal (large scale) found in our
temperate latitudes
◦ Non-frontal (small scale) depressions
which can occur virtually anywhere.
◦ WHY DEPRESSIONS OCCUR???

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In a depression air is converging at the surface, rising from the

surface to medium to high altitude (convection) then diverging at
medium to high altitude.

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Frontal depressions (Polar Front Depressions)

Depressions) form, in
temperate latitudes when warm, moist sub-tropical air
masses meet cold polar air masses.

These depressions move from west to east and eventually,
in the Northern Hemisphere, lose their identity over the
North American or Eurasian land masses.

In the N. Atlantic these depressions originate in the central
to western Atlantic and move rapidly eastward, eventually
losing their identity over the steppes of central Asia.

An example of a polar front depression

is centred over Greenland/Iceland on
the analysis chart.

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Non-
Non-frontal depressions are usually formed by surface heating
when they are known as thermal depressions. They occur over
land in summer as a result of strong surface heating.

They also occur over the warm sub-tropical oceans where they
are known as tropical cyclones.

In winter they occur over sea areas in cold polar or arctic air
masses.

The different types of depressions and their formation will be
discussed in later chapters.

On the analysis chart thermal

depressions (labelled TD) are seen over
the Black Sea and the Mediterranean
Sea, formed in the cold air coming out
of central Asia
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A trough is an extension of a low pressure system. On the analysis chart

there are two troughs associated with the polar front depression centred
over Greenland/Iceland.

One extending north across Greenland is a non-frontal trough.

The other extending southward is a frontal trough formed along the cold
front.

Troughs are very often associated with the fronts of polar front
depressions.

The weather associated with a trough will be similar to that of a
depression.

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Cloud:
Cloud:
◦ extensive and may extend from low altitude to the tropopause

Precipitation
◦ may be continuous/intermittent precipitation or showers and
intensity can range from light to heavy dependent on the type of
depression

Visibility
◦ Poor in precipitation, otherwise good due to ascending air.

Temperature
◦ dependent on type of depression and time of year. For example, a
frontal depression coming into Europe from the Atlantic in winter
will bring warmer air, but in summer will bring cooler air.

Winds
◦ Winds are usually strong - the deeper the depression and the
closer the isobars, the stronger the wind.

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An anticyclone or high is a region of relatively high

pressure shown by more or less circular isobars similar to
a depression but with higher pressure at the centre.

Isobars are more widely spaced than with
depressions. There are five types of
anticyclone,

warm,

cold,

temporary cold,

ridges (or wedges) and

blocking.

Within an anticyclone, at high altitude we

have air converging, then descent of air
within the anticyclone (subsidence) and
divergence at the surface.

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Cold anticyclones occur as permanent features at the poles and as

seasonal features over continental land masses in the winter.

In simple terms the air at the surface is cooled thereby increasing its
density and drawing more air down from above hence increasing the
surface pressure.

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To understand the formation of warm anticyclones we need to look at the global circulation of
air.

In the 19th century a British scientist, George Hadley, proposed a global circulation based on
hot air rising at the Equator then flowing up to the poles at the tropopause, descending at the
poles and flowing back to the Equator at the surface.

This model was not quite correct because in our temperate latitudes pressure is predominantly
low because of the large scale frontal depressions.

An American scientist, William Ferrel, proposed a modification to Hadley’s model introducing
the modification arising because of the low pressure systems in temperate latitudes.

This gives the three circulation cells, the

Hadley cell between the Equator and the
subtropics, the Ferrel cell between the
subtropics and temperate latitudes and the
Polar cell between temperate latitudes and
the poles.

This circulation means that we have, at the
tropopause, air flowing outwards from the
Equator towards the poles and from
temperate latitudes towards the Equator.
This creates an excess of air at the
tropopause in subtropical regions which is
forced to descend, hence creating the
subtropical high pressure systems which
are permanent features over the
subtropical oceans, for example the
Azores high in the N. Atlantic.

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Ridges of high pressure are indicated by

isobars extending outwards from an
anticyclone and always rounded, never V-
shaped as seen in a trough.

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A temporary cold anticyclone is a ridge of high

pressure found in the cold air between two frontal
depressions.

Because the depressions are moving rapidly the
influence of these anticyclones will be experienced
for up to a maximum of about 24 hours.

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A blocking anticyclone is one which prevents the usual eastward

movement of frontal depressions, forcing these depressions to
take up northerly tracks in the Northern Hemisphere.

These anticyclones are usually extensions of the warm
subtropical anticyclones.

They can persist for weeks giving (usually) warm dry weather in
summer and gloomy overcast conditions in winter with a
possibility of drizzle.

Over Europe in winter they may be extensions of the Siberian
high giving (usually) cold clear conditions.

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SUMMER (and cold anticyclones in winter):

◦ Cloud None except on the edge of the anticyclone.
◦ Precipitation None.
◦ Visibility Generally moderate with haze
◦ Temperature Dependent on type.
◦ Winds Light.

WINTER (warm anticyclones):

◦ Cloud Extensive stratus with a low base and limited vertical
extent.
◦ Precipitation Possibly drizzle.
◦ Visibility Generally moderate to poor with mist and fog
likely
◦ Temperature Relatively warm.
◦ Winds Light.

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Cols are regions of

almost level pressure
between two highs and
two lows. It is an area of
stagnation.

Col Weather
◦ Col weather is normally
settled, but is dependent on
changing pressure.
◦ In autumn and winter cols
produce poor visibility and
fog, whilst in summer
thunderstorms are common.

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A weather forecast for a day

when a col influenced the
weather over the UK.
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Frontal depressions tend to move rapidly. The

movement of non-frontal depressions depends
on type and location; they may remain relatively
static or move at moderate speeds.

Anticyclones tend to be slow moving and will
persist in more or less the same location for long
periods.

Cols tend to be static.

Movement of the systems is the key to accurate

forecasting.

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The figures below show the movement of

weather over a period of four successive days.

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Depressions will fill up or decay as pressure

rises.

Depressions will deepen as pressure falls.

Frontal depressions move rapidly, their average
lifetime is 10 to 14 days.

Anticyclones will build up as pressure rises.

Anticyclones will weaken or collapse as pressure
falls.

Anticyclones are generally slow moving and may
persist for long periods.

Cols may last up to a few days before being
replaced by other pressure systems.

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