SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNLOGISTS

MODULE

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOTMENT | 3 HOURS

OVERVIEW
This module presents the water physical and chemical properties and its OBJECTIVES
different kinds. In this lesson, the students will learn and understand
these water properties and kinds by examining how they impact Earth’s 1) Identify and discuss the physical
life forms, processes and systems. and chemical properties of water;
2) Explain and outline the different
LEARNING PLAN kinds of water
The following activities will be required for you to complete this module:

TERMINOLOGIES
1) Read the information
2) Answer the assessment and submit the required task accordingly

COHESION. The attraction water

molecule to water
PRETEST
ADHESION. The attraction of water
TRUE OR FALSE: Answer the following questions. Write True if the molecules to another substance
statement is correct and False if the statement is not correct. SURFACE TENSION. The property of the
__________ 1) Water contracts (gets smaller) when it freezes. surface of a liquid that allows it to resist
__________ 2) Water has a high surface tension. an external force, due to the cohesive
__________ 3) Condensation is water coming out of the air. nature of its molecules.
__________ 4) More things can be dissolved in sulfuric acid than in water. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. Ones that we
__________ 5) Rainwater is the purest form of water. can observe without chemically changing
__________ 6) To accurately read water height in a glass rain gauge, you read a substance.
the center of the water column, not the edge (meniscus) where
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. Describe how
the water meets the glass.
a substance reacts with other substances.
__________ 7) You can float a paper clip on top of water if you very carefully
These can be observed as the substance
place it flat on the water surface because of the molecular skin
created by the interaction of air molecules with the top layer of changes.
water molecules on the surface. HEAT CAPACITY. Defined by the amount
__________ 8) Sea water is slightly more basic (the pH value is higher) than of heat needed to raise the temperature
most natural fresh water. of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree
__________ 9) Raindrops are tear-shaped. Celsius (°C).
__________ 10) Water boils at a lower temperature at high altitude than at the
beach. HEAT OF VAPORIZATION. This is the
amount of energy to convert 1g or a
__________ 11) If the relative humidity of the air is 100%, then water will not
evaporate into the air. substance from a liquid to a gas.
__________ 12) A lightning storm is more dangerous to someone swimming in TURBIDITY. The measure of relative
pool water than it is to someone swimming in salty ocean water. clarity of a liquid
__________ 13) Rainbows have colors because the raindrops act as mirrors and
reflect light directly back to you. DENSITY. The mass per unit volume of a
substance.
__________ 14) A water molecule is "polar" because it looks like a seesaw: The
oxygen atom is in the middle and hydrogen atoms are at ALKALINITY. The buffering capacity of a
opposite ends of the oxygen atom water body; a measure of the ability of
__________ 15) Seawater is toxic to drink because your kidneys cannot get the water body to neutralize acids and
enough freshwater to produce enough urine to dilute the bases and thus maintain a fairly stable pH
additional salt in your body to get rid of the excess salt.
level"

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 1

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

INTRODUCTION
As presented in module 1, indeed humans live on a planet that is
dominated by water. In fact, more than 70 % of the Earth's surface is
covered with it. Hence, water is everywhere, from huge oceans to
invisible water molecules making up water vapor in the air. Freshwater is
a primary resource for all terrestrial life on this planet. Water is important
for the facilitation of most biotic and abiotic environmental processes.
Humans use water for basic survival and require water for use in
industry, agriculture, transportation, and electrical power generation. Of
course, you can see and feel the physical properties of water, but there
are also many chemical, electrical, and atomic-scale properties of water
that affect all life and substances on Earth.

WATER FACTS
Water is unique in that it is the only natural substance that is found in all
three physical states - liquid, solid, and gas - at the temperatures
normally found on Earth.
 Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit (F) and boils at 212°F (at sea level,
but 186.4° at 14,000 feet).
 Water is unusual in that the solid form, ice, is less dense than the
liquid form, which is why ice floats.
 Water is called the "universal solvent" because it dissolves more
substances than any other liquid. This means that wherever water
goes, either through the ground or through our bodies, it takes
along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech Data source:
NASA's Earth Observatory
 Pure water has a neutral pH of 7, which is neither acidic (less than
7) nor basic (greater than 7).
 The water molecule is highly cohesive — it is very sticky, meaning
water molecules stick to each other. Water is the most cohesive
among the non-metallic liquids.
 The water molecule is highly adhesive — it is very sticky, meaning
water molecules tend to stick to molecules of other substances.
 Pure water, which you won't ever find in the natural environment,
does not conduct electricity. Water becomes a conductor once it
starts dissolving substances around it.
 Water has a high heat index—it absorbs a lot of heat before it
begins to get hot. This is why water is valuable to industries and in
your car's radiator as a coolant. The high heat index of water also
helps regulate the rate at which air changes temperature, which is
why the temperature change between seasons is gradual rather
than sudden, especially near the oceans.
 Water has a very high surface tension. In other words, water is
sticky and elastic, and tends to clump together in drops rather than
spread out in a thin film, like rubbing alcohol. Surface tension is
responsible for capillary action, which allows water (and its
dissolved substances) to move through the roots of plants and
through the tiny blood vessels in our bodies.
 The density of water means that sound moves through it long
distances (ask a whale!). In sea water at 30°C, sound has a velocity
of 1,545 meters per second (about 3,500 miles per hour).

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 2

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

 Air pressure affects the boiling point of water, which is why it takes
longer to boil an egg at high altitude than at the beach. The higher
the altitude, the lower the air pressure, the lower the boiling point
of water, and thus, the longer time to hard-boil an egg. At sea level
water boils at 212°F (100°C), while at 5,000 feet, water boils at
202.9°F (94.9 °C).

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Let us have a bit of review before we proceed to the main discussion in
this module.
A property is a characteristic that we can use to help us identify a
person, place, or thing. This is not only a term used in chemistry, but one
that is used commonly in other areas. Describing how your friends,
place, or yourself requires referring to the properties of your friends,
place or yourself. In chemistry, there are two types of properties we
use—chemical properties and physical properties.
Physical Properties are ones that we can observe without chemically
changing a substance. For example, the hardness and color of a
substance are both physical properties. No new substances are formed
when we make these observations. Remember that physical properties
FIGURE 1 & 2. The atomic structure of a water
can also be either qualitative (such as the color of gold being yellow or
molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms joined to
copper metal being shiny/lustrous) or quantitative (such as the density one oxygen (O) atom. The unique way in which the
of H2O being 1.0 g/cm3 and the melting point of H2O being 0° C). There hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom
are three physical properties that we will study in more detail: density, causes one side of the molecule to have a negative
charge and the area in the opposite direction to have a
compressibility, and diffusion. positive charge. The resulting polarity of charge causes
Chemical Properties describe how a substance reacts with other molecules of water to be attracted to each other
forming strong molecular bonds.
substances. As the substance changes, these types of properties can be
observed. Examples include rusting and creating gas bubbles.
Remember that chemical properties can be either qualitative (descriptive
information based on an observation of physical characteristics) or
quantitative (numerical information). An example of a qualitative
chemical property is when a pyrotechnic colorant like calcium chloride is
added to a firecracker to make an orange flame. An example of a
quantitative chemical property is how much time it takes for gas bubbles
to form when baking soda and vinegar are mixed together (which may
take six seconds).
As discussed in module 1, water has a very simple atomic structure. This
structure consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom
(Figure 1). The nature of the atomic structure of water causes its
molecules to have unique electrochemical properties. The hydrogen side
of the water molecule has a slight positive charge (Figure 2). On the
other side of the molecule a negative charge exists. This molecular
polarity causes water to be a powerful solvent and is responsible for its
strong surface tension. Water is not ... just water
Looking at water, you might think that it's the simplest
thing around. Pure water is practically colorless,
odorless, and tasteless. But it's not at all simple and
plain and it is vital for all life on Earth. Learn about the
properties of the most fundamental substance on
Earth.
Credit: Dreastime. Creative Commons

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 3

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF WATER

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. ADHESION AND COHESION
Adhesion: Water is attracted to other substances
Cohesion: Water is attracted to water
Adhesion and cohesion are water properties that affect every
water molecule on Earth and also the interaction of water
molecules with molecules of other substances. Essentially,
cohesion and adhesion are the "stickiness" that water molecules
have for each other and for other substances.
A water drop is composed of water molecules that like to stick
together-an example of the property of cohesion. In the picture of
pine needles (see Figure 3), the water droplets are stuck to the end
of the pine needles-an example of the property of adhesion. Also
noticeable in this picture is the effect that gravity has on the water
drops. Gravity is working against both adhesion and cohesion,
trying to pull the water drop downward. Adhesion and cohesion
are winning the battle so far, as the drops are sticking to the pine
needles.

COHESION
If you just look at the picture of the water drop sitting of the leaf Figure 3. Pine needles with droplets of water
Credit: J. Schmidt, National Park Service
(see Figure 4), you might think the water drop has a "skin" holding
it into a sort of flattened sphere. It turns out that this surface
tension is the result of the tendency of water molecules to attract
one another. The natural form of a water drop occurs during the
"lowest energy state", the state where the atoms in the molecule
are using the least amount of energy.
For water, this state happens when a water molecule is surrounded
on all sides by other water molecules, which creates a sphere or
ball (perfectly round if it was in outer space). On Earth, the effect
of gravity flattens this ideal sphere into the drop shape we see.
Although you may have heard of a "skin" where water meets the
air, this is not really an accurate description, as there is nothing
other than water in the drop.
The cohesive property of water creates attraction between Figure 4. Water drop sitting on the leaf
particles of the same substance (why water is attracted to itself).
The resulting effect of this attraction is surface tension (a measure
of the strength of water’s surface). This is a result of the tendency
of water molecules to attract to one another, or cohere, at the
surface of any accumulation of water. It produces a surface film on
water that allows insects to walk on the surface of water. (see
Figure 5)

ADHESION
Adhesion is the attraction of water molecules to another
substance. Water is highly cohesive—it is the highest of the non-
metallic liquids. Water is sticky and clumps together into drops Figure 5. Water strider can stand on the surface
because of its cohesive properties, but chemistry and electricity of water without sinking due to surface tension

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 4

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

are involved at a more detailed level to make this possible. More

precisely, the positive and negative charges of the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms that make up water molecules makes them
attracted to each other. If you've played with bar magnets you will
know that the north pole of one magnet will repel the north pole
of another magnet, but it will attract the south pole of another
magnet. Opposite magnetic poles attract one another much like
positively charged atoms attract negatively charged atoms in
water molecules.

In other words, adhesion property of water allows it to make

hydrogen bonds with other surfaces such as glass, soil, plant
tissues, and cotton. Example of this is the capillary action of water
molecules that “tow” each other along when in a thin glass tube.
The transpiration process which plants and trees remove water Capillary Action .....in Action!
from the soil, and paper towels soak up water. Without capillary action, the water level in all tubes
would be the same. Smaller diameter tubes have more
relative surface area inside the tube, allowing capillary
CAPILLARY ACTION action to pull water up higher than in the larger
diameter tubes. Credit: Dr. Keith Hayward
Capillary action is all around us every day.
 Even if you've never heard of capillary action, it is still
important in your life. Capillary action is important for moving
water (and all of the things that are dissolved in it) around. It is
defined as the movement of water within the spaces of a
porous material due to the forces of adhesion, cohesion,
and surface tension.
 Capillary action occurs because water is sticky, thanks to the
forces of cohesion (water molecules like to stay close
together) and adhesion (water molecules are attracted and
stick to other substances). Adhesion of water to the walls of a
vessel will cause an upward force on the liquid at the edges
and result in a meniscus which turns upward. The surface
tension acts to hold the surface intact. Capillary action occurs
when the adhesion to the walls is stronger than the cohesive
forces between the liquid molecules. The height to which
capillary action will take water in a uniform circular tube is
limited by surface tension and, of course, gravity.
 Not only does water tend to stick together in a drop, it sticks
to glass, cloth, organic tissues, soil, and, luckily, to the fibers in
a paper towel. Dip a paper towel into a glass of water and the
water will "climb" onto the paper towel. In fact, it will keep
going up the towel until the pull of gravity is too much for it
to overcome.
 If you dip a paper towel in water, you will see it "magically"
climb up the towel, appearing to ignore gravity. You are
seeing capillary action in action, and "climbing up" is about
right - the water molecules climb up the towel and drag other
water molecules along.
 Plants and trees couldn't thrive without capillary action. Plants
put down roots into the soil which are capable of carrying
water from the soil up into the plant. Water, which contains
dissolved nutrients, gets inside the roots and starts climbing
up the plant tissue. Capillary action helps bring water up into
the roots. But capillary action can only "pull" water up a small
distance, after which it cannot overcome gravity. To get water

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 5

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

up to all the branches and leaves, the forces of adhesion and

cohesion go to work in the plant's xylem to move water to the
furthest leaf. Figure 6.
A meniscus is formed in
 Capillary action is also essential for the drainage of constantly a buret.
produced tear fluid from the eye. Two tiny-diameter tubes, the Credit:
lacrimal ducts, are present in the inner corner of the eyelid; http://www.uky.edu/~holler/surv
ey/ch226_buret.html
these ducts secrete tears into the eye,
 Maybe you've used a fountain pen .... or maybe your parents
or grandparents did. The ink moves from a reservoir in the
body of the pen down to the tip and into the paper (which is
composed of tiny paper fibers and air spaces between them),
and not just turning into a blob. Of course, gravity is
responsible for the ink moving "downhill" to the pen tip, but
capillary action is needed to keep the ink flowing onto the
paper.

WATER MENISCUS
A meniscus is a curve in the surface of a molecular substance
(water, of course) when it touches another material. With water,
you can think of it as when water sticks to the inside of a glass.
(See Figure 6)

Why a meniscus occurs?

Adhesion is responsible for a meniscus and this has to do in part
with water's fairly high surface tension. Water molecules are
attracted to the molecules in the wall of the glass beaker. And
since water molecules like to stick together, when the molecules
touching the glass cling to it, other water molecules cling to the
molecules touching the glass, forming the meniscus. They'll travel
up the glass as far as water's cohesive forces will allow them, until
gravity prevents them from going further. Cohesion is an
intermolecular attraction between like molecules (other water
molecules in this case).

2.WATER COLOR
Is pure water really clear? Not really—even pure water is not
colorless, but has a slight blue tint to it. In the natural world you
often see water that is definitely not clear. Sediment and organics
color natural water shades of brown or green. And if too much
iron in present, even your drinking water can have a brown hue.
Read on to investigate water color in the environment.
It may be true that a bit of color in water may not make it harmful
to drink ... but it certainly makes it unappealing to drink. So, color
in our water does matter when it comes to drinking it, as well as in
water for other home uses, industrial uses, and in some aquatic
environments.

Color and Drinking Water

If you have ever drunk water containing a bit of iron in it, you
would know from the metallic taste left in your mouth. Dissolved
chemicals in drinking water can be less than desirable. Color in
drinking water can be caused by dissolved and suspended
materials, and a brown shade in water often comes from rust in

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 6

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

the water pipes. Although water can contain contaminants, which

are usually removed by water-supply systems, the plus side is that
the water you drink likely contains a number of dissolved minerals
that are beneficial for human health. And, if you have ever drunk
"pure" water, such as distilled or deionized water, you would have
noticed that it tasted "flat". Most people prefer water with
dissolved minerals, although they still want it to be clear.
Have you ever gotten a glass of water from your faucet and the
water is milky white water or hazy? This is almost always caused by
air in the water.

An indoor swimming pool appears blue from above. as

light reflecting from the bottom of the pool travels
through enough water that its red component is
absorbed. The same water in a smaller bucket appears
colorless.

Air bubbles and pressure in water lines can make your drinking
water look cloudy.... for a few seconds. This is a natural
phenomenon and is caused by dissolved air in the water that is
released when the faucet is opened. When you relieve the
pressure by opening the faucet and filling your glass with water,
the air is now free to escape from the water, giving it a milky
appearance for a few minutes.

Pure Water and Color

Is pure water really clear? First, you won't find truly pure water in a
natural setting. The water you see every day contains dissolved
minerals and often suspended materials. But, for practical
purposes, if you fill a glass from your faucet the water will look
colorless to you. The water is in fact not colorless; even pure water
is not colorless, but has a slight blue tint to it, best seen when
looking through a long column of water.
The blueness in water is not caused by the scattering of
light, which is responsible for the sky being blue. Rather, water
blueness comes from the water molecules absorbing the red end
of the spectrum of visible light. To be even more detailed, the
absorption of light in water is due to the way the atoms vibrate
and absorb different wavelengths of light.

Color and Water in the Environment

Color in water you see around you can be imparted in two ways:
dissolved and suspended components. An example of dissolved
substances is tannin, which is caused by organic matter coming
from leaves, roots, and plant remains (see Figure 7). Another
example would be the cup of hot tea your grandmother has in the
afternoon. In the picture below the color is probably attributable
to naturally dissolved organic acids formed when plant material is
slowly broken down by into tiny particles that are essentially
dissolved in the water. If you filtered that tannin-water in the
picture the color would probably remain. Figure 7. Color caused by dissolved matter: tannins

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 7

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

Most of the color in water you see around you comes from
suspended material (see Figure 8) of a tributary contributing
highly-turbid water containing suspended sediment (fine particles
of clay) to clearer, but still colored, water in the main stem of the
river. Algae and suspended sediment particles are very common
particulate matter that cause natural waters to become colored.
Even though the muddy water would not be appealing to swim in,
in a way that water has less color than the water containing
dissolved tannins. That is because suspended matter can be
filtered out of even very dirty-looking water. If the water is put into
a glass and left to settle for a number of days, most of the material
Figure 8. Color caused by suspended matter:
will settle to the bottom (this method is used in sewage-treatment sediment
facilities) and the water will become clearer and have less color. Natural water will never be totally clear, but
So, if an industry needed some color-free water for an industrial will have some amount of color
process, they would probably prefer sediment-laden water
over tannin colored water.
Suspended material in water bodies may be a result of natural
causes and/or human activity. Transparent water with a low
accumulation of dissolved materials appears blue. Dissolved
organic matter, such as humus, peat or decaying plant matter, can
produce a yellow or brown color. Some algae or dinoflagellates
produce reddish or deep yellow waters. Water rich in
phytoplankton and other algae usually appears green. Soil runoff
produces a variety of yellow, red, brown and gray colors.

Water Sediment and Suspended Sediment

Water is nature is never really totally clear, especially in surface
water, such as rivers and lakes. Water has color and some extent
of dissolved and suspended material, usually dirt particles High dissolved iron in the tap water has, over
time, stained the porcelain in the sink.
(suspended sediment). Suspended sediment is an important factor Credits: The Water Clinic
in determining the quality of water.
Storms, of course, deliver large amounts of water to a river, but
did you know they also bring along lots of eroded soil and debris
from the surrounding landscape? Rocks as small as tiny clay
particles and larger that are moved by the water are called
sediment. Fast-moving water can pick up, suspend, and move
larger particles more easily than slow-moving waters. This is why
rivers are more muddy-looking during storms—they are carrying a
lot more sediment than they carry during a low-flow period. In
fact, so much sediment is carried during storms that over one-half
of all the sediment moved during a year might be transported
during a single storm period.
If you scoop up some muddy river water in a glass you are viewing
the suspended sediment in the water. If you leave your glass in a
quiet spot for a while the sediment will start to settle to the
bottom of the glass. The same thing happens in rivers in spots
where the water is not moving so quickly—much of the
suspended sediment falls to the stream bed to become bottom
sediment (yes, mud). The sediment may build up on the bottom or
it may get picked up and suspended again by swift-moving water
to move further downstream.
So, what does this have to do with people? On the positive side,
sediment deposited on the banks and flood plains of a river is
often mineral-rich and makes excellent farmland. On the negative

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 8

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

side, when rivers flood, they leave behind many tons of wet, sticky,
heavy, and smelly mud—not something you would want in your
basement. Sediment in rivers can also shorten the lifespan of dams
and reservoirs. When a river is dammed and a reservoir is created,
the sediments that used to flow along with the relatively fast-
moving river water are, instead, deposited in the reservoir. This
happens because the river water flowing through the reservoir
moves too slowly to keep sediment suspended -- the sediment
settles to the bottom of the reservoir. Reservoirs slowly fill up with
sediment and mud, eventually making them unusable for their
intended purposes.

TURBIDITY AND WATER

Lucky for us all, our drinking water is almost always clear (very low
turbidity). Other water, such as the creek behind your house after
a rainstorm, is likely to be highly turbid—brown with floating
sediment. Turbidity is the clarity of water and it is an important
factor in water quality
Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid. It is an
optical characteristic of water and is a measurement of the
amount of light that is scattered by material in the water when a
light is shined through the water sample. The higher the intensity
of scattered light, the higher the turbidity. Material that causes
water to be turbid include clay, silt, very tiny inorganic and organic
matter, algae, dissolved colored organic compounds, and plankton Turbidity is measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units
and other microscopic organisms. (NTU). These bottles show various turbidity levels.

Turbidity makes water cloudy or opaque. During periods of low

flow (base flow), many rivers are a clear green color, and
turbidities are low, usually less than 10NTU. During a rainstorm,
particles from the surrounding land are washed into the river
making the water a muddy brown color, indicating water that has
higher turbidity values. Also, during high flows, water velocities are
faster and water volumes are higher, which can more easily stir up
and suspend material from the stream bed, causing higher
turbidities.

Turbidity and Water Quality

High concentrations of particulate matter affect light penetration
and ecological productivity, recreational values, and habitat
quality, and cause lakes to fill in faster. In streams,
increased sedimentation and siltation can occur, which can result
in harm to habitat areas for fish and other aquatic life. Particles
also provide attachment places for other pollutants, notably
metals and bacteria. For this reason, turbidity readings can be
used as an indicator of potential pollution in a water body.

Turbidity and Human Health

Excessive turbidity, or cloudiness, in drinking water is aesthetically
unappealing, and may also represent a health concern. Turbidity
can provide food and shelter for pathogens. If not removed, the
causes of high turbidity can promote regrowth of pathogens in
the water, leading to waterborne disease outbreaks, which have
caused significant cases of intestinal sickness. Although turbidity is
not a direct indicator of health risk, numerous studies show a

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 9

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

strong relationship between removal of turbidity and removal of

protozoa. The particles of turbidity provide "shelter" for microbes
by reducing their exposure to attack by disinfectants. Microbial
attachment to particulate material has been considered to aid in
microbe survival. Fortunately, traditional water treatment
processes have the ability to effectively remove turbidity when
operated properly. (Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)

Effects of Water Color on Ecosystems

Highly colored water has significant effects on aquatic plants and
algal growth. Light is very critical for the growth of aquatic plants
and colored water can limit the penetration of light. Thus, a highly
colored body of water could not sustain aquatic life which could
lead to the long-term impairment of the ecosystem. Very high
algal growth that stays suspended in a water body can prevent
light penetration as well as use up the dissolved oxygen in the
water body, causing a eutrophic condition that can drastically
reduce all life in the water body. At home, colored water may stain
textile and fixtures and can cause permanent damage, as the
picture of the sink shows.

3. WATER COMPRESSIBILITY
Water is essentially incompressible, especially under normal
conditions. Yet, in industrial applications water can be
tremendously compressed and used to do things like cut through Being incompressible, water makes a handy and useful
metal. tool for people to do work (and have fun). Water
incompressibility allows fire hoses to work, makes
hydraulically-driven tools to function, and for kids to
It is hard to "put the squeeze" on water have fun running underneath a fountain that shoots
out water (under pressure). Credit: Joe Mabel
Water is essentially incompressible, especially under normal
conditions. If you fill a sandwich bag with water and put a straw
into it, when you squeeze the baggie the water won't compress,
but rather will shoot out the straw. If the water compressed, it
wouldn't "push back" out of the straw. Incompressibility is a
common property of liquids, but water is especially
incompressible.
Water's lack of compressibility helps to push water out of water
hoses (handy for putting out fires), water guns and in artistic water
fountains. In these instances, some pressure is applied to a
container full of water and rather than compress, it comes
shooting out of an opening, such as the end of the hose or the
end of a small pipe, as in this fountain. If water was highly A waterjet computer-controlled cutting machine using
compressible, it would be harder to create enough pressure for high pressure water to make a decorative pattern in a
water to shoot out of the nearest opening. piece of metal. Credit: Steve Brown Photography

Kids make good use of water's uncompressibility when they play a

game of water-balloon tossing. When you squeeze the balloon
too much, the balloon's skin will fail before the water inside
compresses—it will burst in your face long before the water will
compress even an infinitesimal amount.

Pressure and Temperature can Affect Compressibility

But, squeeze hard enough and water will compress—shrink in size
and become more dense but not by very much. Envision the water
a mile deep in the ocean. At that depth, the weight of the water
above, pushing downwards, is about 150 times normal

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 10

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

atmospheric pressure (Source: University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign Ask the Van). Even with this much pressure, water only TEMPERATURE DENSITY WEIGHT
compresses less than one percent. (°F/°C) (grams/cm3 (pounds/ft3)

Yet, in industrial applications water can be tremendously 32°F/0°C 0.99987 62.416

compressed and used to do things like cut through metal
(especially if an abrasive material is added to the water and the 39.2°F/4.0°C 1.00000 62.424
water is hot). Water being pushed out at tremendous speed
through a tiny hole is used in industry to cut through everything 40°F/4.4°C 0.99999 62.423
from metal to ceramics to plastics and even foods. It is the
preferred method when the materials being cut are sensitive to 50°F/10°C 0.99975 62.408
the high temperatures generated by other methods. It has found
applications in a diverse number of industries from mining to 60°F/15.6°C 0.99907 62.366
aerospace where it is used for operations such as cutting, shaping,
70°F/21°C 0.99802 62.300
carving, and reaming. Of course, to cut through stone a stream of
water must be moving very fast and producing a tremendous 80°F/26.7°C 0.99669 62.217
amount of pressure. A pump is used to pressurize water in a
container at pressure values up to 90,000 pounds/square inch (psi) 90°F/32.2°C 0.99510 62.118
and then shoot it out of the nozzle at speeds up to 600 mph.
(Source: NASA). 100°F/37.8°C 0.99318 61.998

4. WATER DENSITY 120°F/48.9°C 0.98870 61.719

If you're still in school, you've probably heard this statement in 140°F/60°C 0.98338 61.386
your science class: "Density is the mass per unit volume of a
substance". On Earth, you can assume mass is the same as weight, 160°F/71.1°C 0.97729 61.006
if that makes it easier. If you're not still in school, then you
180°F/82.2°C 0.97056 60.586
probably forgot you ever even heard it. The definition of density,
makes a lot more sense with a little bit of explanation. As long as
200°F/93.3°C 0.96333 60.135
an object is made up of molecules, and thus has size or mass, it
has a density. 212°F/100°C 0.95865 59.843
Density is just the weight for a chosen amount (volume) of the
Table 1. Water’s Density in Varying Temperatures
material. A common unit of measurement for water's density is
gram per milliliter (1 g/ml) or 1 gram per cubic centimeter (1
g/cm3). Actually, the exact density of water is not really 1 g/ml,
but rather a bit less (very, very little less), at 0.9998395 g/ml at 4.0°
Celsius (39.2° Fahrenheit). The rounded value of 1 g/ml is what
you'll most often see, though. See Table 1 for the density of water
in varying temperatures.

Ice is Less Dense than Water

If you look at Figure 9 you can see that some of the iceberg is
below the water level. This is not a surprise, but actually almost all
of the volume of an iceberg is below the water line, not above it.
This is due to ice's density being less than liquid water's density.
Upon freezing, the density of ice decreases by about 9 percent.
The best way to visualize how water can have different densities is
to look at the frozen form of water. Ice actually has a very different
structure than liquid water, in that the molecules align themselves
in a regular lattice rather than more randomly as in the liquid
form. It happens that the lattice arrangement allows water Figure 9. Most of an iceberg exists below the water
surface
molecules to be more spread out than in a liquid, and, thus, ice is
less dense than water. Again, lucky for us, as we would not hear
that delightful tinkle of ice cubes against the side of a glass if the
ice in our ice tea sank to the bottom. The density of ice is about 90
percent that of water, but that can vary because ice can contain

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 11

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

air, too. That means that about 10 percent of an ice cube (or
iceberg) will be above the water line.
This property of water is critical for all life on earth. Since water at
about 39°F (4°C) is denser than water at 32°F (0°C), in lakes and
other water bodies the denser water sinks below less-dense water.
If water was most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the
very cold water at the surface of lakes would sink, the lake could
freeze from the bottom up. And, with water being such a good
insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not
totally thaw in summer.
The real-world explanation of water density is actually more
complicated, as the density of water also varies with the amount
of material that is dissolved in it. Water in nature contains
minerals, gasses, salts, and even pesticides and bacteria, some of
which are dissolved. As more material is dissolved in a gallon of
water then that gallon will weigh more and be more dense—
ocean water is denser than pure water.

We said ice floats on water, but what about "heavy ice"?

We already said ice floats on water because it is less dense, but ice
of a special kind can be denser than normal water. "Heavy ice" is
10.6 percent denser than normal water because the ice is made
from "heavy water". Heavy water, D2O instead of H2O, is water in
which both hydrogen atoms have been replaced with deuterium,
the isotope of hydrogen containing one proton and one neutron.
Heavy water is indeed heavier than normal water (which contains
a tiny amount of heavy water molecules naturally), and heavy-
water ice will sink in normal water.

Measuring Density Heavy ice cubes sink to the bottom of a glass of water
while the normal cubes float. Credit: Mike Walker
The instrument to measure the density of a liquid is called a
hydrometer. More often, though, it is made of glass and looks a
lot like a thermometer. It consists of a cylindrical stem and a
weighted bulb at the bottom to make it float upright. The
hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid to be measured until
the hydrometer floats freely. There are etched or marked lines on
the device so the user can see how high or low the hydrometer is
floating. In less dense liquids the hydrometer will float lower, while
in more dense liquids it will float higher. Since water is the
"standard" by which other liquids are measured, the mark for
water is probably labeled as "1.000"; hence, the specific gravity of
water at about 4°C is 1.000. (see Figure 10)

Use of Hydrometer Figure 10. A hydrometer is used to measure density of

a liquid.
Hydrometers have many uses, not the least being to measure the
salinity of water for science classes in schools. They are also used Credits:
https://www.essentialdistilling.com/resources/how-to-use-a-hydrometer
in the dairy industry to get estimates of the fat content of milk, as https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-
density?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
milk with higher fat content will be less dense than lower-fat milk.
Hydrometers are often used by people who make beer and wine
at home, as it offers an indication of how much sugar is in the
liquid, and lets the brewer know how far along the fermentation
process has gone.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 12

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

5. HEAT CAPACITY
Water has a high heat capacity; it absorbs a lot of heat before it
begins to get hot. You may not know how that affects you, but the
heat capacity of water has a huge role to play in the Earth's
climate and helps determine the habitability of many places
around the globe.
Specific heat is defined by the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree Celsius (°C). Water
has a high specific heat capacity which we'll refer to as simply
"heat capacity", meaning it takes more energy to increase the
temperature of water compared to other substances. Water resists
temperature change, both for heating and cooling. Water can
absorb or release large amounts of heat energy with little change
in actual temperature.
This is why water is valuable to industries and in your car's radiator
as a coolant. The high heat capacity of water also helps regulate
the rate at which air changes temperature, which is why the
temperature change between seasons is gradual rather than
sudden, especially near the oceans.
This same concept can be expanded to a world-wide scale. The
oceans and lakes help regulate the temperature ranges that
billions of people experience in their towns and cities. Water
surrounding or near cities take longer to heat up and longer to
cool down than do land masses, so cities near the oceans will tend
to have less change and less extreme temperatures than inland
cities.

Heat of Vaporization
Water has a high Heat of Vaporization. This is the amount of
energy to convert 1g or a substance from a liquid to a gas. In
order for water to evaporate, hydrogen bonds must be broken. As
water evaporates, it removes a lot of heat with it. Water's heat of
vaporization is 540 cal/g. In order for water to evaporate, each
gram must gain 540 calories (temperature doesn’t change ---
100oC). As water evaporates, it removes a lot of heat with it
(cooling effect).

Why Heat Capacity is important?

The high heat capacity of water has a great deal to do with
regulating extremes in the environment. For instance, the fish in
the pond (see Figure 11) are indeed happy because the heat
capacity of the water in the pond means the temperature of the
water will stay relatively the same from day to night. They don't
have to worry about either turning on the air conditioner or
putting on their woolen flipper gloves.
Lucky for me, you, and the fish in the pond in Figure 11, water
does indeed have a very high heat capacity. One of water's most
significant properties is that it takes a lot of heat to it to make it
get hot. Precisely, water has to absorb 4,184 Joules of heat (1
Figure 11. Fish in the pond Credit: LENA15 | pixabay.com
calorie) for the temperature of one kilogram of water to increase
1°C. For comparison sake, it only takes 385 Joules of heat to raise
1 kilogram of copper 1°C.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 13

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

5. WATER TEMPERATURE and

VAPOR PRESSURE
Water temperature plays an important role in almost all water
science. Water temperature exerts a major influence on biological
activity and growth, has an effect on water chemistry, can
influence water quantity measurements, and governs the kinds of
organisms that live in water bodies.

Significance of Water Temperature

Temperature exerts a major influence on biological activity and
growth. Temperature governs the kinds of organisms that can live
in rivers and lakes. Fish, insects, zooplankton, phytoplankton, and
other aquatic species all have a preferred temperature range. As
temperatures get too far above or below this preferred range, the
number of individuals of the species decreases until finally there
are none.
Temperature is also important because of its influence on water
chemistry. The rate of chemical reactions generally increases at
higher temperature. Water, particularly groundwater, with higher
temperatures can dissolve more minerals from the surrounding
rock and will therefore have a higher electrical conductivity. It is
the opposite when considering a gas, such as oxygen, dissolved in
the water. Think about how much "bubblier" a cold soda is
compared to a warm one. The cold soda can keep more of the
carbon dioxide bubbles dissolved in the liquid than the warm one
can, which makes it seem fizzier when you drink it.
Warm stream water is can affect the aquatic life in the stream.
Warm water holds less dissolved oxygen than cool water, and may
not contain enough dissolved oxygen for the survival of different
species of aquatic life. Some compounds are also more toxic to
aquatic life at higher temperatures.

Vapor Pressure and Water

The vapor pressure of a liquid is the point at which equilibrium
pressure is reached, in a closed container, between molecules
leaving the liquid and going into the gaseous phase and
molecules leaving the gaseous phase and entering the liquid
phase.
With any body of water, water molecules are always both
evaporating and condensing. The vapor pressure of water is the
pressure at which the gas phase is in equilibrium with the liquid
phase. The high surface tension of water (water "sticks" to itself, so
it doesn't "want to" evaporate) means water has a low vapor
pressure.

An Explanation of Vapor Pressure

Vapor pressure is constant when there is an equilibrium of water
molecules moving between the liquid phase and the gaseous
phase, in a closed container. Note the mention of a "closed
container". In an open container the molecules in the gaseous
phase will just fly off and an equilibrium would not be reached, as
many fewer gaseous molecules would be re-entering the liquid
phase.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 14

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

Also note that at equilibrium the movement of molecules between

liquid and gas does not stop, but the number of molecules in the
gaseous phase stays the same—there is always movement
between phases.
So, at equilibrium there is a certain concentration of molecules in
the gaseous phase; the pressure the gas is exerting is the vapor
pressure. As for vapor pressure being higher at higher
temperatures, when the temperature of a liquid is raised, the
added energy in the liquid gives the molecules more energy and
they have greater ability to escape the liquid phase and go into
the gaseous phase.

Vapor Pressure in Cooking

If you wanted to cook your beef quicker, you would want the
water temperature to be higher. You can use vapor pressure to
"trick" your beef by using a closed container to cook in—known as
a pressure cooker. Pressure cookers have lids that can be secured
to the pot which prevents steam from escaping the pot, which
raises the pressure of the vapor inside the container. There is a
pressure-release valve on the top of the pot to prevent pressures
from getting so high that the pot explodes (although there are
many instances of the valve malfunctioning with the disastrous
effect being a pot that literally explodes).
We mentioned that with a higher vapor pressure higher water
temperature can be reached, meaning that in a pressure cooker
the vapor pressure is much higher and thus, the water doesn't boil
until it reaches a higher temperature, which cooks the food faster.

6. WATER THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

We need to take the statement "Water is the universal solvent"
with a grain of salt (pun intended). Of course, it cannot dissolve
everything, but it does dissolve more substances than any other
liquid, so the term fits pretty well. Water's solvent properties affect
all life on Earth, so water is universally important to all of us.
Water is called the "universal solvent" because it is capable of
dissolving more substances than any other liquid. This is important
to every living thing on earth. It means that wherever water goes,
either through the air, the ground, or through our bodies, it takes
along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.
It is water's chemical composition and physical attributes that
make it such an excellent solvent. Water molecules have a polar
arrangement of oxygen and hydrogen atoms—one side
(hydrogen) has a positive electrical charge and the other side Did you know you can dissolve the M off of an M&M
(oxygen) had a negative charge. All you have to do it put a few M&Ms in water with the
M side up and observe what happens!
This allows the water molecule to become attracted to many other Credit: coffeecupsandcrayons.com

different types of molecules. Water can become so heavily

attracted to a different compound, like salt (NaCl), that it can
disrupt the attractive forces that hold the sodium and chloride in
the salt compound together and, thus, dissolve it.

Our Kidneys and Water Make a Great Pair

Our own kidneys and water's solvent properties make a great pair
in keeping us alive and healthy. The kidneys are responsible for

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 15

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

filtering out substances that enter our bodies from the foods and
drinks we consume. But the kidneys have got to get rid of these
substances after they accumulate them. That is where water helps
out; being such a great solvent, water washing through the
kidneys dissolves these substances and sends them on the way
out of our bodies.

Why salt dissolves in water?

At the molecular level, salt dissolves in water due to electrical
charges and due to the fact that both water and salt compounds
are polar, with positive and negative charges on opposite sides in
the molecule. The bonds in salt compounds are called ionic FIGURE 12. Water Molecule and its
because they both have an electrical charge—the chloride ion is partial charges
negatively charged and the sodium ion is positively charged.
Likewise, a water molecule is ionic in nature, but the bond is called
covalent, with two hydrogen atoms both situating themselves with
their positive charge on one side of the oxygen atom, which has a
negative charge (see Figure 12). When salt is mixed with water, the
salt dissolves because the covalent bonds of water are stronger
than the ionic bonds in the salt molecules.
The positively-charged side of the water molecules are attracted
to the negatively-charged chloride ions and the negatively-
FIGURE 13. Attraction among molecules of water
charged side of the water molecules are attracted to the
and salt. Credit: Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, CK-12 Foundation
positively-charged sodium ions as in Figure 13. Essentially, a tug-
of-war ensues with the water molecules winning the match. Water
molecules pull the sodium and chloride ions apart, breaking the
ionic bond that held them together. After the salt compounds are
pulled apart, the sodium and chloride atoms are surrounded by
water molecules, as in Figure 14. Once this happens, the salt is
dissolved, resulting in a homogeneous solution.

FIGURE 14. Sodium and Chlorine ions being

dissolved by the water molecules by creating
hydration spheres

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 16

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
OF WATER

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. ALKALINITY AND WATER
Alkalinity is the buffering capacity of a water body; a measure of
the ability of the water body to neutralize acids and bases and
thus maintain a fairly stable pH level.

Alkalinity and Acid Neutralizing Capacity

Alkalinity is not a chemical in water, but, rather, it is a property of
water that is dependent on the presence of certain chemicals in
the water, such as bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides. In
more simple terms, water with a high alkalinity will experience less
of a change in its own acidity, for instance, when acidic water, such
as acid rain or an acid spill, is introduced into the water body.
You might use this analogy—you and your friend are in separate
small rowboats in a lake. Both rowboats develop a leak, which
doesn't worry you, since both of you were wise enough to bring a
bailing bucket onboard just for this contingency. Except your
friend grabbed a gallon-sized bucket while all you have is a
smaller pint-sized bucket. You both start bailing water out of your
boat, but after a while your friend’s foot are barely wet while the
inside of your boat has water up to your knees. Your friend can
bail incoming water out as fast as it comes in, but you can't keep
up. Your friend has better "buffering capacity" than you have and
can neutralize the incoming water to a greater extent. In this
analogy, his boat would have a higher alkalinity than your boat
has.

Why alkalinity is important?

Although you don't often hear about the alkalinity of water in the
news, alkalinity can be important to the health and welfare of
water. The ecosystem and organisms that live in the water evolved
in water bodies that didn't change quickly. Before humans came
along water bodies were not subjected to chemical spills and acid
rain. Likely the pH and aquatic characteristics of a water did not
change much over the short term, which suited the fish in the
water bodies just fine.
In modern times, water bodies can be subjected to sudden inputs
of chemicals, such as those contained in acid rain and wastewater,
that can cause rapid changes in the acid/base balance of a
water—lowering the pH of the water, for instance. A sudden shift
in pH is not healthy for the fish and organisms living in the water.
Aquatic organisms benefit from stable pH values, and waters with
a high alkalinity are better able to maintain a fairly constant pH.

What affects alkalinity?

In a surface water body, such as a lake, the alkalinity in the water
comes mostly from the rocks and land surrounding the lake.
Precipitation falls in the watershed surrounding the lake and most
of the water entering the lake comes from runoff over the

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 17

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

landscape. If the landscape is in an area containing rocks such as

limestone then the runoff picks up chemicals such as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), which raises the pH and alkalinity of the water.
In areas where the geology contains large amounts of granite, for
instance, lakes will have a lower alkalinity.

Measuring Alkalinity
One common method for measuring alkalinity is to use a water
sample and to add acid to it while checking the pH of the water as
the acid is added. An initial pH reading of the water is taken and
then small amounts of acid are added in increments, the water is
stirred, and the pH is taken. This is done many times.
In the beginning, the acid added will be neutralized by
compounds in the water, such as bicarbonates. As more acid is
added, the bicarbonates get "used up", as it is also being
neutralized by the acid. Eventually all the acid-neutralizing
compounds are used up. After this point, any acid added to the
water will lower the pH in a linear fashion, and the scientist will be
able to see this reflection point by viewing a line chart of the
amount of acid added to the water and the resulting pH. The point Measuring a water sample in a lab to determine
alkalinity. Credit: Joseph Ayotte, USGS
at which the change in pH line becomes linear is used to
determine the water's alkalinity.

2.CONDUCTIVITY (ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTANCE) AND WATER
Water and electricity don't mix, right? Well actually, pure water is
an excellent insulator and does not conduct electricity. The thing
is, you won't find any pure water in nature, so don't mix electricity
and water.

Conductivity (Electrical Conductance) and Water

You're never too old to learn something new. All my life I've heard
that water and electricity make a dangerous pair together. And
pretty much all of the time that is true—mixing water and
electricity, be it from a lightning bolt or electrical socket in the
house, is a very dangerous thing to do.
But what I learned from researching this topic was that pure water
is actually an excellent insulator and does not conduct electricity.
Water that would be considered "pure" would be distilled water
(water condensed from steam) and deionized water (used in
laboratories), although even water of this purity can contain ions.
However, in our real lives, we normally do not come across any
pure water. If you read the discussion about the physical
property of water being the "universal solvent" you know that
water can dissolve more things than just about any other liquid.
Water is a most excellent solvent. It doesn't matter if the water
comes out of your kitchen faucet, is in a swimming pool, comes
out of the ground or falls from the sky, the water will contain
significant amounts of dissolved substances, minerals, and
chemicals. These things are the solutes dissolved in water.

Free Ions in Water Conduct Electricity

Water stops being an excellent insulator once it starts dissolving

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 18

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

substances around it. Salts, such as common table salt (sodium

chloride (NaCl)) is the one we know best. In chemical terms, salts
are ionic compounds composed of cations (positively charged
ions) and anions (negatively charged ions). In solution, these ions
essentially cancel each other out so that the solution is electrically
neutral (without a net charge) even a small number of ions in a
water solution makes it able to conduct electricity (so definitely
don't add salt to your "lightning-storm" bathwater). When water
contains these ions it will conduct electricity, such as from a
lightning bolt or a wire from the wall socket, as the electricity from
the source will seek out oppositely-charged ions in the water. Too
bad if there is a human body in the way.

Interestingly, if the water contains very large amounts of solutes

and ions, then the water becomes such an efficient conductor of
electricity that an electrical current may essentially ignore a human
body in the water and stick to the better pathway to conduct
itself—the masses of ions in the water. That is why the danger of
electrocution in sea water is less than it would be in bathwater.

3. DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND WATER

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is a measure of how much oxygen is
dissolved in the water - the amount of oxygen available to living
aquatic organisms. The amount of dissolved oxygen in a stream or
lake can tell us a lot about its water quality.
Although water molecules contain an oxygen atom, this oxygen is
not what is needed by aquatic organisms living in natural waters. A
small amount of oxygen, up to about ten molecules of oxygen per
million of water, is actually dissolved in water. Oxygen enters a
stream mainly from the atmosphere and, in areas where
groundwater discharge into streams is a large portion of
streamflow, from groundwater discharge. This dissolved oxygen is
breathed by fish and zooplankton and is needed by them to
survive.

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality

Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or large river,
tends to contain a lot of dissolved oxygen, whereas stagnant water
contains less. Bacteria in water can consume oxygen as organic
matter decays. Thus, excess organic material in lakes and rivers
can cause eutrophic conditions, which is an oxygen-deficient
situation that can cause a water body to "die”.
Aquatic life can have a hard time in stagnant water that has a lot
of rotting, organic material in it, especially in summer (the
concentration of dissolved oxygen is inversely related to water
temperature), when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low.
Water near the surface of the lake– the epilimnion– is too warm
for them, while water near the bottom–the hypolimnion– has too
little oxygen. Conditions may become especially serious during a
A eutrophic lake where dissolved-oxygen
period of hot, calm weather, resulting in the loss of many fish. You concentrations are low. Algal blooms can occur
may have heard about summertime fish kills in local lakes that under such conditions.
likely result from this problem.
(Source: A Citizen's Guide to Understanding and Monitoring Lakes and Streams)

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 19

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

Dissolved Oxygen, Temperature, and Aquatic Life

Water temperature affects dissolved-oxygen concentrations in a
river or water body.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in surface water is affected
by temperature and has both a seasonal and a daily cycle. Cold
water can hold more dissolved oxygen than warm water. During
rainy season, when the water temperature is low, the dissolved
oxygen concentration is high. During summer, when the water
temperature is high, the dissolved-oxygen concentration is often
lower.
Dissolved oxygen in surface water is used by all forms of aquatic
life; therefore, this constituent typically is measured to assess the
"health" of lakes and streams. Oxygen enters a stream from
the atmosphere and from groundwater discharge. The
contribution of oxygen from groundwater discharge is significant,
however, only in areas where groundwater is a large component
of streamflow. Photosynthesis is the primary process affecting the
dissolved-oxygen/temperature relation; water clarity and strength
and duration of sunlight, in turn, affect the rate of photosynthesis.
One of the most common causes of cloudy dishes
4. HARDNESS OF WATER and glassware is hard water. Credit: Kinetico Water Systems

Water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and

magnesium in the water. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals,
largely calcium and magnesium. You may have felt the effects of
hard water, literally, the last time you washed your hands.
Depending on the hardness of your water, after using soap to
wash you may have felt like there was a film of residue left on your
hands. In hard water, soap reacts with the calcium (which is
relatively high in hard water) to form "soap scum". When using
hard water, more soap or detergent is needed to get things clean,
be it your hands, hair, or your laundry.
Have you done a load of dishes in the dishwasher, taken out the
glasses, and noticed spots or film on them? This is more hardwater
residue – not dangerous, but unsightly.
Many industrial and domestic water users are concerned about
the hardness of their water. When hard water is heated, such as in
a home water heater, solid deposits of calcium carbonate can
form. This scale can reduce the life of equipment, raise the costs of
heating the water, lower the efficiency of electric water heaters,
and clog pipes. And, yes, mineral buildup will occur in your home
coffee maker too, which is why some people occasionally run
vinegar (an acid) through the pot. The acidity of vinegar helps to
dissolve mineral particles by making them charged. These newly
charged particles become attracted to the positive and negative
charges in water and can be washed away easily.
But hard water can have some benefits, too. Humans need
minerals to stay healthy, and the World Health Organization
(WHO) states that drinking-water may be a contributor of calcium
and magnesium in the diet and could be important for those who
are marginal for calcium and magnesium intake.

Measures of Water Hardness

Hardness is caused by compounds of calcium and magnesium,

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 20

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

and by a variety of other metals. General guidelines for

classification of waters are: 0 to 60 mg/L (milligrams per liter) as TYPES OF WATER CONCENTRATION
calcium carbonate is classified as soft; 61 to 120 mg/L as HARDNESS (mg/L)
moderately hard; 121 to 180 mg/L as hard; and more than 180
mg/L as very hard. (see Table 2) SOFT 0 – 60

Water systems using groundwater as a source are concerned with MODERATE 61 – 120
water hardness, since as water moves through soil and rock it
dissolves small amounts of naturally-occurring minerals and HARD 121 – 180
carries them into the groundwater supply. Water is a
great solvent for calcium and magnesium, so if the minerals are VERY HARD >180
present in the soil around a water-supply well, hard water may be
Table 2. Water Hardness
delivered to homes.

As the image of the inside of a water-supply pipe shows (see

Figure 15), long-term movement of hard water through a pipe can
result in what is called scale buildup. Just as in the human body
where blood vessels can be reduced in inside diameter due to
cholesterol buildup, water pipes can gradually close up resulting in
Figure 15. Lime scale build-up inside a water pipe.
less water movement through the pipe and a lowering of water
pressure.

TYPES OF WATER HARDNESS

a. HARD WATER
Water that contains large amounts of dissolved ions,
commonly bicarbonate, calcium and magensium ions, and
sometimes iron and aluminum. Soap is less effective and
prevented from lathering in hard water because it reacts to
form calcium or magnesium salt from the organic acids of
the soap. (See Figure 16)

Figure 16. Soap lathers more in soft water than in

There are two kinds of hard water. These are the temporary hard water. This due to the reaction of dissolved
ions in hard water with the organic acids of the soap
hard water and the permanent hard water.
forming salts of calcium and magnesium.

 Temporary Hard Water

Water with an excess of carbonates and bicarbonate ions.
Bicarbonate ions are formed when carbon dioxide reacts
with water to form Carbonic acid (found in carbonated
beverages). Temporary hardness is removed when water is
heated. This causes bicarbonates to precipitate out of
solution, forming scale on the heated surfaces. When
heated, this ion will breakdown into water (H2O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2). (See Figure 17)

Figure 17. Boiling removes the hardness of

temporary hard water, however it forms scales on
the heated surface.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 21

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

 Permanent Hard Water

Hard water that contains calcium, magnesium, iron, and
sulfate ions. These ions cannot be removed by boiling;
they must be removed from water chemically.

Removal of Hardness of Water

Water hardness can be removed chemically using different
methods. Some of these methods include the Clark’s method
and the Ion-exchange method.
 Clark’s Method
In this method, a calculated amount of calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, is added to water. Due to reaction,
insoluble carbonates are obtained which are separated
by filtration.

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2  2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2 H2O

 Ion-exchange Method
In this method, sodium zeolite is used as ion-exchanger.
Na-zeolite is passed through the pipe containing hard
water. Sodium zeolite is converted into calcium-zeolite
or magnesium-zeolite. These are insoluble in water and
are separated from water by filtration. (see Figure 18)

Ca2+ + Na2-zeolite  Ca-zeolite + 2 Na+

Mg2+ + Na2-zeolite  Mg-zeolite + 2 Na+

b. SOFT WATER
Water with very low concentration of minerals. It has an ion Figure 18. An ion-exchanger such as sodium zeolite
concentration of between 0 to 60 mg/L. Rain water is is used to remove the hardness of water.
considered soft water but becomes hard as it travels through
the ground and absorb minerals. Soft water may have large
amounts of sodium ions and may also be unsuitable or even
dangerous to drink

5. pH and WATER
pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from
0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity,
whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. The pH of water
is a very important measurement concerning water quality. Not
only does the pH of a stream affect organisms living in the water,
a changing pH in a stream can be an indicator of increasing
pollution or some other environmental factor.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 22

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

pH: Definition and Measurement Units

pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from
0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity,
whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. pH is really a
measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl
ions in the water. Water that has more free hydrogen ions is
acidic, whereas water that has more free hydroxyl ions is basic.
Since pH can be affected by chemicals in the water, pH is an
important indicator of water that is changing chemically. pH is
reported in "logarithmic units". Each number represents a 10-fold
change in the acidity/basicness of the water. Water with a pH of
five is ten times more acidic than water having a pH of six.

Importance of pH
The pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be
dissolved in the water) and biological availability (amount that can
be utilized by aquatic life) of chemical constituents such as
nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy metals
(lead, copper, cadmium, etc.). For example, in addition to affecting
how much and what form of phosphorus is most abundant in the
water, pH also determines whether aquatic life can use it.
In the case of heavy metals, the degree to which they are soluble
determines their toxicity. Metals tend to be more toxic at lower pH
because they are more soluble. (Source: A Citizen's Guide to
Understanding and Monitoring Lakes and Streams)

Measuring pH
pH is an important water measurement, which is often measured
both at the sampling site and in the lab. There are large and small
models of pH meters. Portable models are available to take out in DIAGRAM OF pH
the field and larger models are used in the lab. As this diagram shows, pH ranges from 0 to 14, with
To use the pH meter (see Figure 19), the water sample is placed in 7 being neutral. pHs less than 7 are acidic while pHs
greater than 7 are alkaline (basic). Normal rainfall
the cup and the glass probe at the end of the retractable arm is has a pH of about 5.6—slightly acidic due to carbon
placed in the water. Inside the thin glass bulb at the end of the dioxide gas from the atmosphere. You can see
probe there are two electrodes that measure voltage. One that acid rain can be very acidic, and it can affect
electrode is contained in a liquid that has a fixed acidity, or pH. the environment in a negative way.
Credit: robin_ph / stock.adobe.com
The other electrode responds to the acidity of the water sample. A
voltmeter in the probe measures the difference between the
voltages of the two electrodes. The meter then translates the
voltage difference into pH and displays it on the little screen on
the main box.
Before taking a pH measurement, the meter must be "calibrated."
The probe is immersed in a solution that has a known pH, such as
pure water with a neutral pH of 7.0. The knobs on the box are
used to adjust the displayed pH value to the known pH of the
solution, thus calibrating the meter.

Taking pH at Home or School

One of the most popular school science projects is to take the pH
of water from different sources. Chances are your school (and
certainly not you) does not have an electronic pH meter lying
around, but you can still get an estimate of pH by using litmus Figure 19. A portable electronic pH meter.
paper. Litmus paper, which can be found at pet-supply stores (to

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 23

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

check the pH of aquariums) is simply a strip of paper that, when a

sample of water is dropped onto it, turns a certain color, giving a
rough estimate of pH.

pH and Water Quality

Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of
water. High pH causes a bitter taste, water pipes and water-using
appliances become encrusted with deposits, and it depresses the
effectiveness of the disinfection of chlorine, thereby causing the
need for additional chlorine when pH is high. Low-pH water will
corrode or dissolve metals and other substances.

Pollution can change a water's pH, which in turn can harm animals
and plants living in the water. For instance, water coming out of an
abandoned coal mine can have a pH of 2, which is very acidic and
would definitely affect any fish crazy enough to try to live in it! By
using the logarithm scale, this mine-drainage water would be
100,000 times more acidic than neutral water.

6. SALINE WATER and SALINITY

In your everyday life you are not involved much with saline water.
You are concerned with freshwater to serve your life's every need.
But, most of Earth's water, and almost all of the water that people
can access, is saline, or salty water. Just look at the oceans and
remember that oceans comprise about 97% of all water on, in, and
above the Earth.

What is saline water?

First, what do we mean by "saline water?" Water that is saline
contains significant amounts (referred to as "concentrations") of
dissolved salts, the most common being the salt we all know so
well—sodium chloride (NaCl). In this case, the concentration is the
amount (by weight) of salt in water, as expressed in "parts per
Why is the ocean salty? Rivers discharge mineral-rich
million" (ppm). If water has a concentration of 10,000 ppm of water to the oceans is from outflow from rivers, which
dissolved salts, then one percent (10,000 divided by 1,000,000) of drain the landscape, thus causing the oceans to be
the weight of the water comes from dissolved salts. salty. Credit: NASA

Here are our parameters for saline water:

 Fresh water - Less than 1,000 ppm
 Slightly saline water - From 1,000 ppm to 3,000 ppm
 Moderately saline water - From 3,000 ppm to 10,000 ppm
 Highly saline water - From 10,000 ppm to 35,000 ppm
 By the way, ocean water contains about 35,000 ppm of salt.

Saline water is not just in the oceans

Naturally, when you think of saline water you think of the oceans.
But, hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean, the residents of
states such as Colorado and Arizona can "enjoy a day at the
beach" by just walking outside their house, for they may be right
next to saline water. Water in some area may have been left over
from ancient times and, as rainfall infiltrates downward into the
ground, it can encounter rocks that contain highly soluble
minerals, which turn the water saline. Groundwater can exist and
move for thousands of years and can thus become as saline as
ocean water.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 24

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

Can saline water be used for anything?

So, with all of the water available on Earth and all that saline water
sitting offshore, how come we are worried about water shortages?
You can think of it as a water-quality situation rather than water-
quantity situation. In its raw state, saline water cannot be used for
many of the purposes we need water for, such as drinking,
irrigation, and many industrial uses.
Slightly saline water is sometimes used for similar purposes as
freshwater. For example, water having up to 2,500 ppm of salt is
used for irrigating crops. Normally, though, moderate to high
saline water has limited uses. After all, you don't drink salt water at
home; you don't use it to water your tomatoes or brush your
teeth; farmers don't usually irrigate with it; some industries can't
use it without damaging their equipment; and, carabao and cows
won't drink it.
If nothing else, saline water can be just plain fun. If you happen to
be one who has been to the Dead Sea in the Middle East, you
could have experienced the unique sensation of floating in the
extremely dense (and salty) water that apparently holds you up
like a mattress. The water is so dense that you truly do not sink, as
you do in normal, even ocean, water. So, what else can saline
water be used for, and can it be made more usable? There are two
answers—both "yes." Saline water is useful for some water-
use purposes, and saline water can be turned into freshwater, for
which we have many uses.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 25

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

KINDS OF WATER

KINDS OF WATER
Here are the different types of water and what you should know about
them.

1. TAP WATER
A piped water supply, tap water is the water that you get directly
from your faucet, it may or may not be suited for drinking
purposes. It is widely used for household chores such as cleaning,
cooking, gardening and washing clothes. It must meet the
regulations set by the local Municipal bodies.
Pros: Though many people turn their noses up at the idea of
drinking tap water over taste or safety concerns, the truth is that
tap water is safe to drink. What’s more, tap water isn’t only good
for you, it’s cheaper than buying various types of bottled water.
Cons: While there are industry regulations in place that are meant
to keep lead and other harmful substances from contaminating
the water supply, sometimes this doesn’t work. Moreover, the Tap Water
Guardian reported on research showing plastic particles in tap https://constructionreviewonline.com/2020/07/rosatom-introduces-
mobile-water-treatment-units-in-south-africa/
water supplies around the world. Public water supplies can also
contain pesticide residue, aluminum, and other undesirable
substances. If, however, you’re worried that the treatments
performed on your water supply aren’t up to par, you can always
purchase a home filtration system for further cleansing.

2. MINERAL WATER
Mineral water is the water that naturally contains minerals. It is
obtained from underground sources, which makes it rich in
minerals like calcium, magnesium, manganese. No further
minerals can be added to the water. The water also cannot be
subjected to any treatment, except for limited ones such as
carbonation, iron or manganese removal, before packaging. The
essential minerals give it a reputation of healthy drinking water.
The component of mineral water can vary from brand to brand,
some may have a greater number of minerals while others may
have lesser. The presence of the minerals also gives the water a
characteristic salty taste.
Pros: Mineral water does indeed have some health benefits, since
it provides minerals your body can’t create on its own. It can also
help aid in digestion, and many people even like the taste of it
over tap water, though that’s down to personal preference.
Cons: One of the main downsides to mineral water is cost,
especially when compared to tap water. Many of the minerals
Mineral Water
from this type of water can also be obtained from a healthy, varied https://www.bmstores.co.uk/products/evian-mineral-water-330ml-
diet. 276544

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 26

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

3. SPRING or GLACIER WATER

Spring or glacier waters are types of bottled waters that are
claimed to be bottled at the source from where the water flows —
either from the spring or glacier. In some places, rainwater
accumulated underground tends to “leak” out at the surface as a
spring, or puddle. Natural springs are not passed through a
community water system and are yet considered suitable for
drinking as it comes from under the ground.
Pros: In theory, spring or glacier waters should be relatively clean
and free of toxins. They also contain many of the same helpful
minerals found in mineral water. It also tends to be pretty readily Spring Water
available in stores, in both large and small bottles, which makes it https://twitter.com/glenelgspring/status/1055081479548616705

easily accessible.
Cons: Depending on how much you drink, spring water could get
pricey, especially in comparison to tap water. Also, some spring
water is raw, unfiltered, and untested water, which could pose
potential health risks depending on what it contains.

4. SPARKLING WATER
Sometimes referred to as carbonated water or soda water,
sparkling water is infused with carbon dioxide gas while under
pressure. Sparkling water may be spring water, purified water or
even mineral water, upon addition of carbon dioxide it becomes
sparkling water.
Pros: Sparkling water offers a different mouth feel to flat water,
which could be a welcome change if you want something fizzy
without sugar or artificial sweeteners. That said, there are flavored
sparkling waters available that do contain one or both types of
sweeteners. Plus, because sparkling water tends to be mineralized,
you’re getting the added bonus of health-promoting minerals
with your carbonation.
Cons: While there are some minerals present in sparkling water,
there aren’t enough to be truly beneficial to your health in a Sparkling Water
meaningful way. In addition, it can be expensive compared to both https://theconversation.com/is-sparkling-water-bad-for-you-127395

tap and certain types of bottled water.

5. DISTILLED WATER
This type of water is boiled and the steam is collected and
condensed back into a liquid. Distilled water or demineralized
water is one where the water has been subjected to a treatment
that removes all its minerals and salt by the process of reverse
osmosis and distillation. It is an absolutely pure form of water but
it is not typically recommended for drinking. It can cause mineral
deficiencies because it is devoid of all salts and most of the natural
minerals in the water are gone as a result of this process. Drinking
this water may cause a rapid sodium, potassium, chloride, and
magnesium loss.
Pros: Distilled water is a great option if you live somewhere — or
are visiting somewhere — where the tap water supply is
contaminated or possibly could be.
Distilled Water
https://universalsitesupplies.co.uk/water-refil.html

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 27

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

Cons: As there are no vitamins and minerals in distilled water,

there are no health benefits. In fact, it has the potential to be
detrimental as non-mineralized water tends to pull minerals from
where it can — in this case, your body, or specifically your teeth.

6. PURIFIED WATER
Purified water is usually tap or groundwater which has been
treated to remove harmful substances like bacteria, fungi, and
parasites. A purified water is the water which after deriving from
its source has underwent purification treatment in a plant. The act
of purifying entails removing all bacteria, contaminants and
dissolved solids making it suitable to drinking and other purposes.
You can either purchase it from the markets or install a water
purifier at home and have pure water to consume. This means that
drinking it is pretty much guaranteed to be safe.
Pros: Like distilled water, purified water is a great option if your
immediate water source is contaminated. That said, many
countries purify tap water, so you’re basically drinking purified
water every time you fill a cup from your kitchen sink.
Cons: Because all potentially harmful substances are removed
from purified water, you also miss out on some of the potentially
Purified Water
beneficial ones that are added to tap water supplies like fluoride, https://www.foodsco.net/p/kroger-purified-drinking-
which helps to reduce tooth decay. In addition, purchasing water/0001111078975

purified water or even installing a filtration system at home can be

pretty costly.

7. FLAVORED or INFUSED WATER

Flavored water is water that’s sweetened with either sugar or
artificial sweeteners, and contains natural or artificial flavorings.
Pros: Flavored water, can offer a tasty alternative to plain water,
which makes it easier to drink in larger amounts. It can also add
variation to your water intake since there are so many flavors
available. Flavor can be added naturally by infusing fruit and
vegetables into tap or bottled water, or you could purchase
artificially flavored waters in most stores.
Cons: Often, flavored waters contain added sugar or artificial
sweeteners. Varieties with sugar can lead to weight gain and have
a negative effect on those with diabetes. What’s more, some Flavored or Infused Water
https://craftwater.co/product/variety-case-flavored-water-with-
people may react negatively to artificial sweeteners. electrolytes/

8. ALKALINE WATER
Alkaline water has a higher pH level than normal tap water and
contains alkaline minerals and negative oxidation reduction
potential (ORP).
Pros: The fact that this type of water has a higher pH level has led
some people to believe that it may help neutralize acid in the
body, help slow the aging process, or even prevent cancer. There’s
very little scientific proof, however, of this being true.
Cons: It’s generally safe to drink alkaline water, but it could reduce
stomach acidity, thereby lowering its ability to kill off harmful
bacteria. In excess, it could also lead to metabolic alkalosis, which Alkaline Water
https://www.bevindustry.com/articles/89598-alkaline-water-co-
could produce symptoms like nausea and vomiting. grows-sales-200

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 28

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

9. WELL WATER
Well water comes straight from the ground, though it’s untreated
and carries with it a number of risks. When it rains, water trickles
down and travels through the inner crevices of the soil, beneath
the ground to form underground lakes. This happens over a
period of time. In rural areas, one of the primary sources of water
is what is dug out from deep wells. Deep wells directly tap
groundwater and bring it to the surface from which people can
take their water.
Pros: If you happen to live in an area where wells are plentiful, or
you even have one in your own backyard, the convenient access to Well Water
https://www.shutterstock.com/fi/video/clip-5904878-residents-this-
what seems like fresh water could be attractive. While there are poor-community-canlubang-philippines-have
many proponents of raw, untreated water, the benefits may not
outweigh the potential risks. That said, there are steps you can
take to ensure your well water is suitable for drinking. For
example, testing your well water annually for bacteria, nitrates, and
pH levels. It’s also possible to install a filtration system.
Cons: Because the water hasn’t been treated, there’s a big chance
of contamination — particularly from bacterial and parasitic
infections. While well water used to be the norm, there’s a reason
that city water supplies and the regulations surrounding them
were put into place — you simply don’t know what you’re getting
unless you test or treat the well water yourself.

BANTAYAN ISLAND, PHILIPPINES. 4 February 2014.

People collect water from their community’s well.
(Albert G. Camay)

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 29

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

ASSIGNMENT

ASSIGNMENT NO.
ASSIGNMENT NO.11
Make a simple Salinometer or Hydrometer - Use the internet or other resources to research how to
make a Salinometer or Hydrometer device with better accuracy and sensitivity.

ASSIGNMENT NO. 2
Answer the survey below:

Survey 1. How Much Water Do You Use at Home? How much water do you use when you take a
shower? Wash a load of clothes? Flush a toilet? Even brush your teeth? One important measure of
water use is how much water one person uses in one day, or per-capita water use (per is Latin for by
and capita is Latin for head). The number is usually expressed as gallons of water used per person per
day.

Answer this survey to get a rough estimate of how much water you use inside your home on a typical
day by indicating how many times you do the activity identified. Think of the activities you do that use
water: taking a shower, brushing your teeth, maybe washing dishes and clothes, etc.

NOTE: This survey is very general and won't take into account if you have water-conserving
equipment in your house in our results; this exercise just to give you a quick idea of your water use.
There are some other Web sites that will give you a more detailed and accurate estimate of your per-
capita water use:

ACTIVITIES NO. OF TIMES YOU DO THE ACTIVITY

Baths Taken (no. of bath)

Teeth Brushings (no. of brushing)

Hand/Face Washings (no. of times)

Face/Leg shavings (no. of times)

Showers (no. of shower)

Average shower length (ave. time in minutes)

Toilet Flushes (no. of times)

Water you drank (8 oz.) (no. of Glass)

Dishwashing by Hand (no. of times)

Clothes Washing Loads (no. of times)

Survey 2. You've probably heard that water is tasteless, odorless, and essentially colorless. But, when
you drink water out of your kitchen faucet, you might say "Yuck, what is that taste?", or "What is that
brown tint in my water?". It is true that pure water lacks taste, odor, and color, but in the real world,
you won't be drinking pure water, unless you drink something like distilled or deionized water. And,
this kind of water certainly does not come out of your faucet at home.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 30

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

ASSIGNMENT

Because water is the universal solvent, it dissolves many chemicals and substances. Any water you
drink will contain dissolved minerals...and maybe other things, too. These will add flavor, odor, and
color to your water. Considering the question below to tell us how the water from your kitchen faucet
tastes.

How does your home kitchen faucet drinking water taste? Select only one answer.
Tastes fine, no complaints
Tastes "flat" - noticeable lack of taste
Metallic, like iron or rust
Earthy or moldy
Smells and tastes like rotten eggs
Tastes salty

Where do you live? ________________________________________________________________________________

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 31

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

POST TEST
MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE
Answer the following questions. Write True if the statement is correct and False if the statement is not
correct. Explain your answer why it is True or False. No points will be credited if no explanation given.

__________ 1) Water contracts (gets smaller) when it freezes.

Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 2) Water has a high surface tension.

Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 3) Condensation is water coming out of the air.

Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 4) More things can be dissolved in sulfuric acid than in water.

Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 5) Rainwater is the purest form of water.

Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 6) To accurately read water height in a glass rain gauge, you read the center of the water
column, not the edge (meniscus) where the water meets the glass.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 32

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

POST TEST

__________ 7) You can float a paper clip on top of water if you very carefully place it flat on the water
surface because of the molecular skin created by the interaction of air molecules with the
top layer of water molecules on the surface.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 8) Sea water is slightly more basic (the pH value is higher) than most natural fresh water.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 9) Raindrops are tear-shaped.

Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 10) Water boils at a lower temperature at high altitude than at the beach.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 11) If the relative humidity of the air is 100%, then water will not evaporate into the air.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 12) A lightning storm is more dangerous to someone swimming in pool water than it is to
someone swimming in salty ocean water.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 33

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

POST TEST

__________ 13) Rainbows have colors because the raindrops act as mirrors and reflect light directly back
to you.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 14) A water molecule is "polar" because it looks like a seesaw: The oxygen atom is in the
middle and hydrogen atoms are at opposite ends of the oxygen atom.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________ 15) Seawater is toxic to drink because your kidneys cannot get enough freshwater to
produce enough urine to dilute the additional salt in your body to get rid of the excess
salt.
Explanation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 34

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

REFERENCES

WEB RESOURCES
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-properties-information-topic?qt-
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
https://royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/exhibits/living-landscapes/thomp-ok/env-changes/water/introduction.html
https://byjus.com/chemistry/physical-and-chemical-properties-of-water/
https://www.62.co.za/blog/28-chemical-and-physical-properties-of-water
https://food.ndtv.com/food-drinks/types-of-water-7-different-types-of-waters-and-their-purposes-1770281
https://www.healthline.com/health/food-nutrition/nine-types-of-drinking-water
https://www.britannica.com/science/water/Physical-properties

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 35

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

ANSWER KEY

1) Like most liquids, water contracts (gets smaller) when it freezes. - FALSE
Explanation: Actually, water expands (gets less dense) when it freezes, which is unusual for liquids. Think of
ice -- it is one of the few items that float as a solid. If it didn't, the lakes would freeze from the bottom up
(that would mean we'd have to wear wet suits when ice skating), and some lakes way up north would be
permanent blocks of ice.

2) Water has a high surface tension. -TRUE

Explanation: Water has the highest surface tension among common liquids (mercury is higher). Surface
tension is the ability of a substance to stick to itself (cohesion). This is why water forms drops, and also why,
when you look at a glass of water, the water "rises" where it touches the glass (the "meniscus"). Plants are
happy that water has a high surface tension, because it helps them to draw water from the ground up
through their roots and stems.

3) Condensation is water coming out of the air. - TRUE

Explanation: Water that forms on the outside of a cold glass or on the inside of a window in winter is liquid
water condensing from water vapor in the air. Air contains water vapor (humidity). In cold air, water vapor
condenses faster than it evaporates. For example, when warm air touches the outside of a cold glass, the air
next to the glass gets chilled, and some of the water in that air turns from water vapor to tiny liquid water
droplets. You might also find it interesting that clouds in the sky and the "cloud" you see when you exhale
on a cold day are condensed water-vapor particles. (It is a myth that clouds form because cold air cannot
hold as much water vapor as warm air)

4) More things can be dissolved in sulfuric acid than in water. - FALSE

Explanation: Sulfuric acid might be able to dissolve a car, but water isn't known as the "Universal Solvent"
for nothing! It can dissolve more substances than any other liquid. This is lucky for us... what if all the sugar
in your soft drink ended up as a pile at the bottom of the glass? The water you see in rivers, lakes, and the
ocean may look clear, but it actually contains many dissolved elements and minerals. Because these
elements are dissolved, they can easily move around with water.

5) Rainwater is the purest form of water. – FALSE

Explanation: Rainwater is usually fresh and clean, but it still contains small amounts of particulates that
have been blown into the air by winds. Rainwater contains tiny particles of dust and dissolved gases, such as
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide (acid rain). That doesn't mean rainwater isn't very clean—normally only
about 1/100,000th of the weight of rain comes from these substances. For really pure water, you might want
to look at distilled and deionized water. Distilled water comes from water vapor condensing after it has
evaporated. Rain is produced by water evaporating from the earth, oceans, other water bodies and icecaps
condensing in the sky, and even from you when you exhale. So, in a way, the distillation process is
responsible for rainwater.

6. To accurately read water height in a glass rain gauge, you read the center of the water column, not the edge
(meniscus) where the water meets the glass. - TRUE
Explanation: You do not use the edge of the water where it touches the glass, because the adhesive
property of water (its "stickiness") causes it to literally rise up along the glass. A meniscus is a curve in the
surface of a molecular substance (water, of course) where it touches another material. The correct height of
the water in the rain gauge is seen at the center of the water column.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 36

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

ANSWER KEY

7) You can float a paper clip on top of water if you very carefully place it flat on the water surface because of the
molecular skin created by the interaction of air molecules with the top layer of water molecules on the surface. –
FALSE
Explanation: There is not really a "skin" at the water/air meeting point—it is just water below and air above.
Molecules on the water surface don't have the same attraction to the air molecules above them as the other
water molecules below them...water is attracted to water (cohesion). This inward net force causes the
molecules on the surface to contract and to resist being stretched or broken. The cohesive forces between
liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension. It is surface tension which
allows things to float on water that you would not think could, such as paper clips and bugs.

8) Sea water is slightly more basic (the pH value is higher) than most natural fresh water. -TRUE
Explanation: Neutral water (such as distilled water) has a pH of 7, which is in the middle of being acidic and
alkaline. Seawater happens to be slightly alkaline (basic), with a pH of about 8. Most natural water has a pH
of between 6-8, although acid rain can have a pH as low as 4.

9) Raindrops are tear-shaped. - FALSE

Explanation: you think of a drop of falling water you probably think it looks like this. When a drop of water
comes out of a faucet, yes, it does have a tear shape. That is because the back end of the water drop sticks
to the water still in the faucet until it can't hold on any more. Using high-speed cameras, scientists have
found that falling raindrops look more like a small hamburger bun! Gravity and surface tension come into
play here. As rain falls, the air below the drop pushes up from the bottom, causing the drop to flatten out
somewhat. The strong surface tension of water holds the drop together, resulting in a bun shape (minus the
sesame seeds).

10) Water boils quicker in high altitude (1 mile in altitude). than at the beach. - TRUE
Explanation: The boiling point of water decreases as altitude increases. At the beach, water boils at 212°
Fahrenheit (100° Celsius). But at 5,000 feet, above, water boils at about 203° F (95°C), and at 10,000 feet it
boils at 193.7°F (89.9°C). This is because as the altitude gets higher, the air pressure (the weight of all that air
above you) becomes less. Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of water exceeds atmospheric pressure.
Since there is less pressure pushing on a pot of water at a higher altitude, it is easier for the water molecules
to break their bonds and attraction to each other and, thus, water boils at a lower temperature.

11) If the relative humidity of the air is 100%, then water will not evaporate into the air. - FALSE
Explanation: Although it is true that the volume of water in a pan placed outside where the relative
humidity is 100% will not change, water from the pan is still evaporating. It is just that the same amount of
water is evaporating as is condensing back from water vapor to liquid into the pan. At 100% relative
humidity, equilibrium exists between water evaporating and condensing.

12) A lightning storm is more dangerous to someone swimming in pool water than it is to someone swimming in
salty ocean water. – TRUE
Explanation: Most people will know that water and electricity don't mix and about the dangers of taking a
bath with an electric hair dryer nearby. Pure water (with no dissolved materials) is actually an excellent
insulator and does not conduct electricity, but you won't often find pure water in nature. Your bath water
and your swimming pool contain plenty of dissolved salts to conduct electricity. Seawater has so much
dissolved salt in it, that when lightning strikes it the electricity from the lightning kind of ignores your body
because the excessive salt in the seawater makes the seawater such an excellent conductor.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 37

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

ANSWER KEY

13) Rainbows have colors because the raindrops act as mirrors and reflect light directly back to you. - FALSE
Explanation: Although you see colors in a rainbow because water drops are moving the light waves from
the sunlight behind you back to your eyes, the raindrops are not acting like mirrors. Mirrors reflect light back
perpendicularly, at 180 degrees. Thus, the light does not change colors. But raindrops act as tiny prisms,
rather than like mirrors. The light going into the raindrops is bounced around a few times and the angles are
changed, which is responsible for the different colors (wavelengths) being separated and sent back to you to
see.

14) A water molecule is "polar" because it looks like a seesaw: The oxygen atom is in the middle and hydrogen
atoms are at opposite ends of the oxygen atom. - FALSE
Explanation: It may be true that water molecules are "polar," but the term polar is referring to a water
molecule that looks more like the head of Mickey Mouse, than like a seesaw. The hydrogen atoms in a water
molecule are both on the same side of a water molecule. Since the hydrogen atoms have a positive electrical
charge and the oxygen atom has a negative electrical charge, the charges are on opposite sides of the water
molecule, which is what "polarity" means.

15) Seawater is toxic to drink because your kidneys cannot get enough freshwater to produce enough urine to
dilute the additional salt in your body to get rid of the excess salt. – TRUE
Explanation: Yes, that complex statement is true. Seawater is toxic because your body eventually fails when
it has to try to get rid of the salt that comes from seawater. Your body normally gets rid of excess salt by
having the kidneys produce urine, but it needs freshwater to dilute the salt in your body for the kidneys to
work properly. Normally that is not a problem, as you are always drinking water and eating food with water.
Tissue in your body also contains freshwater that can be used. But if there is too much salt in your body,
your kidneys cannot get enough freshwater to dilute the salt, and your body will fail.

Author | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA Contributor/Editor | ALVIN ZAULDA GRULLA 38