210 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

For  rectangular sections and the webs of box section and T-section sub-
jected to bending or bending and axial force, kc is given by:

 σc 
kc = 0.4 1 −  ≤ 1 .0 (5.193)
 k1 (h / h* )f ct,eff 

and for flanges of box tension and T-section:

Fcr
kc = 0.9 ≥ 0 .5 (5.194)
Act fct,eff

where:
σc is the mean concrete stress acting on the part of the section under
consideration (=N Ed /bh);
N Ed is the axial force at the serviceability limit state acting on the part
of the section under consideration (compression is taken as positive
here), including the effect of prestress and axial force;
h* is equal to h for h < 1000  mm and equal to 1000  mm for h ≥
1000 mm;
k1 accounts for axial force, with k1 = 1.5 if N Ed is compressive and k1 =
(2h*)/(3h) if N Ed is tensile; and
Fcr is the absolute value of the tensile force within the flange immedi-
ately prior to cracking (using fctm to calculate the cracking moment
on the section).

For cross-sections containing bonded tendons in the tension zone, the

bonded tendons may be assumed to contribute to crack control up to a
distance of 150 mm from the centre of the tendon and the minimum rein-
forcement requirements within this area are obtained from the following
modification to Equation 5.192:

As,minσs + ξ1Ap' ∆σp = kckfct,eff Act (5.195)

where Ap' is the area of the bonded tendons within the concrete area A c,eff;
Ac,eff is the effective area of concrete in tension surrounding the tendon with
depth hc,ef equal to the lesser of 2.5(h − d), (h − x)/3 or h/2; Δσp is the varia-
tion in stress in the tendons from the state of zero strain in the concrete at
the same level; ξ1 is an adjusted ratio of bond strength to account for the
different diameters of the tendons and the reinforcing steel given by:

φs
ξ1 = ξ (5.196)
φp
 Design for serviceability 211

Table 5.4 Ratio of bond strength (ξ) between tendons and reinforcing steel [1]
ξ
Bonded, post-tensioned
Pretensioned
Prestressing steel tendon ≤C50/60 ≥C70/85
Smooth bars and wires Not applicable 0.3 0.15
Strands 0.6 0.5 0.25
Indented wires 0.7 0.6 0.3
Ribbed bars 0.8 0.7 0.35
Note: For intermediate values between C50/60 and C70/85, interpolation may be used.

where:
ξ is the ratio of bond strength of prestressing and reinforcing steel
(as given in Table 5.4);
ϕs is the largest bar diameter of the reinforcing steel; and
ϕp is the equivalent diameter of the tendon and is given by:
ϕp 1.6 Ap for bundles of tendons
ϕp = 1.75ϕwire for single 7-wire strands (ϕwire = wire diameter)
ϕp = 1.20ϕwire for single 3-wire strands (ϕwire = wire diameter)

If no conventional reinforcement is included and only the bonded pre-

stressing steel is used to control cracking, ξ1 = ξ .

5.12.2 Control of cracking without direct calculation

According to EN 1992-1-1 [1], when the areas of bonded reinforcement and
tendons exceed the minimum values obtained from Equations 5.192 and
5.195, crack widths will not be excessive, provided:

1. For cracking caused dominantly by restraint: the bar sizes given in

Table 5.5 are not exceeded, where the steel stress is the value deter-
mined on the cracked section immediately after cracking; and
2. For cracking caused dominantly by loading: the bar sizes given in
Table 5.5 are not exceeded or the bar spacings given in Table 5.6 are
complied with, where the steel stress is the value determined on the
cracked section under the relevant combination of actions.

It is recommended here that the bar spacing does not exceed 300 mm and
that the cover to the bars does not exceed about 100 mm.
For other values of the variables presented in the note at the bottom of
Tables 5.5 and 5.6, the maximum bar diameter may be modified as follows:
In bending:
fct,eff kchcr
φs = φ*s (5.197)
2.9 2(h − d)
212 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

Table 5.5 Maximum bar diameters M*s for crack controla [1]
Maximum bars size (mm)
Steel stress (MPa) wk = 0.4 mm wk = 0.3 mm wk = 0.2 mm
160 40 32 25
200 32 25 16
240 20 16 12
280 16 12 8
320 12 10 6
360 10 8 5
400 8 6 4
450 6 5 —
a The values in the table were determined for c = 25 mm, fct,eff = 2.9 MPa, hcr = 0.5,
(h − d) = 0.1 h, k1 = 0.8, k2 = 0.5, kc = 0.4, k = 1.0, kt = 0.4 and k′ = 1.0.

Table 5.6 Maximum bar spacing for crack controla [1]

Maximum bars spacing (mm)
Steel stress (MPa) wk = 0.4 mm wk = 0.3 mm wk = 0.2 mm
160 300 300 200
200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
280 200 150 50
320 250 100 —
360 100 50 —
a The values in the table were determined for c = 25 mm, fct,eff = 2.9 MPa, hcr = 0.5,
(h − d) = 0.1 h, k1 = 0.8, k2 = 0.5, kc = 0.4, k = 1.0, kt = 0.4 and k′ = 1.0.

In direct tension:

fct,eff hcr
φs = φ*s (5.198)
2.9 8(h − d)

where ϕs is the modified maximum bar diameter; I*s is the maximum bar
diameter given in Table 5.5; h is the overall depth of the cross-section;
hcr is the depth of the tensile zone immediately before cracking consider-
ing the characteristic values of prestress and internal actions under the
quasi-permanent combination of actions and d is the effective depth to the
centroid of the outer layer of reinforcement.
 Design for serviceability 213

For pretensioned concrete, where crack control is provided by the bonded

tendons, Tables 5.5 and 5.6 may be used except that the steel stress to
consider is the total stress after cracking minus the prestress. For post-
tensioned concrete, where crack control is provided mainly by ordinary
reinforcement, Tables 5.5 and 5.6 may be used with the calculated rein-
forcement stress accounting for prestressing.
For beams where h ≥ 1000 mm and the main reinforcement is concen-
trated at either the top or bottom of the cross-section, skin reinforcement
is required to control cracking in the side faces of the beam. This side-face
reinforcement should be uniformly distributed between the main tensile
steel and the neutral axis and should be located inside the stirrups and tied
to them. It is preferable to use small-diameter bars at spacing not exceeding
300 mm. The area of the side-face reinforcement may be determined using
Equation 5.192 taking k = 0.5 and σs = fyk.

5.12.3 Calculation of crack widths

For crack control by direct calculation, EN 1992-1-1 [1] permits the calcu-
lation of the crack width in a reinforced concrete member using:

w = sr,max (εsm − εcm ) (5.199)

where sr,max is the maximum crack spacing; εsm is the mean strain in the
reinforcement at design loads, including the effects of tension stiffening
and any imposed deformations; and εcm is the mean strain in the concrete
between the cracks.
The difference between the mean strain in the reinforcement and the
mean strain in the concrete may be taken as:

σs f σ
εsm − εcm = − kt ct,eff (1 + α e ρp,eff ) ≥ 0.6 s (5.200)
Es Esρp,eff Es

where σs is the stress in the tensile reinforcement assuming a cracked sec-

tion. For a pretensioned member, σs may be replaced by the stress variation
in the tendons Δσp from the state of zero strain of the concrete at the same
level; kt is a factor that depends on the duration of load and equals 0.6
for short-term loading and 0.4 for long-term loading; αe is the modular
ratio E s/E cm; fct,eff is the mean value of the axial tensile strength of concrete
at the time cracking is expected; ρp,eff is the reinforcement ratio given by
214 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

(As + ξ12 Ap' )/Ac,eff ; Ap' and Ac,eff are as defined under Equation 5.195; and ξ1 is
given by Equation 5.196.
For cross-sections with bonded reinforcement fixed at reasonably close
centres, i.e. bar spacing ≤ 5(c + 0.5ϕ), the maximum final crack width may
be calculated from:

sr,max = 3.4c + 0.425k1k2φ /ρp,eff (5.201)

in which ϕ is the bar diameter. Where a section contains different bar

sizes in the tensile zone, an equivalent bar diameter ϕeq should be used in
Equation 5.201. For a section containing i different bar diameters:

n1φ12 + ⋯ + ni φi2
φeq = (5.202)
n1φ1 + ⋯ + ni φi

and ni is the number of bars of diameter ϕi; c is the clear cover to the
longitudinal reinforcement; k1 is a coefficient that accounts for the bond
properties of the bonded reinforcement, with k1 = 0.8 for high bond bars
and k1 = 1.6 for plain bars and prestressing tendons; and k 2 is a coefficient
that accounts for the longitudinal strain distribution, with k 2 = 0.5 for
bending and k 2 = 1.0 for pure tension. For cases in combined tension and
bending, k 2 = (ε1 + ε2)/(2ε1) and ε1 is the greater and ε2 is the lesser of the
tensile strains at the boundaries of the cross-section (assessed on the basis
of a cracked section).
Where the spacing of the bonded reinforcement exceeds 5(c + 0.5ϕ),
or where there is no bonded reinforcement in the tensile zone, an upper
bound to the crack width is obtained by assuming a maximum crack spac-
ing of:

sr,max = 1.3 (h − x) (5.203)

where x is the depth to the neutral axis on the cracked section.

In a member that is reinforced in two orthogonal directions, where the
angle between the axes of principal stress and the direction of the reinforce-
ment is significant (>15°), the crack spacing may be taken as:

1
sr,max = (5.204)
cosθ sinθ
+
sr,max,y sr,max,z
 Design for serviceability 215

where θ is the angle between the reinforcement in the y direction and the direc-
tion of the axis of principal tension and sr,max,y and sr,max,z are the crack spacings
in the y and z directions, respectively, calculated using Equation 5.201.

5.12.4 Crack control for restrained shrinkage

and temperature effects
Direct tension cracks due to restrained shrinkage and temperature changes
may lead to serviceability problems, particularly in regions of low moment
and in directions with little or no prestress. Such cracks usually extend
completely through the member and are more parallel-sided than flexural
cracks. If uncontrolled, these cracks can become very wide and lead to
waterproofing and corrosion problems. They can also disrupt the integrity
and the structural action of the member.
Evidence of direct tension type cracks is common in concrete slab sys-
tems. For example, consider a typical one-way beam and slab floor system.
The load is usually carried by the slab in the primary direction across the
span to the supporting beams, while in the orthogonal direction (the sec-
ondary direction), the bending moment is small. Shrinkage is the same in
both directions and restraint to shrinkage usually exists in both directions.
In the primary direction, prestress may eliminate flexural cracking, but if
the level of prestress is such that flexural cracking does occur, shrinkage will
cause small increases in the widths of flexural cracks and may cause addi-
tional flexure type cracks in the previously uncracked regions. However, in
the secondary direction, which is in effect a direct tension situation, there may
be little or no prestress and shrinkage may cause a few widely spaced cracks
that penetrate completely through the slab. Frequently, more reinforcement
is required in the secondary direction to control these direct tension cracks
than is required for bending in the primary direction. As far as cracking is
concerned, it is not unreasonable to say that shrinkage is a greater problem
when it is not accompanied by flexure and when the level of prestress is low.
When determining the amount of reinforcement required in a slab to
control shrinkage- and temperature-induced cracking, account should be
taken of the influence of bending, the degree of restraint against in-plane
movements and the exposure classification.
Where the ends of a slab are restrained and the slab is not free to expand
or contract in the secondary direction, the minimum area of reinforcement
in the restrained direction given by Equation 5.205 is recommended.

As.min = (6.0 − 2.5σcp )b h × 10−3 (5.205)

where σcp is the average prestress Pm,t /A. When a slab or wall is greater than
500 mm thick, the reinforcement required near each surface may be deter-
mined assuming that h = 250 mm in Equation 5.205.
216 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

5.12.5 Crack control at openings and discontinuities

Openings and discontinuities in slabs are the cause of stress concentra-
tions that may result in diagonal cracks emanating from re-entrant corners.
Additional reinforcing bars are generally required to trim the hole and con-
trol the propagation of these cracks. A suitable method of estimating the
number and size of the trimming bars is to postulate a possible crack and
provide reinforcement to carry a force at least equivalent to the area of the
crack surface multiplied by the mean direct tensile strength of the concrete.
For crack control, the maximum stress in the trimming bars should be lim-
ited to about 200 MPa.
While this additional reinforcement is required for serviceability to con-
trol cracking at re-entrant corners, it should not be assumed that this same
steel is satisfactory for strength. For a small hole through a slab, it is gener-
ally sufficient for bending to place additional steel on either side of the hole
equivalent to the steel that must be terminated at the face of the opening.
The effects of a large hole or opening should be determined by appropriate
analysis accounting for the size, shape and position of the opening. Plastic
methods of design, such as the yield line method (see Section 12.9.7) or
the simplified strip method, are convenient ways of designing such slabs to
meet requirements for strength.

REFERENCES

1. EN 1992-1-1. 2004. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 1-1: General

rules and rules for buildings. British Standards Institution, London, UK.
2. ACI 318-14M. 2014. Building code requirements for reinforced concrete.
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI.
3. Magnel, G. 1954. Prestressed Concrete, 3rd edn. London, UK: Concrete
Publications Ltd.
4. Lin, T.Y. 1963. Prestressed Concrete Structures. New York: Wiley.
5. Warner, R.F. and Faulkes, K.A. 1979. Prestressed Concrete. Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia: Pitman Australia.
6. Gilbert, R.I. and Ranzi, G. 2011. Time-Dependent Behaviour of Concrete
Structures. London, UK: Spon Press.
7. Gilbert, R.I. 1988. Time Effects in Concrete Structures. Amsterdam, the
Netherlands: Elsevier.
8. Ghali, A., Favre, R. and Elbadry, M. 2002. Concrete Structures: Stresses and
Deformations, 3rd edn. London, UK: Spon Press.
9. AS3600-2009. Australian standard concrete structures. Standards Australia,
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
10. Branson, D.E. 1963. Instantaneous and time-dependent deflection of sim-
ple and continuous reinforced concrete beams. Alabama Highway Research
Report, No. 7. Bureau of Public Roads, Montgomery, AL.
 Design for serviceability 217

11. Bischoff, P.H. 2005. Reevaluation of deflection prediction for concrete beams
reinforced with steel and FRP bars. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
131(5), 752–767.
12. Gilbert, R.I. 2001. Deflection calculation and control – Australian code
amendments and improvements (Chapter 4). ACI International SP 203,
Code Provisions for Deflection Control in Concrete Structures. Farmington
Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute, pp. 45–78.
Chapter 6

Flexural resistance

6.1 INTRODUCTION

An essential design objective for a structure or a component of a structure is the

provision of adequate strength. The consequences and costs of strength failures
are high and therefore the probability of such failures must be very small.
The satisfaction of concrete and steel stress limits at service loads does
not necessarily ensure adequate strength and does not provide a reliable
indication of either the actual strength or the safety of a structural member.
It is important to consider the non-linear behaviour of the member in the
overloaded range to ensure that it has an adequate structural capacity. Only
by calculating the design resistance of a member can a sufficient margin
between the service load and the ultimate load be guaranteed.
The design resistance of a cross-section in bending M Rd is calculated
from a rational and well-established procedure involving consideration of
the design strength of both the concrete and the steel in the compressive
and tensile parts of the cross-section. The prediction of the design flexural
strength is described and illustrated in this chapter. When M Rd is deter-
mined, the design requirements for the strength limit state (as discussed in
Section 2.4) may be checked and satisfied.
In addition to calculating the design strength of a section, a measure of
the ductility of each section must also be established. Ductility is an impor-
tant objective in structural design. Ductile members undergo large defor-
mations prior to failure, thereby providing warning of failure and allowing
indeterminate structures to establish alternative load paths. In fact, it is
only with adequate ductility that the predicted strength of indeterminate
members and structures can be achieved in practice.

6.2 FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR AT OVERLOADS

The load at which collapse of a flexural member occurs is called the

ultimate load. If the member has sustained large deformations prior to
reaching the ultimate load, it is said to have ductile behaviour. If, on the

219
220 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

other hand, it has only undergone relatively small deformations prior to

failure, the member is said to have brittle behaviour. There is no defined
deformation or curvature that distinguishes ductile from brittle behaviour.
Codes of practice, however, usually impose a ductility requirement by lim-
iting the curvature of a beam or slab at the ultimate load to some minimum
value, thereby ensuring that significant deformation occurs in a flexural
member prior to failure.
Since beam failures that result from a breakdown of bond between the
concrete and the steel reinforcement, or from excessive shear, or from fail-
ure of the anchorage zone tend to be brittle in nature, every attempt should
be made to ensure that, if a beam is overloaded, a ductile flexural failure
would initiate the collapse. Therefore, the design philosophy should ensure
that a flexural member does not fail before the required design moment
capacity of the critical section is attained.
Consider the prestressed concrete cross-section shown in Figure 6.1.
The section contains non-prestressed reinforcement in the compressive
and tensile zones and bonded prestressing steel. Typical strain and stress
distributions for four different values of applied moment are also shown in
Figure 6.1. As the applied moment M increases from typical in-service lev-
els into the overload range, the neutral axis gradually rises and eventually
material behaviour becomes non-linear. The non-prestressed tensile steel

εtop εcu
Asc εsc
12 3 4
M

1. Decompression moment, Mo
Ap εpt 2. Cracking moment, Mcr
Ast εst 3. Post-cracking moment, Mpc
4. Ultimate moment, Mu
Section Strain
fcm
σc,top σc,top σc,top
σsc1 σsc2 σsc3 σsc4 Fsc
dn Fcc Fc
dn

σp1 σp2 σp3 σpu Fpt

Ft
σst1 σst2 σst3 σst4 Fst

1. At Mo 2. At Mcr 3. At Mpc 4. At Mu Resultant forces

Stresses caused by increasing moment

Figure 6.1 Stress and strain distributions caused by increasing moment.