International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 10 No.

4 April 2022

TEACHERS’ COMMONLY HELD COGNITION ON USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE PEDAGOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KENYA

Gladys Cherkut Kemboi , Prof. Anne Syomwene Kisilu

1. Moi University School of Education, Po Box3900-30100- Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected], +254726162964

2. Moi University School of Education, Po Box3900-30100- Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected], +254721267611

Corresponding Author: [email protected], +245726162964

ABSTRACT
This paper examined teachers’ commonly held cognitions on use of instructional media in English language
pedagogy among secondary school teachers of English in Kenya. It focuses on teacher beliefs, knowledge
and thoughts on instructional media and how they interact with classroom pedagogical practices. Fifteen
schools were stratified as National, Extra County, County and Sub-county to obtain 45 participants
comprising fifteen (15) heads of department sampled purposively and thirty (30) teachers of English who
were randomly selected. Data was generated using interviews, lesson observation and document analysis.
The study was guided by Vygotsky social learning theory. Qualitative approach and Multiple Case study
method were utilized. Data was analyzed qualitatively based on the themes and sub- themes arising from
interview transcripts and observation notes. The findings of the study revealed that teachers have cognitions
about the use of instructional media and these cognitions in turn shape classroom pedagogical practices.
Preparation of instructional media was said to be time consuming and their utilization in language lessons
was minimal.

Key words: Teacher Cognition, Instructional media, English language pedagogy, pedagogical practices

1.0 Introduction

Teacher cognition refers to the unobservable cognitive dimension of teaching. It encompasses what
teachers know, believe and think regarding their pedagogical endeavours (Borg, 2003).Teachers have
cognitions about all that they do and the use of instructional media is not an exception. Language teacher’s
cognitions shape teacher’s classroom practices. The use of instructional media in language teaching is of
paramount importance. However utilization of these media resources is largely dependent on teachers’
cognitions. This is because teachers have instructional reflections, principles, maxims, pedagogical
knowledge or beliefs that shape their classroom procedures (Borg, 2006). The personal practical knowledge
perspective views teaching more holistically taking into account the role of effective moral and emotional
factors in shaping teachers’ classroom practices. Often times, teachers make cognitive decisions on the basis
of what is going on in the classroom. The decision may be taken to ensure students’ understanding and
motivation as well as for instructional management reasons (Johnsons, 1992). This study looked at teachers’
cognitions on instructional media hereafter (IM) and how they manifest in their classroom pedagogical
practices.

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1.2 theoretical framework

The study was guided by Vygotsky’s (1978) social learning theory. The main principles of Vygotsky's work
are the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The MKO refers
to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a
particular task, process, or concept. The concept of ZPD is ‘the distance between the actual development
level as regulated by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined
though problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.’ (1978, p.
86).Vygotsky's theory plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. According to him, every
function in the child's cultural development appears on the social level first and then, on the individual level.
Vygotsky (ibid), asserts that children engage as individuals in social interactions between themselves and
peers or more experienced members of the same culture. They then consciously become unique through three
levels of regulation namely object regulation, other regulation, and self-regulation. Teachers’ cognitions
develop over time through their schooling, training and experience. In the process, teachers interact with
more knowledgeable others such as teachers, tutors, lectures and peers who influence their beliefs,
knowledge and thought process on instructional procedures. In the school context, teaches are other regulated
by colleagues. Most teachers in the study explained how their current perceptions on IM and the way they
handle their lessons is traceable to what their colleagues do and what they saw their teachers/lecturers do.

2.0 Literature review

This section discusses literature related to teacher cognition, and the use of instructional media in
English language pedagogy. Borg (2006), defines teacher cognition as ‘the unobservable cognitive
dimension of teaching, which is what teachers know, believe and think.’ Studies on teacher cognition
research recognizes the impact of teachers’ cognitions on teachers’ professional lives. The overriding view of
teaching in the 1970s was that learning was seen to be a product of teaching and teaching was regarded as
behaviour performed by teachers in class. However, cognitive psychology held a different opinion by
emphasizing on the influence of thinking on behavior, and to understand teachers therefore, one should
recognize their mental lives rather than focus on their actions (Borg, 2006). The active role played by
teachers in pedagogical processes necessitated examining decisions teachers made, and the search for
generalizable models of teacher effectiveness which examined individual teachers work, and cognition in a
more holistic and qualitative manner (Borg, 2006:6).
In 1975 the National Institute of Education in the United States organized a conference to define on agenda
for research in teaching and among its outcomes was the suggestion that:
It is obvious that what teachers do is directed in no small measure by what they think…to the
extent that, observed or intended teacher behaviour is ‘thoughtless’ it makes no use of the
human teachers’ most unique attributes. In so doing, it becomes mechanical and might well
be done by a machine. If, however, teaching is done and, in all likelihood will continue to be
done by human teachers, the question of relationship between thought and action becomes
crucial.
(National Institute of Education, 1975:1 in Borg, 2006:6)
Generally studies in this era viewed teachers as active information processors who plan, make
judgment, make decisions and take actions that influence their behaviour Borg, 2006). Stern (1981) provides
two justifications for examining teachers’ mental activities: one is that behavioural model of teaching by not
accounting for teachers’ cognition is conceptually incomplete and what happens in the classroom is shaped
by teachers’ school related knowledge and how teachers cope with complexities of the teaching learning
process.’
In the 1990s, studies on cognition focused on knowledge beliefs and learning to teach. Cater (1990)
identifies three categories of teachers’ knowledge: teachers’ decision making, teachers’ practical knowledge
(personal and classroom knowledge) and pedagogical content knowledge. Cater (1990:2a) gives a summary
of the differences in thinking between novice and experts. He asserts that expert teachers as opposed to
novices draw on richly elaborate knowledge structures derived from class experience to understand teaching
tasks and interpret classroom events. Pajares (1992) defines belief as individual judgment of the truth or
falsity of a proposition, a judgment that can only be inferred from collective understanding of what human
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beings say, intend and examines a number of cognitive processes of different types. These include
knowledge about language, knowledge about students and cognitions of beliefs, perceptions and attitudes all
explored from within the context of teachers’ classroom practices (Baker, 2011).Grossmann, Shulman and
Wilson (1989) content that the concept of teacher cognition is an intricate one. In their study, they argue that
although the terms teachers’ knowledge and teachers’ beliefs may be separated for the purpose of clarity,
there is no clear cut distinction between them. This is because, in the teachers’ mind, the components of
knowledge, beliefs, conceptions and intuitions are inextricably intertwined
Baker (2011) summarizes the several re-appearing notions that embody the core meaning of teacher
cognition. These are: personal, practical tact, systematic and dynamic. Generally, teacher cognition can be
characterized as an implicit personally held practical system of mental constructions held by teachers which
are dynamic. These constructions are active because they are defined, and refined on the based on
educational and professional experiences throughout teachers’ lives. This implies that, teachers cognitions
are personal but experience and classroom practice play a crucial role in shaping these cognitions.

2.2 Components of Teacher Cognition

i) Knowledge
Advanced Learners Dictionary defines knowledge as an organized body of information. It may also be
viewed as the general awareness or possession of information, facts ideas, truths or principles. Philosophers
view knowledge as a kind of belief: a “justified true belief” a belief which one has good reason to belief and
which is also true (Ferthermacher, 1994). In Second Language teacher Cognition (L2TC), researchers ascribe
to different models of teacher knowledge. One of the models commonly referred to is that of Shulman (1986,
1987). Baker (2011) citing Shulman (1987) distinguishes among seven categories of teacher knowledge
which include:
 Subject matter content knowledge – (knowledge about language, KAL)
 General pedagogical knowledge- (general teaching methodology and techniques).
 Curriculum knowledge – knowledge about language program and relevant resources)
 Pedagogical content knowledge – knowledge about how to teach a particular subjects using
illustrations and techniques.
 Knowledge of learners – (First Language( L1) backgrounds and student’s motivation)
 Knowledge of educational contexts- (English as a second language, English as an international
language and intensive English programs)
 Knowledge of educational ends- (purposes and values, and their philosophical and historical
grounds)

Suwannasom (2010) avers that teachers are rational professionals who make choices in delicate and complex
environments. The cognitive and affective components are often tacitly held and represent a complex
interrelated system of personal and professional knowledge. Similarly, Shulman (1987) suggests that teacher
knowledge comprises knowledge of subject matter and pedagogical content knowledge. This includes
classroom strategies adopted in order to make learning meaningful to a particular cadre of learners
(Cater1990). Suwannasom (2010) concurs that teacher knowledge is made up of knowledge of self, subject
matter, learning context, curriculum development and instruction.

Beliefs
In L2 belief literature, a number of labels are ascribed to the construct teacher beliefs. These include:
teacher thinking, teacher cognition, hidden agendas, pedagogical knowledge, etc. Borg (2003) reviewed 64
L2 teacher belief studies and documented seventeen different teacher belief terminologies. From these
studies it is commonly accepted that, L2 teachers acquire their beliefs about teaching through their life
experiences in society, prior schooling, professional education and teaching experience. Teachers’ beliefs,
like all other beliefs, have both a cultural facet as well as personal one. Cultural beliefs that reflect views of
the society, and the individual form a ground from which the individual constructs other beliefs This implies

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that, L2 teachers’ prior learning contexts play a central role in shaping their beliefs and therefore their
instructional processes (Holt Reyholds 1992)
Birello, & Borg (2012) points out that beliefs present challenges because they are not observable.
He argues that we can observe behaviour but we cannot see what teacher’s belief. Thus the only way beliefs
can be elicited is by asking teachers to say their beliefs or to produce work in which beliefs can be implied.
They distinguish between two types of beliefs: core beliefs and peripheral beliefs. Core beliefs are stable and
powerful in what we do while peripheral beliefs are less stable and we are less committed to them and they
may be compromised in case of tension between the core belief and the peripheral. Woods (1996) notes that
teachers may report their beliefs according to what they believe to be the popular narrative and not their long
held beliefs which shape their classroom practices. Teachers are regarded as active thinking decision-makers
who make instructional choices based on their knowledge, thoughts and beliefs (Borg, 2003:81). This
assertion implies that teachers have their own opinions about L2 teaching which guide their instructional
procedures. Lynch (1990) argues that teachers make tactical decisions to adopt a particular classroom
procedure which is ‘entwined in their mental script’. In the current study, the thought component is very
crucial because it will suggest the decisions and choices teacher’s makes as regards instructional media use
in English language pedagogy.

2.3 Teacher Cognition and Teacher Education

The issue of TC is central to understanding and investigating assumptions and hypothesis about
second language teacher education (SLTE) because it focuses on what knowledge teachers use, how they
acquire such knowledge and how they use it. Emotional processing and individual values influence these
processes and must be included into any construct of TC (Nathaniel, 2007). Studies indicate that knowledge
transfer from SLTE programs to L2 teaching in very difficult and problematic and language teachers find it
very challenging to use academic knowledge or theoretical principals in their practice.Generally humans tend
to have a challenge taking knowledge gained from one activity and using it in another and will even resist
knowledge they already possess. Transfer seems only to occur when learning activities (SLTE activities) are
similar to target activities (L2 teaching activities) at both surface and structural levels.
Teachers’ decisions are based on factors specific to their contexts and students and not on general
principles. Practice -specific implicit knowledge is acquired when participating in activities in which detailed
context and teaching specific information is available and necessary for participating in an activity (Lersen
Freeman, 1983). He adds that the process of education is a process of preparing people to make choices and
making informed choices is what teaching is all about. SLTE should therefore enable teachers to develop and
improve their own ideas about language.
Teacher education programs both professional and pedagogical equip teachers with professional
knowledge, subject matter knowledge, knowledge on teaching methods and knowledge on how students
learn language (language learning theories) – parenthesis mine- which guide them in adjusting their beliefs
(Hall, 2005). However, as (Borg 2003:89) observes the precise nature of impact of teacher education on
trainees’ cognitions varies across studies and among different trainees in the same study. This may as well be
attributed to personal idiosyncrasies which individual teacher trainees carry into the learning program.
Although teacher education plays a significant role in shaping the student teachers’ behaviours
during practice, it does not alter significantly the cognitions they bring to the course. This is further
authenticated by Freeman’s (1993), study which presents the conceptions held by teachers during training as
tensions defined as competing demands within their teaching. The implication here is that although some
change in TC, is noted in teacher education programmes, there are patterns of teachers’ activities which
remain unaltered. Therefore changes in novice teachers’ conceptions in SLTE would result in changes in
teachers’ practices. (MacDonald, Badger, 2001; Peacock 2001).
The classroom plays a significant role in the instructional process. It is in the classroom where the teachers’
knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and procedures interact with the learners’. The success or failure of the teaching
learning process depends on what goes on in the classroom. It is from this position that studies in mainstream
educational research content that ‘teacher cognition and classroom practice exist in a symbiotic relationship’
(Foss and Kleinsasser, 1996).

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2.3. Instructional media

Instructional media resources include anything that can facilitate teaching and learning. Owuso (2009) citing
Romiszowski (1988) defines the term “instructional media” as devices and materials employed in teaching
and learning The same is opined by Wamalwa and Wamalwa (2014) who view IM as means by which
learners are taught to enable them understand concepts easily according to the set objectives. IM comprises
hardware like blackboards, radio, television, tape recorders, video tapes and recorders and projectors; and,
software like transparencies, films, slides, teacher-made diagrams, real objects, cartoons, models, maps and
photographs. Instructional media encompasses all the materials and physical means an instructor might use to
implement instruction and facilitate students' achievement of instructional objectives. This may include
traditional materials such as chalkboards, handouts, charts, slides, overheads, real objects, and videotape or
film, as well newer materials and methods such as computers, DVDs, CD-ROMs, the Internet, and
interactive video conferencing. Different writers have classified media resources in different ways. Wamalwa
&Wamalwa (2014), for instance, classified media resources for teaching and learning into printed materials,
audio resources, visual resources, audio-visual resources.
Instructional media are generally designed to provide realistic images and substitute experience to
reach curriculum experiences. IM media are considered the most efficient facilitators in the learning and not
a substitutes for the teacher. The use IM however, requires expertise on the part of the teacher who needs to
constantly be informed of the new ideas and techniques to make the lessons presented with different
instructional media achieve effectiveness (Owuso, 2009). Instructional media helps the pupil grasp the
underlying structure of a phenomenon. Visual media are primarily for seeing, audio devices for hearing, and
multi-sensory materials for use via two or more senses.
Several studies done on the effectiveness of media in language teaching indicated that students react
with enthusiasm to the lessons where instructional media is used. Bullough (1978) maintained that in order
for basic concepts to be learned, it is necessary that the individual has direct encounter with instructional
resources, the elements that make up the concepts somewhere in his or her experience. Taylor (2007) as
supported this by arguing that it is insufficient for learners to merely read or write about a topic because the
brain learns best through multi-sensory processing. This means that in order for effective teaching and
learning to take place, as many senses such as hearing, seeing, feeling and tasting as possible, should be
involved in the process. He also asserted that: ‘the brain comprehends complex topics when they are
imbedded in a rich sensory input and it needs multi path, multi model, and multi-sensory experiences to
create as many associations as possible’ p 42. The more complex the topic, the more likely the brain will
master and retain the concept if the learning experience includes rich sensory inputs.
The place of instructional media in the teaching and learning process is undoubtedly essential.
Media are used whenever, in the best judgment of the teacher, it can facilitate learning or increase
understanding of material being presented. It must be noted that different instructional media exist to meet
the different capabilities of learners. They are intended to bring about meaningful understanding and hence
learning. Gabler and Schroeder (2003) cited by Syomwene (2014), avers that these technologies can only be
said to be educational when they are used with activities designed with academic intent. Teachers should thus
be equipped with skills on selection and development of IM so that they utilize those media effective
learning.

3.0 Research Methodology and Design

This section looks at the research philosophical paradigm, the research approach and research method
adopted in the study.

3.1 Research Philosophical Paradigm

The study adopted the interpretivist- constructivist paradigm. To begin with a research paradigm is
defined as a way of looking at the world and interpreting what is studied. It involves how research is carried
out, and the level of involvement and interpretation (Rubin and Robin, 2005). In addition, Creswell, 2007)
defines a paradigm as a general orientation about the world and the nature of research. He further argues that
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the world views are fashioned by the subject of study, beliefs of research supervisors, and past experience. A
research paradigm explains the researcher’s ontological and epistemological inclination. Ontology is the
nature of reality or assumptions about reality or knowledge while Epistemology refers to the way reality is
studied. It is ‘the nature of evidence and knowledge, the rules and principles by which we decide how
knowledge can be demonstrated or a phenomenon known’ (Mason 2002:16).The current study being a
survey of teachers’ cognitions on use of IM, in ELP, is based on the fact that language teaching is an
interactive endeavour between students, teachers and the environment each influencing the learning process
in one way or another. Teachers are also active participants in the teaching learning process who have beliefs
and thoughts about their work and their philosophical orientations shape their classroom pedagogical
practices. A constructive understanding of their world view is best done through the interpretivist-
constructivist paradigm.

3.2 The Qualitative Research approach

The study adopted the qualitative approach. A qualitative research is a study, which is conducted in a
natural setting where the researcher ‘as an instrument of data collection gathers words or pictures, analyzes
them inductively and describes the process in a persuasive and expressive manner (Nsubuga and Katamba
(2013, Donyei (2007). The researcher collected data from the natural setting specifically schools where
participants experience the problem under study. The purpose of using qualitative approach in this study was
to gather in-depth knowledge on teacher cognition and use of instructional media in English language
pedagogy.

3.3 Case Study method

The study investigated 45 participants hence multiple case study method was utilized.

3.4 Data generation instruments

The instruments employed for data generation were: interview, observation, and document analysis.
Ong’ondo (2010), points out that the relativist- intepretivist paradigm works well with qualitative approach,
case study method and data generation process. Participants were interviewed and observed in their natural
contexts. Professional documents such schemes of work and lesson plans analyzed and English language
lessons observed. Data from the three sources was evaluated and organized thematically.

3.5 Sample and sampling procedures

The sample consisted of 45 participants that is fifteen heads of department (languages) 30 teachers of
English from the selected secondary schools. The heads of department (HODs) were selected purposively
while teachers of English were selected using simple random as well as convenient sampling. This was done
to ensure that relevant information is obtained. The information sought was on teacher beliefs, knowledge
and how these influenced their use of IM.

3.6 Data Analysis procedure

With regard to the paradigm adopted in this study that is relativist-interpretivist/constructivist
paradigm, data was analyzed qualitatively. This includes giving descriptions and interpretations of the data
generated through interviews, observation and selected documents. The interview sessions were audio
recorded and transcribed. The data from interview transcripts, lesson observation notes and document
analysis were coded then organized and presented thematically as recommended by (Jwan and
Ongondo2011).

4.0 Findings of the study

The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers’ cognitions on use of instructional media in
English language pedagogy among secondary school teachers of English in Kenya. Data was generated
qualitatively using interviews, lesson observation and document analysis then presented thematically. The
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interview sessions were recorded then transcribed. The information from teachers of English and heads of
department interview transcripts were presented thematically and presented in narrative form. In some cases
the exact words of the participants were presented.

4.1 Teachers Thoughts and Beliefs on the use of IM in English Language Pedagogy.
Here the main purpose was to establish the beliefs and thoughts of TOEs and HODs on the use of IM. As
indicated earlier, thoughts and beliefs are difficult to separate, so, whatever the respondents stated as beliefs
or thoughts, are all put together under this sub theme. From the interviews sessions, the respondents (TOEs
and HODs) attested that IM plays a crucial role in English language teaching (ELT). They indicated that IM
makes teaching of new concepts easy for the learner to comprehend. Apart from making learning of concepts
easy, IM vary stimulus in the lesson and thus makes learners enjoy the lesson. They also indicated that ‘IM is
essential in language teaching for they help vary the teaching methods and enhance learning activity.’ They
generally held the view that when teaching with IM, learners tend to be more enthusiastic in the lesson since
some aspects become self-explanatory. Without IM they said, the lesson becomes flat, and often time
learners lose interest. On the same note, respondents generally consented that IM are essential in ELT
because they reinforce instruction, vary stimulus and hence make learners to not only enjoy the lesson, but
also better their understanding of concepts. They felt that the use of IM speaks a lot more than just a lesson.
It gives learners a whole new experience and breaks monotony in the lesson. This is clearly seen in the words
of one of the respondents as quoted here below:
IM is quite essential in language teaching. It gives the learners an opportunity to experience
a new item. It makes them get excitement in the lesson and generally it enhances learning. It
breaks monotony and gives a spark to a learner. Aids acts as a variety in instructional
process. (TOEEC3).

Teachers further held the belief that IM is beneficial to both the teacher and students. To the teacher, the
respondents reiterated that IM is quite instrumental because it makes it easy for him/her to explain concepts.
The learners are able to visualize what is being taught and this makes the teachers’ work easier, as opposed
to when they rely on abstract explanation of concepts. They agreed that in a classroom there are learners of
mixed abilities and among them are those who need to see things practically before they grasp the content.
The use of IM thus becomes very critical in enabling such learners comprehend concepts.

From the words of one respondent, ‘a good teacher cannot do without IM in the classroom if he/she expects
to meet the needs of all learners.’ In her perception, there are topics which cannot be effectively taught
without the use of a teaching aids such as flash cards, charts, and projectors among others. She continued to
add that ‘some concepts /topics are quite abstract and need to be demonstrated so that the teacher can easily
break down the learning points for the learner to grasp well.’ The importance of IM in ELT can be
summarized in the following excerpt as reported by one of the TOE from a national school:

I believe the use of IM in language teaching is quite important because of integration, media
plays a critical role. It concretizes learning and helps the teacher achieve objectives.
Without IM, you can spend endless time teaching and you don’t achieve the set objectives.
You see, there are topics that are quite abstract, so if you use IM for instance you can draw
a chart, or use a projector, the learners are able to visualize what you are teaching and this
makes them understand better, moreover, the use of IM will break the monotony of the
teacher just talking and learners listening. The media will vary the stimulus and makes
learners more receptive to the lesson. TOEN1

Another popular belief among the responds is that the use of IM is quite valuable when dealing with
beginners, that is, the lower forms (form 1 and form 2) and not the upper classes, (form 3 and form 4). In the
upper forms, teachers are grappling with the completion of the syllabus and preparation for exams and they
may not have time to plan for IM. One of the respondents a TOE at a sub county school reiterated that, he
beliefs that IM will only work well with beginners; that is the lower forms (Form one and Form two).
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According to him, this reduces as one gets to form three and four. In the lower forms, he says, there is need
for the learner to grasp the content but in form three and four as the students gear towards exams, they will
need more of revision and coaching on techniques of answering questions hence little is done on the use of
IM. What he commented on this sub- theme is quoted here below:
We have various levels of learners in high school. That is, learners in Form one and Form
two, and those in Form three and Form four. In Form one and Form two that is
foundational level, where every aid you marshal to teach them, every aid you marshal to
pass instruction or to help them especially in later classes that is Form three and Form four,
where you zero in to examination and past papers become IM. The use of IM often reduces
as I go to Form two, and reduce even further as I get to Form three and four as we gear
towards exams. Actually, the learners tend to understand concepts which I would be
interested in them answering exam questions in Form four. In fact, much of the teaching I do
in Form and two and it actually reduces as I get to form three and four. It is now we gear
towards exams that is in a very honest opinion, not learning. Teaching we do in Form one
and two, and ensure they grasp the content; what we’re teaching. Failure to do this, even
the approach to exam will be a problem. Yes. At higher levels the issue of exams comes in
and so teachers tend to ignore the use of IM and you will realize that the learners on their
part will appreciate the use of IM in lower classes. When it gets to upper classes, they are
not interested in what you use to teach, but what you are teaching them. They are more
interested in how they can answer examination questions. (TOEC1).

Although all the participants concurred that IM is essential in language teaching and should be encouraged at
all levels, some held the opinion that they should only be used with the low achievers because they need to
visualize something before they understand. To them, using IM with the high achievers is a waste of time.
One TOE from a sub county school with such opinion argued that IM are instrumental when dealing with
low achievers. When asked whether IM influences her learners’ understanding of the lesson content, these
were her comments:

I think IM does well with low achievers. If you have students that are low achievers the use
of instructional media can assist them grasp the content, but high achievers are able to
grasp the content without IM. I really advise that they are used with low achievers. When
you have students who are low achievers IM is handy (TOESC5)

One contrary belief on the use of IM was that they are time consuming, especially when one has a heavy
workload. They are time consuming in terms of preparation since some are not readily available. The
respondents with this opinion said that some schools don’t provide IM. They added that other schools have
power problem and this makes it difficult to use modern technology. The excerpt below from one of the
participants testifies to this assertion:
I tend to believe the use of IM is time consuming. Again some of them are not available in
schools hence difficult to plan to use them. Some schools, like my school, has power problem
and using modern technology is sometimes a toll order. Some of these IM are also so
expensive and the schools cannot procure them. I think the last time I used IM effectively
was when I was on TP because when you ask for it you are told to wait and you see the
syllabus does not wait so you end up teaching a lesson you had planned to use IM with just
notes.

A summary of teachers’ thoughts and beliefs on the use of IM is given in table 4.4

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Table 4. 1: Teachers’ thoughts and beliefs on the use of IM in ELT

Positive
 The use of IM makes learning of concepts easy
 The use of IM breaks monotony by creating variety
 The use of IM motivates learners to learn
 The use of IM makes learning of concepts memorable
 The use of IM allows the teacher to break concepts into meaningful parts
 The use of IM motivates learners to learn.
 The use of IM improves learner precipitation in the classroom
 The use of IM improves application skills
The use of IM depends on teachers’ length of service
Negative
 Preparation of IM is time consuming
 IM is only suitable for beginners Form and Form two
 Preparation and use of IM requires skill
 Some IM are quite costly hence difficult for the school to procure.
 The use of IM a preserve of TPTs and novice teachers.
 The use of IM works well with low achievers.

4.2 Influence of Beliefs on Selection and Development of instructional media

From the interviews the teachers specified that the beliefs they hold indeed influence their selection,
development and use of IM in their lessons. One of the respondents pointed out that what one believes;
affects what he or she does. He argued that ‘everything one does or fails to do is anchored on one’s beliefs
and the beliefs a teacher holds about IM will favour selection of certain IM. This was in agreement with the
documents analyzed that is the respondents’ professional documents namely lesson plans and schemes of
work. While preparing schemes of work and lesson plans, teachers indicate the IM to be used in every topic.
However, from the classroom observations done, it was crystal clear that teachers do not actually develop
these resources. Although teachers had them well written out in their schemes of work and lesson plans, a
number of teachers did not actually seem to prepare them. The respondents generally agreed that since they
understood the value of IM in ELT, they plan for their lessons with a view to using IM. However, in most
cases, this ends up at the planning stage but not actualized in the language classroom. This perception was
common across the board, regardless of the category of school. One teacher of English from an extra county
school from an extra county school while responding to this question had this to say:
Well, eh, this influences me positively, since I know that IM is essential, vital, in language
teaching. I do select IM and develop them for my lessons, but not always. To be sincere, it is
just on some occasions that I use IM in the actual lessons. I may plan for them, select, but
when it comes to the actual lesson, I just walk to class often with a piece of chalk and a text
book. Yeah, may depend on how ready I am for the lesson; or sometimes, just how I feel at
that particular time, yeah.TOEEC2

4.3 Influence of Beliefs on Utilization of IM in the Language Classroom

On this sub theme, I sought the participants’ opinions on the use of IM in the language lessons.
Given the fact that they had listed the various types of IM in their schemes of work and lesson plans, I further
probed to ascertain whether these IM were utilized in their lessons. From interview, the participants candidly
stated that they do plan for IM but they rarely use them in their lessons. This was a common position for both
TOEs and HODs. Although the teachers were well aware of the use of IM and they believed that they are
valuable; they attested that they hardly used them in their lessons. Some teachers attributed this to
unavailability of the resources while others just felt it is an unnecessary burden. One of the respondents
stated that ‘IM, is hardly used when teaching English. Some schools, he said, don’t have electricity to enable
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teachers use IT and sometimes it is the lack of computer literacy skills. He confessed that he, personally,
hardly used IM in teaching English.’ Similar sentiments are echoed by other respondents who consent that
IM can be used successively in language teaching but this is not done practically. The excerpt below presents
the voice of a HOD from an Extra Country school:

Well since I believe IM is essential in ELT, I do select IM for my language lessons. While
preparing my schemes of work, I do indicate the IM in the resource column and I ensure
that. Yeah, but to be sincere I may not utilize them for all lessons. I may prepare yes but fail
to use them in the lessons. This may be because of time factor. As a HOD you may have so
many responsibilities and you may fail, may be you have a meeting and the class has begun,
and you are forced to go to class without the IM you had prepared. May be the one you
planned for requires a lot of time so you end up going to class without any IM and life goes
on. Well I can also say that the use of IM requires skill. So adequate training is crucial on
the use of IM. So I believe teachers must be taken through vigorous training in the use of IM
especially after working for some time because sincerely speaking after working for a few
years teachers tend to overlook the benefits of IM as they just go to class with a textbook
and a piece of chalk. As long as the message is delivered they don’t pay attention to IM.
HODEC1

The respondents who said they rarely used IM in their lessons attributed it to unavailability, the
heavy workload, time factor and inadequate training especially with regard to modern technology. From the
lessons observed, it actually emerged that most teachers did not use IM. The few who used them did not use
them effectively. One participant who had prepared to use a chart to teach adverbs, only used the chalkboard
and handed the chart to the class representative after the lesson to display it on the board. These are her
words as he left the class: ‘class prefect, take this, (a chart showing the different types of adjectives) you can
pin it on the board later for the class to see.’ In this case, the IM used did not contribute to the lesson in any
way. It just became a by the way. Although the respondents generally concurred that the utilization of IM
was a challenge, two HODs presented a different opinion. The revelations from the interview schedule were
in congruence with the findings from lesson observation schedule which shows that teachers do not actually
utilize IM effectively in their lessons. Some merely indicated the IM to be used but did not utilize them.
Others used IM at the introduction stage of the lesson but did not do so at the development and conclusion
stages. The findings from the document analyzed namely schemes and lesson plan are also in agreement with
this. These professional documents had IM clearly listed in the resource column. In most of the lessons
observed teachers only used the chalkboard/whiteboard and the textbook. Only a few teachers prepared
charts but they did not use them effectively. The IM used especially the blackboard/whiteboard were
strategically placed but the charts were not placed strategically as they were not clearly visible to the students
at the back of the classroom. This is illustrated by the following comments made during lesson observation
of a teacher of English from a national school (TOEN):

4.0 Discussion of findings

From the findings on the first research question, it is evident that teachers have cognitions about all
pedagogical practices and the use of instructional media in English language pedagogy is not an exception.
The current study revealed that the way teachers utilize IM to some extent is a function of their beliefs,
thoughts and knowledge on IM use. Teachers’ beliefs about IM informed the decisions they make on IM
use. TC here is based on Borg (2006) who views TC as an all-inclusive term that embraces the complexity of
teacher’s mental lives. The current study like other studies on TC as discussed by Borg (2006) examines
what language teachers at any stage of their careers think know and belief. These cognitions in turn shape
how they execute their pedagogical procedures.
In the current study, a number of beliefs on IM were stated by the respondents. The beliefs were
categorized as both positive and negative. (See table 4.3) although the general perception is that teachers’
beliefs influence their actions, classroom observation revealed a mismatch between teacher beliefs and what
they actually do in the classroom. A case in point is a situation where the respondent stated that the IM
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makes learning of concepts easy and memorable but the same respondent did not utilize IM in his lessons.
This is in agreement with Borg (2003) who stated that most studies of TC have endeavored to look at the
congruence and incongruence between teacher beliefs and their actions. However, as Hill (2014) puts it,
often times the mismatch between stated beliefs and actions may be seen as a contradiction of teacher’s
cognition. He adds that instructional practices may be quite complicated especially in structured language
programs and the difference between stated beliefs and instructional practices may be as a result of
curriculum constraints that may not necessarily give teachers an opportunity to connect their beliefs and
practice (Yigitoglu 2011).
This position was evident in the remarks given by some respondents in the current study as they
argued that their inability to use in IM in their lessons successfully as planned was as a result of heavy
workload, lack of support from their institutions they teach in, lack of proper training of the use of IM and
examination pressure. Furthermore, the study revealed that teacher’s perception and beliefs on the use of IM
are developed not only through training, but much of it is also acquired through the long years of experience
both as language learners and language teachers. Schooling as indicated by one of the respondent provided a
platform from which language teachers built their beliefs. One respondent attested that what she does today
in the language classroom is a replication of his primary school teachers’ style of teaching. She stated that
although she had gone through training and also sat in many language classrooms the experience she had
with Mrs. Cosby (not her real name) her primary school teacher of English is such that it feels like yesterday.
(His words). In fact, for some of his teachers along her study ladder, he says, he struggles to remember their
names.
Planning is critical in a successful instructional process. A good teacher must plan for his lessons if
he or she expects to attain the set objectives. In the current study, the respondents were asked to state how the
beliefs they hold on IM influenced their decisions on selection, development and utilization of IM. From the
interviews the study revealed that teacher beliefs in a way impacted on their choice of IM used in the
language lessons. This is agreement with Pajerees (1992) cited in Borg (2006) who remarks that once a belief
has been incorporated into the believe structure of an individual (in this case the teachers) the more it
becomes difficult to alter. But newly acquired beliefs are more vulnerable. This explains why some teachers
would still do things the way their primary and secondary school teachers did.
However, for most respondents, the use of IM was only evident as far as selection and development
is concerned. When it came to actual use of these resources in the classroom the story was different. Majority
of the respondents only stopped at the planning stage. This was evident from the documents analyzed that is
the lesson plans and schemes of work but when it came to actual teaching in the classroom as revealed by
classroom observation very little was done. This echoes the mismatch between cognition and actual
pedagogical process as earlier stated (Hill 2014, Borg 2006).
From the interviews one common belief among the respondents was that the development and
utilization of IM is time consuming given the fact that most of them had to cope with the heavy workload
which not only included the number of lessons to be taught, but also other school responsibilities assigned to
them. From the classroom observation as explained in the finding section above, it was observed that the
respondents mainly used IM that were readily available: the chalkboard. The few who attempted to prepare
IM used the charts, flash cards and newspaper cuttings. Although the respondents had the teaching aids
column of schemes of work filled in the diverse instructional media including the audio visual aids such as
the CDs, projectors, laptops and other technological appliances, only one actually used a computer in his
lessons. Most of the long serving teachers suffered from ‘technophobia’ and confessed that they rarely used
technology in their lessons. This agrees with Dudeney and Hockly (2007) cited by (Suwannasom 2010) who
coined the term ‘technophobe’ to refer to teachers who fear to utilize new technologies. In their view, the
negative attitude exhibited by teachers towards the use of technology is usually as a result of a lack of
confidence, lack of facilities or lack of proper training. This makes such teachers not to see the benefit of
using technology in the language classroom.
The study also revealed that the teachers’ length of service plays a critical role in the development of
teacher’s cognitions on the use of IM. In the current study, it was evident that the long serving teacher (ten
years and above) rarely used IM in their lessons. They attributed this confidence and experience they have
gathered over the years. These teachers felt that they could handle the lessons topic without any assistance
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from the IM and their learners are comfortable. The many responsibilities they shoulder also do not allow
them to prepare and utilize IM. The novice teachers on the other hand are quite at home with technology and
readily used IM in their lessons. This observation however differs from the study conducted by TOJET:
Turkish online journal of Education and Training which revealed that the novice teachers who had received
“state of the art” training in classroom technologies were less comfortable in their implementation than the
more experienced teachers who had no formal training with computers but had a great deal of classroom
experience (Meskil, Mossop Di Angelo and Pasquale 2002).
Although the length of service impacted on the use of IM, the study also revealed that there are a
strand of teachers who would always utilize IM regardless of their length of service, such teachers as one
TOE from an extra county school are always enthusiastic and ready to learn ways of doing things. provision
of IM to the teachers does not assure utilization of the same.. This is in tandem with what was observed in
some schools and from the submissions of HODS. In one school, the school had purchased a laptop and a
projector but surprisingly the language teachers did not utilize them. The laptop had become almost
exclusively a preserve for the science teachers.
Another reason given by the respondents to justify, the minimal utilization of IM by the experienced
teachers is the curriculum. The respondents noted that the curriculum is exam oriented and the experienced
teachers have learnt the rules of the game. They know which areas likely to be tested thus they go for these
particular areas and tackle them since the system rewards those who excel in exams teachers therefore
grapple with drilling learners for exams and the use of IM becomes an unnecessary burden. This explains
why the Novice teachers who are quite excited as they join the service and wish to apply all they learned in
Teacher Education institutions are soon discouraged and also start teaching for exam sake. These teachers are
discouraged by their long serving colleagues who brand them teaching practice follows hereafter TPFs. Even
the long serving teachers who make use of IM are called names and are said to be degenerating into teaching
practice fellows (TPFs)
Research shows that teachers use their long held beliefs and thinking patterns to create instructional
visions: what they think, belief and know about their profession affects their instructional visions Holt
Reyholds, 1992: Freeman, 1992. Lorte, 1978). This observation is made in the current study where
participants carried with them the perceptions developed during their schooling years about the teaching and
learning of English language. And no matter the training they got, they still do things the way their teacher
did it. Hill (2014) concurs when he posits that teacher always already have a comfortable set of beliefs about
their work and could be unaware of the incongruence in their practice or be resistant to growth through
professional development. There is need to encourage them to disentangle from this especially if the beliefs
are detrimental to their teaching practices (emphasis mine).
In the current study there was no connection between the use of IM and the teachers learning. The
use of IM was largely dependent on the teachers own initiative, the structures put in place in the specific
schools, and demands of the employer in this case Teachers Service commission (TSC). The level of
education of teachers had no bearing on the use of IM. In some schools for instance, the teachers who had
furthered their education rarely used IM. Those who have masters in language education, despite having
done a number of courses on selection, developments and utilization of IM never showed any significant
difference in the use of IM from their bachelor’s Degree and Diploma counterparts. In fact, from the words
of one respondent ‘such teachers are too busy, and preoccupied with changing their career, getting into the
university as lecturers and fighting for lucrative positions’. They feel that preparing and using IM is a
preserve for the TPs and Novice teachers”
The respondents further held the belief that the use of IM is suitable for beginners (Form 1 and
Form2) students. The argument here being that the upper classes struggle with completion of the syllabus and
preparation for National Examinations, and the teacher may not have the luxury of time to prepare IM. This
perhaps explains the fact that teachers view the use of IM as a preserve for the novice teachers because they
are normally delegated the lower forms. Again, the respondents posited that the use of IM works well with
low achievers but not the academically endowed students. They argued that the low achievers have a
challenge of grasping the content and the use of IM by language teachers had much to do with attitude
towards ELT and instructional media. One participant noted that English is a wide subject and there is a lot
to be taught. Preparing for the lessons be quite time consuming and as such, the use of IM becomes an
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unnecessary burden. They further revealed that teachers had sufficient knowledge and skills on the use of IM
but the main challenge was utilization of these skills.
It was also observed that schools did not have programs tailored to sensitive teachers on the use of
IM and this perhaps explains why teachers’ use of IM in the language lessons was quite limited. The few
seminars and workshops attended by teachers were generally on the teaching of the literature set texts
especially when new set texts were being introduced. In as much as teachers may be blamed for failing to
utilize IM, lack of support from the institutions contributed to this as it was cited by some of the participants.
Teacher The HODs confirmed that indeed there were no programs put in place to sensitize teachers on the
use of IM and but they just encouraged their members during departmental meetings. Even the seminars and
the workshops organized by the county educations officials do not emphasize on IM.

5. Conclusion
The study concludes that teachers have cognitions on the use of IM in English language pedagogy.
These’ cognitions are formed throughout teachers’ academic and professional life, and they in turn influence
the way they carry out pedagogical practices. Teachers believe that IM are essential in English language
teaching. They attested that they have knowledge and skills on the use of IM. They also believed that IM are
essential in English language pedagogy because they make lessons more enjoyable and understanding of
concepts easy. They further indicated that preparation of IM is time consuming and thus most of them did not
utilize IM in their lessons effectively. The failure to utilize the available IM could be explained by the long
held beliefs teachers have acquired over the years about the use of IM in language pedagogy. The long held
beliefs may concur or contradict with their classroom practices. Teachers’ length of service also came in as a
powerful factor on the use of IM. The study concludes that the long serving teachers used IM less often than
the novice teachers. This could be attributed to the fact that the novice teachers are more at home with
modern technology as opposed to their long serving counterparts.

Recommendation.
Education institutions (universities and teacher training colleges) the Kenyan context; are mandated with
teacher preparation. They should be aware of the fact that teachers carry their own beliefs, knowledge and
experiences’ that they have acquired throughout their schooling life into their teacher training be it pre-
service or in service. These beliefs should be factored into the LTE programs in order to improve their
efficacy. Teachers of English should also endeavor to utilize IM in their lessons in order to make concepts
easily understood by the learners.

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