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theory is concerned with why second language learners often fail to master the target language. It
involves factors such as social distance, attitude towards the target language and motivation to learn.
McLaughlin accepts that this theory has enriched second language research, but notes that it is not
relevant to classroom second language learning, "where learners do not have contact with native
speakers other than the teacher". At present there is not enough information to validate or falsify the
theory.
The author finally turns to Cognitive theory, which views second language learning as the acquisition
of a complex cognitive skill and the automatization of component sub-skills. It stresses "the limited
information-processing capacities of human learners, the use of various techniques to overcome these
limitations" and the role of practice in routinizing component skills. While admitting his positive bias
towards this theory, McLaughlin nevertheless notes a number of its limitations, e.g. the assumption
that the acquisition of any complex cognitive skill parallels second language acquisition. Cognitive
theory needs to be linked to theories of L2 acquisition, as on its own it cannot explain many of the
linguistic constraints implied in other theories. Furthermore, it cannot make precise predictions for
L2 learning, nor can its propositions be falsified. On the other hand, criticism is premature and
"cognitive theory has been heuristically rich and deserves to be pursued".
In a concluding chapter, the author briefly considers the role of theory in L2 research and discusses
the influence of theory on the choice of research methods. He advocates an integrated approach to
L2 teaching "that incorporates both the more creative aspects of language learning and the more
cognitive aspects that are susceptible to guidance and training".
It must be said that this is a most authoritative work which makes a major contribution to the field of
second language learning. It succeeds admirably in stimulating critical thinking about the various
theories discussed, as well as about the general nature and role of theory in L2 research. Although
the author states in his preface that readers do not require an "extensive background" in this field,
they do need to be reasonably well informed. This book has the virtue of being comprehensive and
up to date, and while many of the issues raised in it are as yet unresolved, it certainly sharpens the
reader's awareness of just how varied, dynamic and controversial the field of second language
learning is.

J.J. Swartz

Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers

Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1986. (171 pp.)
When skimming through the list of contents in this publication, one inevitably recalls the earlier work
of Robert Blair: Innovative Approaches to Language Teaching (Newbury House, 1982), for it appears
to cover much the same ground. However, a closer perusal reveals several fundamental differences in
organization, purpose and approach. Blair, as editor, allows the various advocates of the Silent Way,
the Total Physical Response, Community Language Learning, the Natural Approach and
Suggestopedia (approaches covered in both books) to write in support of methods they have designed
or developed themselves. Further, in the earlier volume, these approaches are classified according to
whether, for example, they apply to an acquisition or a learning environment. Blair then devotes the
last section of this book to an integrated approach to language teaching: an eclectic use of the
methods described in the earlier sections.
Richards (well-known for his work on error analysis in the mid-seventies) and Rodgers are not
primarily concerned with an evaluation of the various approaches described in their book, nor do
they recommend one method in preference to another. Acknowledging from the outset that different

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methods appear to be based on very different views of what language is and how a language is
learned, they have set out, in their own words
" ... to depict, organize, and analyze major and minor approaches and methods in language
teaching, and to describe their underlying nature ... to provide a detailed account of major
twentieth-century trends in language teaching ... to highlight the similarities and differences
between approaches and methods." (p. vii)
To achieve this aim, they have used the same descriptive framework throughout the book (the model
is presented in Chapter 2). Thus each second or foreign language teaching method is examined at
three levels:
the level of approach,
the level of design, and
the level of procedure.
In Chapter 1, the authors offer a brief history of language teaching as a background for the discussion
of contemporary methods. Here they note that "changes in language teaching methods throughout
history" reflect "changes in the kind of proficiency learners need, such as the move towards oral
proficiency rather than reading comprehension as the goal of language study" (p. 1). The Grammar-
Translation Method and the Direct Method are briefly considered in this context.
The title and aim of this book necessitate a closer examination of the terms "method" and
"approach", which appears in Chapter 2. The authors use the scheme proposed by Anthony in 1963
as a starting point:
" ... An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching
and learning .
. . . Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material ... Within one
approach there can be many methods .
. . . A technique is implementational - that which actually takes place in the classroom." (p. 15)
This classification is found wanting and the authors supply their own outline of the elements and sub-
elements that constitute a method. Here they distinguish between approach (the theory of the nature
of language and language learning), design (objectives, syllabus model, learner and teacher roles, the
role of instructional materials and types of learning and teaching activities) and procedure (classroom
techniques, practices and behaviours observed when the method is used). These three categories are
then used consistently to describe and analyse each of the methods dealt with in the book.
Unlike Blair, Richards and Rodgers include earlier methods such as the Oral Approach, Situational
Language Teaching and Audio-lingualism in their discussion. These are useful as they reveal how, as
a result of the shifting of views about the nature of language and language learning, these three
related methods gave rise to the development of Communicative Language Teaching. Particularly
useful is their listing of 22 distinctive features of both the Audiolingual Method and Communicative
Language Teaching for the purposes of contrast (pp. 67-68). The presentation of the chapter on CLT
is particularly lucid and supports the conclusion that CLT "is best considered an approach rather than
a method". Despite its theoretical consistency, "at the levels of design and procedure there is much
greater room for individual interpretation and variation than most methods permit" (p. 83).
The next two chapters are devoted to Total Physical Response and the Silent Way. The authors
conclude that although the former method, developed by James Asher, is consistent with Krashen's
views on comprehensible input and reduction of stress, it is best used in conjunction with other
methods, as it offers the teacher only "a useful set of techniques". An analysis of the latter, devised
by Caleb Gattegno, reveals that many of the features of the Silent Way are characteristic of more
traditional methods. The innovations lie in the way in which classroom activities are organized and in
the roles that teachers and learners are now required to assume.

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Chapter 8 considers Charles Curran's so-called "humanistic" method: Community Language

Learning. While an analysis and description of this method lead the authors to praise its "sensitivity
to learner communicative intent", some grave reservations are also noted with regard to coping
withlearner aggression, the training required by teachers, the lack of a syllabus and the validity of the
counselling processes on which this method is based.
Tracy Terrell's Natural Approach is covered in Chapter 9, a method more evolutionary than
revolutionary in its principles; one "that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice
activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences." It is followed
by a closer look at Lozanov's Suggestopedia: "a method which attempts to harness man's nonrational
and nonconscious influences ... and redirect them so as to optimize learning". The authors note the
dramatic claims for suggestopedic learning and the enthusiasm and critical response it has elicited.
The nature of the approach is such that it is virtually impossible to prove or disprove the premises on
which it is based, thus they suggest that language teachers "try to identify and validate these
techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful
techniques in the language teaching inventory" (p. 152).
The final chapter contains useful suggestions for comparing and evaluating language teaching
methods, using some of the methods described in the previous chapters as examples.
A great deal has been and doubtless will still be written about innovative methods of language
teaching. Language teachers need to be made aware of recent research and of new developments in
this field. This book certainly fulfils that need. There are others: I have already noted Blair's
contribution in 1982 and more recently Diane Larsen-Freeman covered the same ground in
Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (Oxford University Press, 1986). (The latter,
however, is pitched at a much more elementary level.) I feel bound to recommend Approaches and
Methods in Language Teaching, for the clarity and objectivity with which it has been written, an
achievement .nade possible by the use of the same descriptive model in presenting each method. The
authors show no prejudice: in some ways their refusal to evaluate each method critically may be
considered a shortcoming. However, the discerning reader will be able to reach his own conclusions
and make assessments from the clear, concise treatment given to each method. Often criticism is
implied in the conclusions reached at the end of each chapter, but as neither author is advocating a
method which he himself developed, their analysis is consistently balanced. As most of the methods
described were developed more than ten years ago, the authors are able to draw on recent research
and have the benefit of a clearer perspective in their analysis of each method.
I have no doubt that this book achieves the aims the authors set themselves: "to enable teachers to
become better informed about the nature, strengths, and weaknesses of methods and approaches so
they can better arrive at their own judgements and decisions". Every serious second language teacher
should have this excellent book on his shelf.

J.J. Swartz

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