Chapter 1 Molecules and Atoms

Matter, Measurements, and Calculations

• Molecule
Matter • Smallest particle of a pure substance that
• Anything that has mass and occupies has the
space properties of that substance and is capable
of a stable
Mass independent existence
• Measurement of the amount of matter in • Limit of physical subdivision for a pure
an object substance
• Independent of the location of an object
• Object on the Earth has the same mass as • Atoms: Limit of chemical subdivision for
it does on the moon matter

Weight
• Measurement of the gravitational force
acting on an object
• Depends on the location of an object
• Object that weighs 16 pounds on Earth
weighs about 2.7 pounds on the moon

Physical and Chemical Properties

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Physical properties • All matter is made up of tiny particles
• Properties of matter that can be observed called atoms
or measured • Substances called elements are made up
without attempting to change the of identical atoms
composition of the matter • Substances called compounds are
being observed combinations of atoms of two or more
• Example - Color and size elements
• Every molecule of a specific compound
• Chemical properties always contains the same number of atoms
• Properties that matter demonstrates when of each kind of element found in the
attempts are compound
made to change the matter into new • In chemical reactions, atoms are
substances rearranged, separated, or combined, but are
• Example - Ability of paper to burn never created nor destroyed

Physical and Chemical Changes Classification of Molecules

• Physical changes • Diatomic molecules: Contain two atoms

• Do not change the composition of the • Triatomic molecules: Contain three atoms
substance • Polyatomic molecules: Contain more than
• Examples - Changing the size of a sheet of three atoms
paper by cutting off a piece • Homoatomic molecules: Contain only one
kind of atom
• Chemical changes • Heteroatomic molecules: Contain two or
• Change in matter leads to change in more kinds of atoms
composition
• Examples - Burning of magnesium metal
Symbolic Representations of Molecules

Heretogeneous Matter

• Matter with properties that are not the

same throughout the sample
• Properties of a sample depend on the
location from which the sample was taken
• Polyatomic and heteroatomic (more than • Example - Skin, juice, seeds, and pulp of a
three atoms, and the atoms are not all tomato are different
identical)
• Polyatomic and homoatomic (more than Elements
three atoms, and the atoms are identical)
• Diatomic and homoatomic (two atoms, and • Pure substances that are made up of
the atoms are identical) homoatomic molecules
• Triatomic and heteroatomic (three atoms, or individual atoms of the same kind
and the atoms are not identical) • Example - Oxygen gas made up of
• Diatomic and heteroatomic (two atoms, homoatomic molecules
and the atoms are not identical) and copper metal made up of individual
copper atoms
Mixtures and Pure Substances

Compounds
Homogeneous Matter
• Pure substances that are made up of
• Matter that has the same properties heteroatomic molecules or individual atoms
throughout the sample of two or more different kinds
• Solutions: Homogeneous mixtures of two • Examples - Pure water is made up of
or more pure substances heteroatomic molecules, and table salt is
• Samples taken from any part of a mixture made up of sodium atoms (ions) and
made up of one spoon of sugar mixed with a chlorine atoms (ions)
glass of water will have the same properties,
such as the same taste A Classification Scheme for Matter
 Calculating Areas

Measurements Units • Calculate the area of a rectangle that has

sides of 1.5 and 2.0 m
• Consist of a number and an identifying unit • Express the answer in units of square
• Examples - Gallons, Celsius, and meters and square centimeters
Fahrenheit
• Based on units agreed on by those making Solution
and using the measurements • Area = (length)(length)
• In terms of meters, area = (1.5 m)(2.0 m) =
Metric System 3.0 m2
• Note that m2 represents meter squared, or
• Decimal system in which larger and square meters
smaller units are related by factors of 10 • In terms of centimeters, area = (150 cm)
• Basic unit of measurement: Specific unit (200 cm) = 30,000 cm2
from which other units for the same quantity • The lengths expressed in centimeters were
are obtained by multiplication or division obtained by remembering that 1 m = 100 cm
• Derived unit of measurement: Unit
obtained by multiplication or division of one Calculating Liquid Volumes
or more basic units • A circular petri dish with vertical sides has
a radius of 7.50 cm
Metric and English Units of Length • You want to fill the dish with a liquid
medium to a depth of 2.50 cm
• What volume of medium in milliliters and
liters will be required?

Solution
Common Prefixes of the Metric System • Volume of medium required will equal the
area of the circular dish (in square
centimeters, cm2) multiplied by the
liquid depth (in centimeters, cm)
• Note that the unit of this product will
be cubic centimeters (cm3)
• Area of a circle is equal to π r 2,
where π = 3.14
• Liquid volume will be:
• V = (3.14) (7.50 cm)2 (2.50 cm) = 442 cm3
• Because 1 cm3 = 1 mL, the volume equals Temperature Conversions
442 mL • Readings on one temperature scale can
• Also, because 1 L = 1000 mL, the volume be converted to other scales using
can be converted to liters mathematical equations
• Converting Fahrenheit to Celsius

• Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit

• Notice that the milliliter units canceled in
the calculation
• This conversion to liters is an example of
• Converting Kelvin to Celsius
the factor-unit method of problem solving

Expressing Measurements in Metric Units • Converting Celsius to Kelvin

• All measurements in international track
and field events are made using the metric
system
• Javelins thrown by female competitors Converting Fahrenheit Temperature to
must have a mass of no less than 600 g Celsius
• Express this mass in kilograms and • A temperature reading of 77°F is
milligrams measured with a Fahrenheit thermometer
• What reading would this temperature give
if a Celsius thermometer were used
Solution
• Because 1 kg = 1000 g, 600 g can be Solution
converted to kilograms as follows: • Fahrenheit reading is converted to Celsius
reading

• Also, because 1 g = 1000 mg

• Thus, the reading on a Celsius
thermometer would be 25°C

• Once again, the units of the original Temperature Conversion Practice

quantity (600 g) were canceled, and the • Covert 22°C and 54°C to Fahrenheit and
desired units were generated by this Kelvin
application of the factor-unit method

Temperature Scales

• Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales

• Celsius and Kelvin scales are used in
scientific work

Commonly Used Metric Units

 each number to give a sum represented by
n'
Scientific Notation • Write the final product as M' × 10n'
• Move decimal in M' to the standard
• Provides a convenient way to express very position and adjust n' as necessary
large or very small numbers
• Numbers are represented in the form of M
×10n
• Nonexponential term M is a
number between 1 to 10 (but
not equal to 10) written with a
decimal Scientific Notation: Division
• Exponential term is a 10 raised to • Divide the M values (a and b) of each
a whole number exponent n number to give a quotient represented by M'
• n may be positive or negative • Subtract the denominator (bottom) n value
(z) from the numerator (top) n value (y) to
give a difference represented by n'
• Write the final quotient as M' × 10n'
• Move decimal in M' to the standard
position and adjust n' as necessary

• Standard position for a decimal: Position to

the right of the first nonzero digit in the
nonexponential number
• Significance of the exponent n
• If value of n is positive, the original
Using a Calculator for Scientific Notation
decimal position is to the right of the
Calculations
standard position
• If value of n is negative, the
original decimal position is to
the left of the standard position

Scientific Notation: Multiplication

• Multiply the M values (a and b) of each
number to give a product represented by M'
• Add together the n values (y and z) of
Converting Scientific Notation to Non- 0.000729 = 7.29 ×10–4
Scientific • Zeros to the left of 7 are dropped because
• The following numbers are written using they are not scientific figures
scientific notation
• Write them without using scientific Recognizing Scientific Notation
notation • Determine which of the following numbers
• 3.72 ×1055 are written correctly using scientific notation
• 8.513 ×10–7 • For those that are not, rewrite them
correctly
Solution • 001.5 ×10–3
• Exponent 5 indicates that the original • 28.0 ×102
position of the decimal is located 5 places to • 0.35 ×104
the right of the standard position
• Zeros are added to accommodate this Solution
change: • Incorrect; the zeros to the left are not
3.72 ×105 = 372,000. = 372,000 needed
• The correct answer is 1.5×10–3
• Incorrect; the decimal is not in the
Standard Position Original Position standard position
• Move the decimal one position to
• Exponent –7 indicates that the original the left and increase the exponent by
position of the decimal is 7 places to the left 1 to give the correct answer 2.80×103
of the standard position • Incorrect; the decimal is not in the
• Zeros are added as needed: standard position
• 8.513 ×10–7 = 0.0000008513 • Move the decimal one position to the right
and decrease the exponent by 1 to give the
Original position Standard position correct answer of 3.5×103

Significant Figures
Converting Non-Scientific Notation to • Numbers in a measurement that represent
Scientific the certainty of the measurement, plus one
• Write the following numbers using number representing an estimate
scientific notation: • Rules for determining the significance of
• 8725.6 zeros
• 0.000729 • Zeros not preceded by nonzero numbers
are not significant figures
Solution • Called leading zeros
• Standard decimal position is between the 8 • Zeros located between nonzero numbers
and 7: 8.7256 are significant figures
• However, the original position of the • Called buried or confined zeros
decimal is 3 places to the right of the • Zeros located at the end of a number are
standard position significant figures if there is a decimal point
• Therefore, the exponent must be +3 present in the number
8725.6 = 8.7256 ×103 • Called trailing zeros
• Standard decimal position is between the 7
and 2: 7.29
• However, the original position of the
decimal is 4 places to the left of the
standard position
• Therefore, the exponent must be –4
 • Counting numbers obtained by counting
Significant Figures (continued 2) individual objects (e.g., 1 dozen eggs = 12
• Answer obtained by multiplication or eggs)
division must contain the same number of • Numbers that are part of simple fractions
significant figures (SF) as the quantity with (e.g., 5/9 in equation to convert °F to °C)
the fewest number of significant figures
used in the calculation Significant Figures and Scientific Notation
• Determine the number of significant figures
4.325 x 4.5 = 19.4625→19 in each of the following measurements, and
(4 SF) x (2 SF) = 2 SF use scientific notation to express each
 measurement using the correct number of
4.325 ÷ 4.5 = 0.961→ 0.96 significant figures
(4 SF) ÷ (2 SF) = 2 SF • 0.036 g
• 15.0 mL
Significant Figures (continued 3)
• Answer obtained by addition or subtraction Solution
must contain the same number of places to • Leading zeros are not significant: two
the right of the decimal (prd) as the quantity significant figures, 3.6 ×10–2 g
in the calculation with the fewest number of • Trailing zeros is significant: three
places to the right of the decimal significant figures, 1.50 × 101 mL

5.325 + 5.5 = 10.825→10.8 Significant Figures in Multiplication and

(3 prd) + (1 prd) = 1 prd Division
 • Calculate and round the answer to the
5.325 - 5.5= -0.175→ -0.2 correct number of significant figures
(3 prd) - (1 prd) = 1 prd • (4.95)(12.10)

Rules for Rounding Numbers Solution

• If the first of the nonsignificant figures to be • Calculation is done with a calculator, and
dropped from an answer is 5 or greater, all the calculator answer is written first
the nonsignificant figures are dropped and • Appropriate rounding is done to get the
the last significant figure is increased by 1 final answer
• If the first of the nonsignificant figures to be • Calculator answer: 59.895
dropped from an answer is less than 5, all • The number 4.95 has three significant
nonsignificant figures are dropped and the figures and 12.10 has four
last remaining significant figure is left • Thus, the answer must have three
unchanged significant figures

Round 10.825 to 1 place to the right of the • After both nonsignificant figures are
decimal⇒10.8 dropped, the last significant figure is
Round −0.175 to 1 place to the right of the increased by 1
decimal⇒ −0.2 • Final answer is 59.9

Exact Numbers Significant Figures in Addition and

• Numbers that have no uncertainty and do Subtraction
not limit the number of significant figures in • Do the following additions and
calculated answers subtractions, and write the answers with the
• Used as part of a defined relationship correct number of significant figures:
between quantities (e.g., 100 cm = 1 m) • 1500 + 10.9 + 0.005
• 5.1196 – 5.02
Solution

• Use the factor-unit method and numerical

relationships from Table 1.3 to calculate the
number of yards in 10.0 m
Using Units in Calculations
• Factor-unit method - Systematic approach
Factor-Unit Method Example
to solving numerical problems
• A length of rope is measured to be
• Step 1 - Write down the known or given
1834cm
quantity
• How many meters is this?
• Include both the numerical value and
units of the quantity
Solution
• Step 2 - Leave some working space
• Write down the known quantity (1834 cm)
and set the known quantity equal to the
• Set the known quantity equal to the units
units of the unknown quantity
of the unknown quantity (meters)
• Step 3 - Multiply the known quantity by
• Use the relationship between cm and m to
one or more factors, such that the units of
write a factor (100 cm = 1 m), such that the
the factor cancel the units of the known
units of the factor cancel the units of the
quantity and generate the units of the
known quantity (cm) and generate the units
unknown quantity
of the unknown quantity (m)
• Step 4 - After the desired units of the
• Do the arithmetic to produce the final
unknown quantity is generated, do the
numerical answer
necessary arithmetic to produce the final
numerical answer

Sources of Factors
• Factors used in the factor-unit method:
Obtained from numerical relationships
between quantities
• These relationships can be definitions
or experimentally measured quantities
Percentage
• Example - Defined relationship 1m =
• Number of specific items in a group of 100
100cm provides the following two factors:
such items
• Calculated using the equation:

Factor-Unit Calculations
 • A 20.00 mL sample of liquid is put into an
empty beaker that has a mass of 31.447 g
• Mass of the beaker and the contained
• In the equation, part represents the liquid is 55.891 g
number of specific items included in the total • Calculate the density of the liquid in g/mL
number of items
Using Density in Calculations
Example of Percentage Calculation • Density of iron metal has been determined
• A student counts the money she has left to be 7.2 g/cm3
until payday and finds she has $36.48 • Use the density value to calculate the
• Before payday, she has to pay an mass of an iron sample that has a volume of
outstanding bill of $15.67 35.0 cm3
• What percentage of her money must be • Use the density value to calculate the
used to pay the bill? volume occupied by 138 g of iron

Example of Percentage Calculation:Solution Solution

• Her total amount of money is $36.48, and
the part is what she has to pay, or $15.67
• The percentage of her total is calculated
as follows:

Percentage Calculations
• A college has 4517 female and 3227 male
students enrolled
• What percentage of the student body is
female?

Solution
• Total student body consists of 7744
people, of which 4517 are female

Density
• Number given when the mass of a sample
of a substance is divided by the volume of
the same sample

Density Calculation Example Atoms and Molecules

Symbols and Formulas
• A unique name and symbol is used to
represent each element
• Based on elemental properties or are
derived from names of famous scientists,
places, astronomical bodies, or mythological
characters
• Elemental symbols: Based on the name of
Atomic Structure
the element and consist of one capital letter
• Atoms are made up of three
or a capital letter followed by a lowercase
subatomic particles
letter
• Protons, neutrons, and electrons
• Protons and neutrons
• Tightly bound together to form the central
portion of an atom called the nucleus
Elements in the Human Body
• Electrons
• Located outside the nucleus

Compound Formula • Move rapidly throughout a relatively large

• Consists of the symbols of the atoms volume of space surrounding the nucleus
found in the molecule
• Each elemental symbol represents one Electrons move rapidly around a massive
atom of the element nucleus. This figureis not drawn to scale.
• If more than one atom is present in the For a nucleus of the size shown, the closest
compound, then a subscript follows the electrons would be at least 80 m away
elemental symbol
Characteristics of the Fundamental
Subatomic Particles

Atomic and Mass Numbers

• Atomic number of an atom
• Equal to the number of protons in the Atomic Mass Unit (u)
nucleus and the number of electrons in an • Used to express the relative masses of
atom atoms
• Symbolically represented by Z • 1 u = 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom
• One carbon-12 atom has a relative
• Mass number of an atom mass of 12 u
• Equal to the sum of the number of • Atom with a mass equal to 1/12
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an the mass of a carbon-12 atom
atom would have a relative mass of 1 u
• Symbolically represented by A • Atom with a mass equal to twice
the mass of a carbon-12 atom
Isotopes would have a relative mass of 24 u
• Atoms that have the same number of
protons in the nucleus but different numbers
of neutrons
• Same atomic number but different Atomic Weight
mass numbers • Relative mass of an average atom of an
• All isotopes of the same element have the: element expressed in atomic mass units
• Same number of electrons outside • Example - According to the periodic table,
the nucleus the atomic weight of N is 14.0 u and Si is
• Same number of protons in the 28.1 u
nucleus • It also means that two N atoms have a
total mass very close to the mass of a single
Ways to Represent Isotopes Si atom
• Represented by the following symbol:

• Z is the atomic number

• A is the mass number
• E is the elemental symbol Molecular Weight
• Example - • Relative mass of a molecule expressed in
atomic mass units
• Calculated by adding together the
• This symbol represents an isotope of atomic weights of the atoms in the
hydrogen that contains 11 protons in the molecule
nucleus • Example - The formula for a molecule of
• Represented by the elemental name, water is H2O
which is followed by the mass number • This means one molecule of water
• Example - Hydrogen-2 is an isotope of contains two atoms of hydrogen, H,
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, O
• Molecular weight of water is then
Relative Masses the sum of two atomic weights of H
• Numbers that are given beneath the and one atomic weight of O
symbol and name for each element in the
periodic table
• Provide simple means of comparing the
masses of atoms
 Isotopes and Atomic Weights
• Atomic weight of elements that occur as Factor-Unit Calculations for Sulfur
mixtures of isotopes is the average relative • Determine the following using the factor-
mass of the atoms in the isotope mixture unit method of calculation and factors
• Average mass of each particle in a group obtained from the preceding three
of atoms is obtained by dividing the total relationships given for sulfur (S):
mass of the group by the number of a. The mass in grams of 1.35 mol of
particles in the group S
• Practical way of determining the b. The number of moles of S atoms
average mass of a group of in 98.6 g of S
isotopes is to use an imaginary c. The number of S atoms in 98.6 g
sample of an element containing of S
100 atoms d. The mass in grams of one atom
• Use the percentage of each of S
isotope to represent the number of
atoms of each isotope in the group
• Total mass equals the sum of masses
contributed by each isotope

The Mole and Chemical Calculations

• Mole concept can be used to obtain factors
that are useful in chemical calculations
involving both elements and compounds
Mole Calculations: Steps
Mass Percentage Calculations
• Ammonia (NH3) and ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) are commonly used agricultural
fertilizers
• Which one of the two contains the higher
mass percentage of nitrogen (N)?