Friday, September 9, 2022

Cell Reproduction

Science
Cell Division - The formation of cells of the same kind.
Growth
Repair
Reproduction

. Growth - Cell Division maintains a fully grown individual. E.g Tissue growth

requires cell division.

Figure 2 - Human erythrocytes (red blood cells). A normal person contains about 25
trillion red blood cells, yet the life span of a red blood cell is only 20 - 120 days.

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. Repair - Multicellular organisms repair damaged cells by cell division .
Both animals (a) and plants (b) use cell division to grow new cell over a cut. Where else
would plants to grow new cells to replace damaged cells?

Reproduction - Unicellular uses cell division to reproduce.

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. What changes do cells undergo during the cell cycle?

CELL CYCLE

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Interphase - It refers to the period that follows one cell division and precedes
another.
During this stage, the cell does not divide; it merely grows.
The chromosome doubles or replicates itself because the DNA molecule
contained in the chromosome produces an exact copy of itself.

Three Substages of Interphase

First gap period or G1
- The stage from the formation of a new cell until it begins to
replicate its DNA, during which time the cell grows initially.
It is characterized by protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
synthesis. RNA, which is synthesized based on the DNA, is
then used to synthesize proteins.

Synthesis stage or S
- The period of DNA synthesis or replication. The
chromosomes are duplicated in preparation for the next cell
division.

Second gap period or G2

- Falls between the S period and the next cell division or M
(mitosis or meiosis) phase.
G2 represents a period of rapid cell growth to prepare for
cell division.

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. DURING THE INTERPHASE…
The nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct membrane-bound organelle.
One or more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus. On the other hand, the
chromosomes cannot be clearly seen.
Chromosomes appear as an irregular mass that is grainy in appearance because the
DNA they contain are stretched out thinly in the nucleus. This facilitates the
replication of DNA during the S phase.

Terms to Remember:
Chromatin: the genetic material during interphase.
Centromere: the structure that holds the sister chromatids together.
Sister chromatid: a chromosome and its duplicate held by centromere

together.

The Chromosome
All living things contain what we call the genetic material that serves as the set of
instructions that direct the activities and functions of the cells.
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These genetic materials, also known as the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, are
passed on from one generation to the next to ensure the continuity of life.

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In eukaryotic cells (cells with organelles), the DNA are bound with proteins and
are organized as beads on strings to form chromosomes.

The number of chromosomes in a cell is characteristic of the species to which it

belongs.
For example, humans have 46 chromosomes while rice have 24.

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Chromosome Numbers of Some Common Organisms

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. DIPLOID VS. HAPLOID
Diploid is a cell or organism that has paired chromosomes, one from
each parent.
- In humans, cells other than human sex cells, are diploid and have 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Human sex cells (egg and sperm cells) contain a single set of
chromosomes and are known as haploid.

Examples:

. Cell Division
When cells divide, two parts may be involved, namely, the nucleus
and the cytoplasm.
Nuclear division is called as karyokinesis. There are two types of
karyokinesis, MITOSIS and MEIOSIS.
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Cytoplasmic division is called cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis in plant cells involve the formation of a cell plate that
eventually develops into cell wall and the middle lamella.
Cytoplasmic division in animal cells occurs with the formation of a
cleavage furrow.
In both plant and animal cells, cytokinesis produces daughter cells.

. Mitosis
A type of cell division in which the daughter cells receive the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
This type of cell division is involved in the reproduction of
somatic or body cells.
. Prophase

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. Metaphase - Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate.
The nuclear membrane completely dissolves.

. Anaphase

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. Telophase and Cytokinesis

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. Meiosis
Preparing for Sexual Reproduction

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. PROPHASE I
The replicated chromosomes condensed.
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Homologous chromosomes come together in synapsis and
crossing over occurs.
Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers.

Crossing over leas to Genetic Variation

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. Metaphase 1 - Chromosomes lined

up at equatorial plate (center plate)

. Anaphase I
Each chromosome separates from its homologue.
They move to the opposite poles of the cell.

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. Telophase I
The nucleus completes its division.
The chromosomes are still composed of sister chromatids.
Cytokinesis will occur thereafter.

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Prophase II
The centrioles of the two new cells move to the opposite poles
and new spindle fibers are formed.
The chromosomes attach themselves to the spindle fibers.

. Metaphase II
Chromosomes lined up at the equatorial plate (center plate).

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. Anaphase II
Sister chromatids of each chromosome separates and move to
opposite poles.

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. Gamete Formation - Gametes such as eggs and sperms unite
during fertilization, forming a diploid

zygote.

Sperm cells are produced in the testes of male animals.

- Meiosis produces four cells which are very small but of similar
size.
- These cells become spermatozoa (singular form is
spermatozoon) or sperms.
In female animals, egg cells are produced in the ovary.
- When a cell in the ovary undergoes meiosis, new cells which
differ in size are produced.
- After meiosis I, two cells- one big and one small- are
produced.
- Meiosis II produces one big and one small cell from the first
big cell.

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. Gametogenesis in the testis and ovary of animals

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.Abnormal Meiosis: Nondisjunction
When two homologous chromosomes move to the same pole
during meiosis
. The Male and Female Human Chromosomes

. Terms to Remember
Trisomy - the condition where there are 3 homologous
chromosomes in place of a homologous pair.
Monosomy - the condition where there is a single chromosome
in place of a homologous pair.

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. Nondisjunction Disorder

. Monosomy
Turner Syndrome - A monosomic disorder that produces a
female with a single X-chromosome.
If this egg cell with XO fertilized by a sperm cell, the total
number of the fertilized egg will only be 45 chromosomes
(human).
Tendency rate - 1:3000 female babies

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. E.g

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. What does their body look?

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. Trisomy
Klinefelter Syndrome - A trisomic disorder in which a male
carries an XXY condition.
The fertilized egg will have 47 chromosomes.
Tendency ratio - 1:500 male babies
. E.g

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. What does their body look?

. Down Syndrome

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A trisomic disorder in which a zygote receives 3 homologous
chromosomes for chromosome pair 21.

Tendency ratio - 1:600 babies

1:40 babies (if the mother is her 40’s)

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. E.g

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