Session-2021-22

CLASS-11th A2

TOPIC –
“COLLISION”
SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:
NISHANT KUMAR AGRAWAL MR. K.M. AGRAWAL
ROLL NO. 33
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank our chemistry Teacher Mr.
K.M. Agrawal who guided me in doing this project. He provided us
with invaluable advice and helped us in difficult periods. His
motivation and help, contributed tremendously to the successful
completion of the project.

Besides, I would like to thank all the teachers who helped me by

giving me advice and providing the equipment which I needed.
Also I would like to thank my family and friends for their support.
Without that support I couldn’t have succeeded in completing this
project.

At last but not in least, I would like to thank everyone who helped
and motivated me to work on this project.
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Nishant kumar Agrawal of
class 11th A2 has successfully completed this
Chemistry Project on Topic “COLLISION”
prescribed by Mr K.M. Agrawal, during
academic session 2021-22 as per the guidelines
issued by the Central Board of Secondary
Education.

Teacher’s Name Signature

MR K.M. Agrawal
 Collision
Collision is short-duration interaction between two bodies or more
than two bodies simultaneously causing change in motion of bodies
involved due to internal forces acted between them during this.
Collisions involve forces (there is a change in velocity). The
magnitude of the velocity difference just before impact is called the
closing speed. All collisions conserve momentum. What distinguishes
different types of collisions is whether they also conserve kinetic
energy. The line of impact is the line that is collinear to the common
normal of the surfaces that are closest or in contact during impact.
This is the line along which internal force of collision acts during
impact, and Newton's coefficient of restitution is defined only along
this line. Collisions are of three types:
1. Perfectly elastic collision
2. Inelastic collision
3. Perfectly inelastic collision.
Specifically, collisions can either be elastic, meaning they conserve
both momentum and kinetic energy, or inelastic, meaning they
conserve momentum but not kinetic energy.

An inelastic collision is sometimes also called a plastic collision. A

“perfectly inelastic” collision (also called a "perfectly plastic"
collision) is a limiting case of inelastic collision in which the two
bodies coalesce after impact.

Coefficient of Restitution:-
The degree to which a collision is elastic or inelastic is quantified by
the coefficient of restitution, a value that generally ranges between
zero and one.
• A perfectly elastic collision has a coefficient of restitution of
one.
• A perfectly inelastic collision has a coefficient of restitution of
zero.
Types of collisions
There are two types of collisions between two bodies –
1) Head-on collisions or one-dimensional collisions - where
the velocity of each body just before impact is along the line of
impact, and
2) Non-head-on collisions, oblique collisions or two-
dimensional collisions - where the velocity of each body just
before impact is not along the line of impact.

According to the coefficient of restitution, there are two special

cases of any collision as written below:

➢ Elastic Collision:-
A perfectly elastic collision is defined as one in which there is
no loss of kinetic energy in the collision. In reality, any
macroscopic collision between objects will convert some
kinetic energy to internal energy and other forms of energy, so
no large-scale impacts are perfectly elastic. However, some
problems are sufficiently close to perfectly elastic that they can
be approximated as such. In this case, the coefficient of
restitution equals one.
The conservation of the total momentum before and after the
collision is expressed by:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Likewise, the conservation of the total kinetic energy is
expressed by:
(½)m1u12 +(½) m2u22 = (½) m1v12 + (½) m2v22
 ➢ Inelastic Collision:-
An inelastic collision is one in which part of the kinetic energy
is changed to some other form of energy in the collision.
Momentum is conserved in inelastic collisions (as it is for
elastic collisions), but one cannot track the kinetic energy
through the collision since some of it is converted to other
forms of energy. In this case, coefficient of restitution is not
equal to one.
In any type of collision there is a phase when for a moment
colliding bodies have the same velocity along the line of
impact.Then the kinetic energy of bodies reduces to its
minimum during this phase and may be called a maximum
deformation phase for which momentarily the coefficient of
restitution becomes one.

Collisions in ideal gases approach perfectly elastic collisions, as

do scattering interactions of sub-atomic particles which are
deflected by the electromagnetic force. Some large-scale
interactions like the slingshot type gravitational interactions
between satellites and planets are almost perfectly elastic.

Collisions between hard spheres may be nearly elastic, so it is

useful to calculate the limiting case of an elastic collision. The
assumption of conservation of momentum as well as the
conservation of kinetic energy makes possible the calculation of
the final velocities in two-body collisions.

Allision
In maritime law, it is occasionally desirable to distinguish
between the situation of a vessel striking a moving object, and
that of it striking a stationary object. The word "allision" is
then used to mean the striking of a stationary object, while
"collision" is used to mean the striking of a moving object.
Thus, when two vessels run against each other, courts typically
use the term collision whereas when one vessel runs against
another, they typically use the term allision. The fixed object
could also be a bridge or dock. While there is no great
difference between the two terms and often they are even used
interchangeably, determining the difference helps clarify the
circumstances of emergencies and adapt accordingly. In the
case of Vane Line Bunkering, Inc. v. Natalie D M/V, it was
established that there was the presumption that the moving
vessel is at fault, stating that "presumption derives from the
common-sense observation that moving vessels do not usually
collide with stationary objects unless the [moving] vessel is
mishandled in some way.” This is also referred to as The
“Oregon Rule”.

❖ Examples of collisions that can be solved

analytically:-

Billiards
Collisions play an important role in cue sports. Because the
collisions between billiard balls are nearly elastic, and the balls
roll on a surface that produces low rolling friction, their
behavior is often used to illustrate Newton's laws of motion.
After a zero-friction collision of a moving ball with a stationary
one of equal mass, the angle between the directions of the two
balls is 90 degrees. This is an important fact that professional
billiards players take into account, although it assumes the ball
is moving without any impact of friction across the table rather
than rolling with friction.
 Consider an elastic collision in two dimensions of any two
masses m1 and m2, with respective initial velocities u1 and u2
where u2 = 0, and final velocities V1 and V2. Conservation of
momentum gives m1 u1 = m1 V1 + m2 V2. Conservation of
energy for an elastic collision gives (1/2)m1|u1|2 = (1/2)m1|V1|2
+ (1/2)m2|V2|2. Now consider the case m1 = m2: we obtain u1 =
V1 + V2 and |u1|2 = |V1|2 + |V2|2. Taking the dot product of each
side of the former equation with itself, |u1|2 = u1•u1 = |V1|2 +
|V2|2 + 2V1•V2 . Comparing this with the latter equation gives
V1•V2 = 0, so they are perpendicular unless V1 is the zero
vector (which occurs if and only if the collision is head-on).

➢ Perfect inelastic collision:-

In a perfect inelastic collision, i.e., a zero coefficient of
restitution , the colliding particles colease. It is necessary to
consider conservation of momentum:

maua + mbub = ( ma + mb)v

where v is the final velocity, which is hence given by

v = maua + mbub
ma + mb
The reduction of total kinetic energy is equal to the total kinetic
energy before the collision in a center of momentum frame with
respect to the system of two particles, because in such a frame the
kinetic energy after the collision is zero. In this frame most of the
kinetic energy before the collision is that of the particle with the
smaller mass. In another frame, in addition to the reduction of kinetic
energy there may be a transfer of kinetic energy from one particle to
the other; the fact that this depends on the frame shows how relative
this is. With time reversed we have the situation of two objects
pushed away from each other, e.g. shooting a projectile, or a rocket
applying thrust.

• Examples of collisions analyzed numerically:-

Animal locomotion
Collisions of an animal's foot or paw with the underlying substrate are
generally termed ground reaction forces. These collisions are
inelastic, as kinetic energy is not conserved. An important research
topic in prosthetics is quantifying the forces generated during the
foot-ground collisions associated with both disabled and non-disabled
gait. This quantification typically requires subjects to walk across a
force platform (sometimes called a "force plate") as well as detailed
kinematic and dynamic (sometimes termed kinetic) analysis.

➢ Collisions used as an experimental tool:-

Collisions can be used as an experimental technique to study material
properties of objects and other physical phenomena.

Space exploration:-
An object may deliberately be made to crash-land on another celestial
body, to do measurements and send them to Earth before being
destroyed, or to allow instruments elsewhere to observe the effect.
See e.g.:

• During Apollo 13, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16 and Apollo
17, the S-IVB (the rocket's third stage) was crashed into the
Moon in order to perform seismic measurement used for
characterizing the lunar core.
• Deep Impact
• SMART-1 - European Space Agency satellite
• Moon impact probe - ISRO probe and LCROSS with its spent
Centaur Upper Stage - NASA Probe
 • Double Asteroid Redirection Test for Planetary defence
(planned)

➢ Mathematical description of molecular collisions:-

Let the linear, angular and internal momentum of a molecule be given
by the set of r variables { pi }. The state of a molecule may then be
described by the range δwi = δp1δp2δp3 ... δpr . There are many such
ranges corresponding to different states; a specific state may be
denoted by the index i. Two molecules undergoing a collision can
thus be denoted by (i, j) (Such an ordered pair is sometimes known as
a constellation.) It is convenient to suppose that two molecules exert a
negligible effect on each other unless their center of gravity approach
within a critical distance b. A collision therefore begins when the
respective centers of gravity arrive at this critical distance, and is
completed when they again reach this critical distance on their way
apart. Under this model, a collision is completely described by the
matrix , which refers to the constellation (i, j) before the
i j
k l
collision, and the (in general different) constellation (k, l) after the
collision. This notation is convenient in proving Boltzmann's H-
theorem of statistical mechanics.

➢ Attack by means of a deliberate collision:-

Types of attack by means of a deliberate collision include:

• striking with the body: unarmed striking, punching, kicking

• striking with a weapon, such as a sword, club or axe
• ramming with an object or vehicle, e.g.:
• Ram-raiding, the practice of driving a car into a building in
order to break in
• a battering ram, medieval weapon used for breaking down large
doors, also a modern version is used by police forces during
raids
 • An attacking collision with a distant object can be achieved by
throwing or launching a projectile.

OBLIQUE COLLISION:-
The horizontal line is the line joining the centres – for short, the "line
of centres". We suppose that we know the velocity (speed and
direction) of each ball before collision, and the coefficient of
restitution. The direction of motion is to be described by the angle that
the velocity vector makes with the line of centres. We want to find the
velocities (speed and direction) of each ball after collision. That is, we
want to find four quantities, and therefore we need four equations.
These equations are as follows:

m1v1 cosβ1 + m2 v2 cosβ2 = m1 u1 cosα1 + m2 u2 cosα2.

If we assume that the balls are smooth - i.e. that there are no forces
perpendicular to the line of centres and the balls are not set into
rotation, then the component of the momentum of each ball separately
perpendicular to the line of centres is conserved:

v1 sinβ1= u1 sinβ1
and
v2 sinβ2 = u2 sinα2.
The last of the four equations is the restitution equation

e=elative speed of recession along the line of centres after

collisionrelative speed of approach along the line of centres before
collision.
That is

v2 cosβ2 − v1 cosβ1 = e(u1 cosα1 − u2 cosα2).

2009 satellite collision:-
The collision occurred at 16:56 UTC and destroyed both the Iridium
33 and Kosmos-2251. The Iridium satellite was operational at the
time of the collision. Kosmos-2251 had gone out of service in 1995. It
had no propulsion system, and was no longer actively controlled.
U.S. space agency NASA initially estimated ten days after the
collision that the satellite space incident had created at least 1,000
pieces of debris larger than 10 cm (4 in), in addition to many smaller
ones. By July 2011, the U.S. Space Surveillance Network had
catalogued over 2000 large debris fragments from the collision.
NASA determined the risk to the International Space Station, which
orbits about 430 kilometres (270 mi) below the collision course, to be
low,[8][15] as was any threat to the shuttle launch (STS-119) then
planned for late February 2009. However, Chinese scientists have
said that the debris does pose a threat to Chinese satellites in Sun-
synchronous orbits, and the ISS did have to perform an avoidance
maneuver due to collision debris in March 2011.

By December 2011, many pieces of the debris were in an observable

orbital decay towards Earth, and were expected to burn up in the
atmosphere within one to two years. In 2016, Space News listed the
collision as the second biggest fragmentation event in history, with
Kosmos-2251 and Iridium 33 producing respectively 1,668 and 628
pieces of catalogued debris, of which 1,141 and 364 pieces of tracked
debris remain in orbit as of January 2016.
A small piece of Kosmos-2251 satellite debris safely passed by the
International Space Station at 2:38 a.m. EDT, Saturday, March 24,
2012, at a distance of approximately 120 m (390 ft). As a precaution,
ISS management had the six crew members on board the orbiting
complex take refuge inside the two docked Soyuz rendezvous
spacecraft until the debris had passed.

A number of reports of phenomena in the US states of Texas,

Kentucky, and New Mexico were attributed to debris from the
collision in the days immediately following the first reports of the
incident in 2009, although NASA and the United States Strategic
Command, which tracks satellites and orbital debris, did not announce
any reentries of debris at the time and reported that these phenomena
were unrelated to the collision. On February 13, 2009, witnesses in
Kentucky heard sonic booms. The National Weather Service issued
an information statement alerting residents of sonic booms due to the
falling satellite debris. The Federal Aviation Administration also
released a notice warning to pilots of the re-entering debris. Some
reports include details that point to these phenomena being caused by
a meteoroid shower. A very bright meteor over Texas on February 15,
2009, was mistaken for reentering debris by some witnesses.

Cause:-
Events where two satellites approach within several kilometers of
each other occur numerous times each day. Sorting through the large
number of potential collisions to identify those that are high risk
presents a challenge. Precise, up-to-date information regarding current
satellite positions is difficult to obtain. Calculations made by
CelesTrak had expected these two satellites to miss by 584 meters
(1,916 ft).

Planning an avoidance maneuver with due consideration of the risk,

the fuel consumption required for the maneuver, and its effects on the
satellite's normal functioning can also be challenging. John Campbell
of Iridium spoke at a June 2007 forum discussing these tradeoffs and
the difficulty of handling all the notifications they were getting
regarding close approaches, which numbered 400 per week (for
approaches within five kilometers or three miles) for the entire
Iridium constellation. He estimated the risk of collision per
conjunction as one in 50 million.

This collision and numerous near-misses have renewed calls[by

whom?] for mandatory disposal of defunct satellites (typically by
deorbiting them, or at minimum, sending them to a graveyard orbit),
but no such international law exists as of 2021. Nevertheless, some
countries have adopted such a law domestically, such as France in
December 2010. The United States Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) requires all geostationary satellites launched after
March 18, 2002, to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end
of their operational life.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• NCERT Book
• www.wikepedia.com
• Reference Book