Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Modelling of standalone solar photovoltaic based electric bike charging

Shubham Mishra a, Gaurav Dwivedi a,⇑, Subho Upadhyay b, Anurag Chauhan c
a
Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal 462003, India
b
Dept. of Renewable Energy, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (Deemed University), Agra 282005, India
c
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Rajkiya Engineering College Banda, Uttar Pradesh 210201, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Charging the electric vehicles through the use of solar PV systems is a major hurdle in today’s era. In the
Available online xxxx present work, a system is designed for charging Electric bikes at workplaces like schools, colleges, offices,
etc. To ensure a reliable charging system, a standalone solar PV system with a battery bank based energy
Keywords: storage unit is employed. It can be seen from the present work that the electric bike at different voltage
Energy storage configurations i.e., 12 V, 24 V, and 36 V, can be charged efficiently. The irradiance level is varied in a way
Solar PV to show a real-life effect that occurs during a summer day. To depict this, irradiance level is assumed to
Charger
rises from 300 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2 and decline again to 300 W/m2 during the process. The DC bus volt-
Battery charging
age is successfully maintained constant at a level of 48 V in all three cases. The contribution of the study
is the application of a robust solar PV based off-grid design for charging electric bike at the workplaces.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advancement in Materials, Manufacturing and Energy Engineering (ICAMME-2021).

1. Introduction are different MPPT techniques that are used with the SPV system to
track maximum power [10].
With the increasing level of pollution in the world causing glo- In EVs, generally, Lithium-ion battery is used because of its
bal warming, climate change, etc. The transportation sector is shift- advantage over other types of batteries like it has high energy effi-
ing from conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles to zero or ultra- ciency, high power density, long cycle life, etc. [10]. Some common
low-level emission Electric Vehicles (EVs) to minimize the emis- charging protocols for Lithium-ion battery charging including Con-
sion levels [1,2]. stant Current (CC) charging, Constant Voltage (CV) charging, Con-
The goal of minimizing dependency on fossil fuel and reducing stant Current Constant Voltage (CCCV) charging, etc. [11]. Here in
pollution levels can only be achieved if the charging demand of EVs the present work, a CCCV charging method is used for the Electric
is fed with maximized use of available renewable energy. The Bike battery.
intermittent nature of the renewable energy system and the prob- Electric bikes (E-bikes) have a smaller battery capacity com-
lems caused by them on the power system (Voltage fluctuation, pared to Electric cars so most of the researches done to charge
Frequency regulation, etc.) can be resolved by controlled charging them are based on grid energy [12]. The EVs and their charging
and discharging of EVs [3]. from renewable energy resources are presented in a major focus
The Solar PV (SPV) system has a wide area of application like in and a lot of researches is going on in this field. Kumar et al. [13]
solar PV pump, greenhouse drying, etc. [4,5]. But, the SPV system is designed a 24kWp off-grid model for electric vehicle (EV) charging
nonlinear in nature and its output is highly dependent on weather with a solar PV system as the main source of power. A battery bank
conditions [6,7]. To balance this, the Energy Storage Unit (ESU) of capacity 15kWh is also added to ensure reliable charging of EV
comes in to picture to improve system reliability. The efficiency batteries. Fathabadi [14–17] designed EV charging station in four
of the solar photovoltaic (PV) array is low and to improve it, a Max- different configurations (grid-connected PV system/ grid-
imum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controller is used [8,9]. There connected Wind-powered system/ grid-connected solar PV and
Wind-powered system/ standalone solar PV, wind power and fuel
cell-based system) with the implementation of Vehicle to Grid
⇑ Corresponding author. technology (V2G) in the grid-connected system. Wahedi and Bicer
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Dwivedi). [18] developed a standalone EV charging station powered by a

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.738
2214-7853/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advancement in Materials, Manufacturing and Energy
Engineering (ICAMME-2021).

Please cite this article as: S. Mishra, G. Dwivedi, S. Upadhyay et al., Modelling of standalone solar photovoltaic based electric bike charging, Materials
Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.738
S. Mishra, G. Dwivedi, S. Upadhyay et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

hybrid system of Concentrated Photovoltaic Thermal (CPV/T), Here, Ppv is the power generated from the PV array, n is the no. of PV
Wind, and biomass combustion with the inclusion of a variety of modules, V pv and Ipv are the voltage (V) and current (I) levels of indi-
energy storage systems. He and Fathabadi [19] designed a stan- vidual PV modules respectively.
dalone Solar PV and Fuel cell-based EV charging system. The fuel For the energy-efficient operation of the PV array, an MPPT con-
cell is also compared with the conventional battery storage system. troller is used which tracks the maximum power point (MPP) of a
The fuel cell is found to better both in terms of lifetime operation PV array system. Here in this design, Perturb and Observe (P&O)
and economic evaluation. Mehrjerdi and Hemmati [20] developed technique is used in the MPPT controller. Fig. 2 shows the P&O
a stochastic model of an EV charging station powered by a grid- algorithm used to calculate the duty ratio to track the maximum
connected wind energy system with an energy storage system. power. Where D is the duty ratio.
The system is designed with 3 levels of EV charging (fast, interme-
diate, and slow). The complete system is optimized and the charg- 2.2. Battery system
ing power levels are calculated to be rated at 116, 84, and 52 kW
for fast, intermediate, and slow charging respectively. The battery system includes two batteries used in the system
With the availability of multiple resources for EV charging, opti- design:
mization of the charging system become an indispensable part to
extract maximum benefits. Mehrjerdi and Hemmati [21] optimally a) A 24 V, 60Ah Li-ion battery is used in the ESU.
designed an EV charging station with a multi-level charging facil- b) Li-ion E-Bike batteries are in the voltage range of 12 V, 24 V,
ity. The system has multiple energy resources and the optimized and 36 V, with each having a battery capacity of 50 Ah.
model achieved its objective to minimize the cost and peak load
demand. Mehrjerdi [22] proposed a standalone EV and hydrogen The batteries are implemented in the design using Battery Block
vehicle charging station with a diesel generator, fuel cell, and its available in MATLAB\Simulink library. In this block, the type of bat-
recharging system, and a SPV system. The system is mathemati- tery and its voltage and Ampere-hour are defined. The energy of
cally modelled and optimized to minimize the investment and the battery can be calculated as [24]:
the operational cost of the system. Z t
The present design is for charging of E-bikes at workplaces. The Ebattery ¼ Einitial þ V battery Ibattery ð2Þ
workplaces are opened generally in the daytime between 9 am to 0

6 pm. During this period, sunlight is generally available. The off- Here, Ebattery is the initial energy content (J) of battery, V battery (V) is
grid charging system consists of a solar PV array with Maximum the battery voltage at time t and Ibattery (A) is the battery current at
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controller, the Energy Storage Unit time t.
(ESU), power converters including unidirectional and bidirectional
converters, and also a CCCV charging system to charge the battery 2.3. Power converters
of E-bike.
The design stability is tested for sudden variation in solar irra- The DC/DC power converters (unidirectional and bidirectional)
diance level in a short period of time. For this, it is assumed that are an important part of a Solar PV-based off-grid charging station.
irradiance varies in a curve from 300 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2 and then Their operation is controlled by the duty ratio input to them with
again goes down to 300 W/m2 in a time interval of 100 s. Charging the help of a Pulse Width Modulation generator.
is performed for three cases in which the voltage level of each bat-
tery is different (12 V, 24 V, and 36 V). 2.3.1. Unidirectional converter
The complete paper is divided into 5 sections. In section 2, the The solar PV array is connected to DC/DC boost converter as
system design is explained with each component present in this shown in Fig. 3. The output voltage of the boost converter V DC in
system. Section 3 shows the simulation results and in section 4, relation with input PV voltage V PV can be given as [13]:
the results of all the three cases are compared and future work that
1
can be drawn from it is provided. In the last section, the whole V DC ¼ V PV ð3Þ
work is concluded. 1  Db
Here, Db is the duty ratio of the boost converter.
2. System design The value of Inductance (Lboost Þ and capacitance ðC boost ) of the
boost converter are given as [13]:
The system design includes a solar PV array, MPPT unit, unidi-
V DC Db
rectional converter, bidirectional converter, CCCV charging system, Lboost ¼ ð4Þ
DI L f
and Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. Fig. 1 shows a detailed layout of
the system design modelled on MATLAB.
V PV Db
C boost ¼ ð5Þ
Ro DV PV f
2.1. Solar PV array with MPPT
Here, DIL , DV PV , Ro and f are the inductor ripple current, capacitor
The solar PV array is a semiconductor device that generates DC ripple voltage, output impedance, and switching frequency
electric output in presence of sunlight. PV modules are arranged in respectively.
a combination of series and parallel to make the PV array. The
energy output of the PV array is dependent on some parameters 2.3.2. Bidirectional converter
like solar irradiance and temperature [23]. The PV Array block is The bidirectional converter used in the modelled system is
available in MATLAB/Simulink library. It is sized to have a power shown in Fig. 4.
output of 1 kW at 1000 W/m2 irradiance level and an ambient tem- It operates in buck and boost mode based on the charging and
perature of 25 °C. The power output of a PV array can be calculated discharging of the battery of ESU. In charging mode, the Inductance
as: ðLbuck Þand capacitance (C buck Þ value is given below [13]:
P pv ¼ n  V pv  I pv ð1Þ ðV DC  V batt ÞDbuck
Lbuck ¼ ð6Þ
DI L f

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S. Mishra, G. Dwivedi, S. Upadhyay et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. System design layout of solar PV-based Electric Bike charging station.

ð1  Dbuck ÞV batt V DC Dboost

C buck ¼ ð7Þ C boost ¼ ð9Þ
8Lbuck DV batt f
2 Ro DV DC f

Here,V DC ; V batt ; Dbuck ; DV batt ; DIL and f are input DC bus voltage, Bat- Here, V DC ; V batt ; Dboost ; DV DC ; DIL , f and Ro are the DC bus voltage, Bat-
tery voltage, duty ratio in buck mode, the ripple voltage, the ripple tery voltage, duty ratio in buck mode, the ripple voltage, the ripple
current, and switching frequency for the buck mode operation current, switching frequency, and output impedance for the boost
respectively. mode operation respectively.
In discharging mode, the Inductance Lboost and capacitance C boost The bidirectional converter operates in both charging and dis-
value is given below [13]: charging modes. So, the value of the Inductance Lbidirectional and
capacitance C bidirectional value is taken as [13]:
V batt Dboost
Lboost ¼ ð8Þ Lbidirectional ¼ max ðLbuck ; Lboost Þ ð10Þ
DI L f

Fig. 2. P&O algorithm [10].

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S. Mishra, G. Dwivedi, S. Upadhyay et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Design of Boost converter.

Fig. 4. Design of Bidirectional converter.

C bidirectional ¼ max ðC buck ; C boost Þ ð11Þ 3. Simulation results

The simulation is performed for 100 s. The Irradiance level is

2.4. Cc-Cv charging varied from 300 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2 and again brought back to
300 W/m2. This variation in Irradiance level is done to check the
The E-bike’s battery is charged in CC-CV mode. This charging robustness of the system when there is a sudden change in
technique occurs in two modes, the first is Constant Current (CC) weather conditions due to the cloud effect. Fig. 5 shows the varia-
mode in which the battery is charged at constant current and the tion in the irradiance level.
battery voltage is allowed to increases till it reaches a set constant The complete analysis is divided into 3 cases based on the
value. As the voltage level reaches the set value, the second mode charging of three different voltage level batteries. During all three
starts called Constant Voltage (CV) mode. In this mode, the voltage cases, the irradiance variation is the same to understand its impact
is maintained constant and the current starts decreasing to a min- on other parameters. Also, the SOC % of the E-bike battery and the
imum set level. In this complete charging process, the duration of ESU in all the 3 cases is set initially at 45% and 80% respectively and
CC charging is large compared to CV charging [25]. The CC-CV the charging current is set at 20A for faster charging of the E-bike
Charging block is available in MATLAB/Simulink. This block imple- battery.
ments a generic dynamic model of battery chargers. Here in the In case 1, a 12 V and 50Ah E-bike battery is charged. Fig. 6
design, it is used for the charging of the E-bike’s battery. The bat- shows the simulation results. During the complete charging pro-
tery is charged at a bulk level input current of the set at a level cess, the DC bus voltage level is successfully maintained near
of 20 A. around 48 V. During the complete simulation, the E-bike battery

Fig. 5. Variation of Irradiance level with time.

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S. Mishra, G. Dwivedi, S. Upadhyay et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. Charging of 12 V, 50Ah E-bike battery. (a) DC bus voltage level, (b) SOC % of the ESU, (c) SOC % of the E-bike battery (d) Voltage level of E-bike, and (e) Current level of E-
bike.

is charged near to the constant value of voltage and current of 13 V In case 3, a 36 V and 50Ah E-bike battery is charged. Fig. 8
and 20A and respectively. The power output from the PV array is shows the simulation results. The DC bus voltage level is success-
sufficient to charge the E-bike battery so the ESU is not utilized fully maintained near around 48 V during the complete charging
rather it starts getting charged due to the presence of excess power process. During the complete simulation, the E-bike battery is
generated from the PV array. During the irradiance level variation charged near to the constant value of voltage and current of
from 300 W/m2 to 600 W/m2 and from 600 W/m2 to 300 W/m2, the 39.1 V and 20A and respectively. The charging power demand of
SOC % of ESU rises very slowly as the power output of the PV array the E-bike battery system is high at around 780 W (39 V  20A)
is low. The SOC % of the E-bike increases linearly from 45% initially and during the irradiance level below 825 W/m2, the PV array is
to 46.1% in 100 s of simulation runtime. not able to generate a sufficient amount of power on its own. So,
In case 2, a 24 V and 50Ah E-bike battery is charged. Fig. 7 during this period the ESU delivers the required amount of power
shows the simulation results. The DC bus voltage level is success- and maintains the bus voltage to a constant value. For the time
fully maintained near around 48 V during the complete charging when irradiance level is above 800 W/m2, the PV array generates
process. The charging current for E-bike is set at 20A. During the sufficient power to charge the battery so the ESU is not in use in
complete simulation, the E-bike battery is charged near to the con- that period. The SOC % of the E-bike increases linearly from 45% ini-
stant value of voltage and current of 26 V and 20A and respectively. tially to 46.1% in 100 s of simulation runtime.
During the irradiance level variation from 300 W/m2 to 600 W/m2
and from 600 W/m2 to 300 W/m2, the ESU starts delivering the
power to charge E-bike and maintain the bus voltage constant.
Also, the SOC % of ESU decreases as the power output of the PV 4. Discussion and future perspective
array is not sufficient to charge the E-bike. When the irradiance
level is above 600 W/m2, the PV array generates sufficient power In all the 3 cases of battery charging of E-bike, the voltage levels
to charge the E-bike and the ESU also charges linearly during this are different but the Ah values are the same (50Ah) and the charg-
period. The SOC % of the E-bike increases linearly from 45% initially ing is also set to the same level of 20A. So, in 100 s of simulation in
to 46.1% in 100 s of simulation runtime. all three cases, the SOC% rise from 45% to 46.1%.
5
S. Mishra, G. Dwivedi, S. Upadhyay et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 7. Charging of 24 V, 50Ah E-bike battery. (a) DC bus voltage level, (b) SOC % of the ESU, (c) SOC % of the E-bike battery (d) Voltage level of E-bike, and (e) Current level of E-
bike.

The charging power required in all three cases is 260.2 W (in 5. Conclusion
case 1), 520.5 W (in case 2), and 780 W (in case 3) which is almost
constant throughout the charging process. In case 1 the PV array Results of the simulation showed that the electric bike with a
can generate the required charging power so the ESU is not in voltage in the range of 12 V, 24 V, and 36 V can be charged effi-
use and slowly charges as well when the power generated is in ciently. The system successfully withstands the sudden variation
excess. In cases 2 and 3, the charging power required is higher so in the irradiance and maintains the bus voltage constant. The MPPT
ESU delivers the required power when the PV array is not able to technique used in this design enables maximized power output
generate the required power. from the solar PV array. This work can further be extended to a net-
Throughout the charging process, in all three cases with sudden work model of DC bus for the workplace in which multiple no. of
variation in irradiance and increasing level of charging power such charging stations can be connected and the generated energy
requirement, maintaining the bus voltage constant is a major chal- can be shared in between them. Also, during weekends and festi-
lenge that is successfully achieved. vals, the EV battery can work as a power source and sell the excess
The system is designed for charging at workplaces like schools, power generated to the grid to increase the profit and reliability of
colleges, offices, etc. This work can further be extended to the area the system.
of grid integration to sell the excess power generated to the grid
and consume power from the grid when weather conditions are CRediT authorship contribution statement
not favourable for energy generation from solar PV. The system
optimization with aim of minimizing the use of grid energy and Shubham Mishra: Investigation. Gaurav Dwivedi: Supervision.
reliable charging of E-bike during working hours can be done as Subho Upadhyay: Writing - reviewing & editing. Anurag Chau-
an extended version of the work in the future. han: Methodology.
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S. Mishra, G. Dwivedi, S. Upadhyay et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8. Charging of 36 V, 50Ah E-bike battery. (a) DC bus voltage level, (b) SOC % of the ESU, (c) SOC % of the E-bike battery (d) Voltage level of E-bike, and (e) Current level of E-
bike.

Declaration of Competing Interest [5] S. Mishra, S. Verma, S. Chowdhury, G. Dwivedi, Analysis of recent
developments in greenhouse dryer on various parameters- a review, Mater.
Today Proc. 38 (2021) 371–377, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.429.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- [6] A. Ba, C.O. Ehssein, M.E.M.O.M. Mahmoud, O. Hamdoun, A. Elhassen,
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared Comparative study of different DC/DC power converter for optimal PV
system using MPPT (P&O) method, Appl. Sol. Energy (English Transl.
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Geliotekhnika) 54 (4) (2018) 235–245, https://doi.org/10.3103/
S0003701X18040047.
[7] S. Verma, S. Mohapatra, S. Chowdhury, G. Dwivedi, Cooling techniques of the
PV module: a review, Mater. Today Proc. 38 (2021) 253–258, https://doi.org/
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