WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES

Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

Cells ● viewed cork cells under the microscope and found little
- basic unit of life structures in it which he compared to cellulae ( Latin word
- tiny individual units that makes up all living organisms on for “little rooms”)
the planet ● cella – tiny rooms
- makes all biological processes in every living organism ● micrographia
possible
1670 - 1683 – Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
Prokaryotic Cell - cells without a nucleus, only has ● Upgraded Janssen’s microscope, produced his own lens
ribosomes as an organelle, genetic material’s not in a ● discovered moving organelles which he called
nucleus animalcules (red blood cells, sperm cells)
Eukaryotic Cell - cells that contain a nucleus, have other ● first scientist to observe live cells under the microscope
organelles, genetic material is in a nucleus
1831 – Robert Brown
Cell Theory ● discovered the nucleus (a dark dense spot)
- scientifically and universally accepted theory that was ● compared different specimens under the microscope
formulated and proposed in the mid-1800s because of
various discoveries about cells 1838 – Matthias Schleiden (German Botanist)
● microscopically examined plants and learned that plant
- laid the foundation for discoveries about the cell parts come from cells
● proposed that the different structures of a plant are
- it states 3 fundamental postulates: composed of cells
● postulated that every living thing is made up of cells or
1. Cell is the basic unit of life – for an organism to be the product of cells (theory of spontaneous generation)
considered living, it must have a cell
1839 – Theodor Schwann (German Botanist)
2. All living organisms are composed of cells - all ● declared that animals are composed of cells
living things, whether small or big, simple or complex,
irrespective of species or kingdoms, are made up of either 1858 - Rudolph Virchow (German Physician)
one or more than one cell. ● completed the cell theory expounding his famous
conclusion “omnis cellula e cellula” (cells come from
Organisms made up of one cell is called unicellular or single-celled preexisting cells)
organisms (bacteria, and protozoans) ● disproved the theory of spontaneous generation which
Organisms that are made up of more than one cell are termed as multi-
promoted the concept that living things generated from
cellular or multi-celled organisms (Almost all animals)
non-living matter

Microscopy: Foundation of Cell Theory

3. Cell come from pre-existing cells – cell cannot be
● technical field of using microscopes to view samples &
spontaneously created but it will always be a product of
objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (objects
reproduction, which can be either asexual or sexual
that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye)
depending on the living organism that the process is
occurring in
● Microscopy started in the 14th century in Italy, people
grinded lenses/made glasses to improve one’s eyesight
Development of Cell Theory
1590 – Zacharias Janssen (Dutch, spectacle-
● Hans & Zacharias Jenssen assembled an apparatus with
maker), Hans (his father)
two lenses in one tube, thus creating the first microscope
● invented the primitive microscope
and procuring the telescope as well
1663 - 1665 – Robert Hooke
● further developed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek who
● discovered the cell (1665)
created the first compound microscope to observe varied
specimens and know more about cells

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

● Great advancement came when Ernst Ruska and Scanning Electron Microscope - produces a largely
Max Knoll in 1931 invented the transmission electron magnified image by using electrons instead of light to form
microscope (TEM) which relied on electrons and not on light an image

● Fritz Zernike developed the phase contrast microscope

(PCM) that enabled the imaging of transparent specimens
(1932)

● Ruska designed the first scanning electron microscope

(SEM) which transmitted a beam of electron across the
specimen's surface (1942)

Sterio Microscope - low-magnification applications,

allowing high-quality, 3D observation of subjects that are
normally visible to the naked eye
Major Parts of the Cell
1. Cell Membrane
- Outermost part, protects the cell and its content
- Separates the cell from its external environment
- Cell’s Gatekeeper (Made up of lipid bilayer with large
protein molecules that control the flow of substance into
and out of the cell)
- regulates what enters and leaves the cell
- composed of a phospholipid bilayer, which is a double
Compound Microscope – used to view specimens on a layer of fats and protein
glass slide with high magnification

Confocal Microscope – uses fluorescence optics to

produce an electronic image 2. Cytoplasm
- Middle layer where most of
the activities of the cell take
place to allow cell expansion
and growth (has enzyme that
breaks down waste and
enable metabolic reactions)
- Houses the organelles
- Site for many chemical
reactions in the cell
- Jelly-like substance
(cytosol) where organelles
are suspended
- Constitutes about 70% - 90% of the cell

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

3. Nucleus
- Control center or brain of the cell because it directs all the ● Ribosome
activity of the cell - made up of RNA and protein
- It is where the nucleic acids are synthesized - can be found in ER or floating in cytoplasm
- Site for the storage of hereditary factors (DNA) - site of protein synthesis
- Nucleolus-site for ribosome synthesis

Cell Structure and Functions

● Mitochondrion/Mitochondria
- powerhouse of the cell
- responsible to produce Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)

● Vacuole
- fluid filled vesicle that
stores substances
needed by the cell
- disposal site for
● Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough or granular ER,
substances that are
Smooth or agranular ER)
not needed by the cell
Rough ER
- larger in plant cell than in animal cell
- studded with tiny organelles
called ribosomes (site of
● Lysosomes
protein synthesis)
- suicide bags of the cell (autophagy)
- primary function is
- serve as digestion compartments for cellular
synthesizing or producing
materials that have exceeded their lifetime or are
and modifying of proteins
otherwise no longer useful
Smooth ER
- lacks ribosome
- transport synthesized proteins across the
cytoplasm, allowing synthesis of fatty acids and
phospholipids
- detoxification

● Golgi Apparatus
- manufacturer and
shipping center of the
cell
- consists of stacks or ● Peroxisome
piles of flattened sacs - contains enzymes in
called cisternae which digesting/ breaking down
functions in the of fatty acids
packaging, sorting,
and refining of products that the cells are making

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

● Vesicle
- transport
materials
from one
place to
another
- metabolism
and enzyme
storage

● Centrosomes/Centrioles
- they help the cell to divide during mitosis and
meiosis

● Chloroplast
- site for food production (photosynthesis)
- converts organic compounds from CO2 and water
to form sugar or glucose

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

Difference Between the Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic ● mitosis and cytokinesis are the process wherein the cell
Cell divides and produces daughter cells. It can either be mitosis
- Prokaryote originated from the Greek word “pro”, or meiosis
which means before and “karyon” which means nucleus. ● cycle checkpoint is
important to ensure
- Eukaryotic came from the word “eu” which means true the quality and
and “karyon” which means nucleus. integrity of the cell
before it divides
From these definitions we can say that the main
distinguishing factor between them are the structures MITOSIS
housing the DNA. ● division of the body
Prokaryotic cells pertaining to
- nucleoid epithelial cells, bone,
- no membrane bound organelles blood, and muscle
- DNA floats freely around the cell cells among others
- simpler DNA with the exemption of
- unicellular (single celled) the reproductive cells
- typically, much smaller
- divide by binary fission ● also known as karyokinesis or nuclear division, it is the
- anaerobic and aerobic division of the nucleus which is initiated after the
Ex. Bacteria completion of interphase

Eukaryotic ● After mitosis, the parent cell produces two daughter cells
- nucleus with the same diploid chromosome numbers and are
- membrane bound organelles genetically identical to the parent cell
- DNA held in the nucleus
- more Complex DNA ● important in tissue repair, replacement, growth, gene
- multi-cellular (multi celled) stability, and asexual reproduction
- typically, much larger
- divide by mitosis and meiosis ● different phases of mitosis are prophase, anaphase,
- aerobic metaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis, and to achieve a
Ex. protists, fungi, plants, animals, humans reduction in the number of chromosomes, two nuclear
divisions are necessary and that is meiosis I and meiosis II
Organelles
● separated internally into numerous membranous Interphase
compartments ● A cell spends most of its
● perform a variety of functions like the synthesis of time in what is called
ribosomes, packaging materials, harvesting energy, and interphase, and during this
maintaining the shape and structure of the cell time it grows, replicates its
chromosomes, and
CELL DIVISION prepares for cell division
● cell division is the process of cell multiplication
● Without cell division, a living organism may become ● G₁, S, and G₂ phases
extinct
● Process by which a cell divides into two new daughter
cells Prophase
● the first and longest phase of
Cell Cycle mitosis (50-60%)
● has two major stages; interphase and mitotic division ● chromosomes become visible
which includes cytokinesis ● Centrioles take up positions on
opposite sides of the nucleus

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

● Nuclear envelope starts to Telophase

disintegrate ● Chromosomes which
● Chromatin fiber coil into are distinct and
chromosomes with each condensed, begin to
chromosome having two disperse into a tangle of
chromatids joined at the chromosome
centromere ● nuclear envelope re-
forms around each
Metaphase cluster
● lasts for only a few minutes ● nucleolus start to
● the chromosomes line up reappear
across the center of the cell
● chromosomes start to move Cytokinesis
randomly until they attach to ● It completes the full stage of the cell cycle
the polar fibers from both ● It occurs when the cytoplasm from the original cell divides
sides of their centromere and forms two new cells

Anaphase
● Centromeres that join
the sister chromatids
split
● the chromosomes
continue to move until
they have separated into
two groups near the
poles of the spindle
● anaphase ends when
the chromosome stops
moving

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

Meiosis
● used by reproductive cells or germ cells
● process of cell division that takes place in sexually mature
organisms
● produces four haploid daughter cells, each cell
containing half the number of their diploid parent cell
● significant in the perpetuation of life providing genetic
variation in all its offspring
● to achieve a reduction in the number of
chromosomes, two nuclear divisions are necessary and
that is meiosis I and meiosis II
● like mitosis with some chromosomal differences,
meiosis II is like mitosis ● Crossing over occurs when the chiasma breaks, and the
● Synapsis, crossing over, independent assortment, and broken chromosome segments gets switched onto
random fertilization only occurs in meiosis I which homologous chromosomes. The broken chromosome
contributes to the genetic variation of offspring segment from the maternal chromosome gets joined to its
● The complete cell cycle starts with interphase followed by homologous paternal chromosome, and vice-versa
prophase, anaphase, metaphase telophase, and ends with ➢ chiasma - point of contact, the physical link,
cytokinesis between two chromatids belonging to homologous
● genetic continuity of species/facilitates a stable sexual chromosomes
reproduction
● genetic variety/genetic diversity of the members of a
species

Meiosis I (Reduction Division)

1. Prophase I
● nuclear membrane starts to disappear
● visible chromosomes
● each chromosome is composed of two sister
chromosomes held together at the centromere (dyad)
● pairing of homologous chromosomes
➢ chromosome pairs (one from each parent) that are
similar in length, gene position, and centromere 2. Metaphase I
location. The position of the genes on each 3. Anaphase I
homologous chromosome is the same. However, 4. Telophase I
the genes may contain different alleles (one of
two or more versions of DNA sequence (a single Interkinesis
base or a segment of bases) at a given genomic ● A short pause between meiosis I and meiosis II
location) ● this is similar to interphase of mitosis except that here,
there is no replication of the chromosome

Gametogenesis
● process by which gametes, or germ cells, are produced in
an organism (embryology)

● oogenesis – formation of egg cells, or ova

● spermatogenesis – the formation of sperm cells, or

spermatozoa, is called

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

not impermeable-- it is only selective of the particles that it

allows; hence, the difference in the types of transport.

Fluid Mosaic Model

● the fluid mosaic hypothesis was formulated by
Singer and Nicolson in the early 1970s

● According to this model, membranes are made up of

lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. The main lipid
membrane components are phospholipids.

● Some proteins (called intrinsic or integral) are

embedded in the lipid bilayer matrix where they can
establish hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions with
CELL TRANSPORT their respective lipid counterparts.
Lipid Bilayer
● gives cell membranes a flexible structure that forms a KINDS OF INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEIN
strong barrier between the cell and its surrounding ➢ carrier protein - attaches to a molecule to
● cell membranes restrict diffusion of highly charged facilitate its transport across the plasma
molecules, such as ions, and large molecules, such as membrane
sugars and amino acids. The passage of these molecules ➢ channel protein - makes a pathway to transfer
relies on specific transport proteins embedded in the molecules and ions across the plasma membrane
membrane
● most cell membranes contain protein molecules that
are embedded in the lipid bilayer
● Carbohydrate molecules are attached to many of these
proteins. In fact. there are so many kinds of molecules in
cell membranes that scientists describe the membrane as a
"mosaic" of different molecules.
➢ A mosaic is a work of art made of individual tiles
or other pieces assembled to form a picture or
design. As you will see, some of the proteins form
channels and pumps that help to move material
across the cell membrane. Many of the
carbohydrates act like chemical identification
cards, allowing individual cells to identify one
another.

● Other proteins, called extrinsic or peripheral

● The nature of the particles or solutes determines the kind proteins, can also be transiently associated with
of transport that will be carried out. The cell membrane is membrane surfaces through weaker interactions

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

● carbohydrates can be linked to either proteins or lipids,

resulting in glycoproteins or glycolipids.

3 Types of Cell Transport

1. Passive Transport – passage of molecules across the
cell membrane that does not require energy

- Simple Diffusion - particles from the highly

concentrated area naturally move to the area
where there are fewer particles. Diffusion does
not require energy because it has natural kinetic
energy to move from area to area.

- Facilitated Diffusion - Facilitated transport

makes use of special proteins called
integral membrane proteins that enable huge
and charged particles to enter the cell membrane.
There are two kinds of integral membrane
proteins. The first type is the carrier protein that
attaches to a molecule to facilitate its transport
across the plasma membrane. The second type is
the channel protein that makes a pathway to
transfer molecules and ions across the plasma
membrane

● If a substance is able to diffuse across a membrane,

- Osmosis - the diffusion of water through a the membrane is said to be permeable to it. A membrane
selectively permeable membrane. Osmosis is is impermeable to substances that cannot pass
the net movement of water molecules across it. Most biological membranes are selectively
through a semipermeable membrane from an permeable, meaning that some substances can pass
area of higher to an area of lower water potential.

across them and others cannot.

2. Active Transport
● The movement of particles from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration is like trying
to climb a downward-moving escalator filled with people. It
requires energy.

● the movement of particles opposite the

concentration gradient. While moving, the particles are
blocked by several obstacles. Passing through the

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

selectively permeable plasma membrane is so very

challenging, that it requires the use of chemical energy.
● the means of moving solutes across a membrane, up the
concentration gradient. This process requires the
expenditure of energy through the transport proteins
called carrier proteins.

● requires energy, it utilizes adenosine triphosphate

(ATP), the energy currency of the cell. The terminal
phosphate group of ATP transfers to the transport protein.

Importance of Active Transport

1. it enables the transport of nutrients to the cell 3. Bulk Transport
even when their concentration on the inside is ● Water and small solutes enter and leave the cell through
already higher; passive and active diffusion
2. it makes possible the removal of waste ● large molecules, such as proteins and polysaccharides
materials from the cell despite their higher cross the membranes in bulk through the process is
concentration outside the cell; exocytosis and endocytosis
3. it enables the cell to maintain the concentration ● retrieves important macromolecules to the body;
of essential ions such as K+, Na+, Ca2+, and H+ and it enables macrophages to engulf pathogens,
which then send a signal to other macrophages and
Types of Membrane Proteins trigger an increased immune response
1. Uniport transports a molecule in one direction.
2. Symport transports two different molecules in the Macrophages
same direction. ● As implied by the prefixes--macro meaning "big" and
3. Antiport transports different molecules in phago meaning "to eat" -macrophages engulf target
opposite directions. materials or any cellular debris in a manner similar to
that of an amoeba. It stretches out its "arms" to
Coupled Transport - the transport of two different envelop its target to the point of suffocation before
substances through the same integral protein finally swallowing it.
● exhibit a way of how large particles enter the cell - a
Antiport and symports - facilitate coupled transport significant example of endocytosis, or the process of
substance entry into the cell.

Endocytosis is an example of bulk transport.

Endocytosis
● reverse process of exocytosis wherein cells engulf
materials
● a substance outside the cell is captured when the
plasma membrane merges with that substance and
engulfs it

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 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY-PHILIPPINES
Cushman Campus
Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City
Philippines 3100

● The engulfed substance then enters the its rounded

cytoplasm shape and
while enclosed in a vesicle helping it bud
off from the
membrane
Types of Endocytosis:
● Phagocytosis
- engulfing of large molecules into the cell
- “cell eating” Exocytosis
- a form of endocytosis in which large particles, such as ● process of
cells or cellular debris, are transported into the cell removing
materials
● Pinocytosis/Cellular drinking from the cell through the vesicles that fuse with the
- entrance of small liquid particles or minute molecules plasma membrane, subsequently releasing their contents
into the cell outside the cell
- a cell takes in small amounts of extracellular fluid ● common when a cell has to secrete substances for
- occurs in many cell types and takes place continuously, export
with the cell sampling and re-sampling the surrounding fluid
to get whatever nutrients and other molecules happen to Example: the secretion of digestive enzymes through the
be present vesicles from the Golgi apparatus
- Pinocytosed material is held in small vesicles, much
smaller than the large food vacuole produced by
phagocytosis

● Receptor-Mediated
- a form of endocytosis in which receptor proteins on the
cell surface are used to capture a specific target molecule
- the receptors, which are transmembrane proteins,
cluster in regions of the plasma membrane known as
coated pits
- this name comes from a layer of proteins, called
coat proteins, that are found on the cytoplasmic side
of the pit
- When the receptors bind to their specific target molecule,
endocytosis is triggered, and the receptors and their
attached molecules are taken into the cell in a vesicle. The
coat proteins participate in this process by giving the vesicle

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