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Optical Communication
By

Ankit Tyagi

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Optical Communication (EC : Sem-5)

1st Edition : 2011-12
2nd Edition : 2012-13
3rd Edition : 2013-14
4th Edition : 2014-15
5th Edition : 2015-16
6th Edition : 2016-17
7th Edition : 2017-18
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CONTENTS
KEC-058 : OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL COMM. (1–1 D to 1–32 D)
Introduction to Optical Communication: Optical Spectral Band with Operating
Windows, General Communication System, Optical Communication System with
its advantages.
Optical Fiber Waveguides: Ray Theory of Transmission with TIR, Acceptance
Angle, Numerical Aperture and Skew Rays, Electromagnetic Mode Theory for
Optical Propagation, Modes in a Planar Guide, Phase and Group Velocity, Phase
Shift with Total Internal Reflection, Evanescent Field, Goos-Haenchen Shift, Cylindrical
Fiber Modes, Mode Coupling, Step Index fibers Vs Graded Index fibers, Single
Mode Fibers-Cut off wavelength, MFD & Spot Size.

UNIT-2 : SIGNAL LOSS IN OPTICAL FIBER (2–1 D to 2–25 D)

Signal Loss in Optical Fibers: Attenuation, Material Absorption Losses (Intrinsic
and Extrinsic absorption), types of Linear and Non-Linear Scattering Losses,
Fiber Bending Losses, Kerr Effect.
Dispersion: Introduction with its types: Chromatic / Intramodal Dispersion
(Material and Waveguide Dispersion), Intermodal dispersion (for MSI and MGI
fibers), Overall (Total) Fiber Dispersion in Multimode and Singe Mode Fiber,
Dispersion Modified Single Mode Fibers, Polarization & Fiber Birefringence.

UNIT-3 : OPTICAL SOURCES (3–1 D to 3–32 D)

Optical Sources: LEDs-Introduction to LEDs & Materials used for fabrication, LED
Power and Efficiency, LED Structures, LED Characteristics, Modulation Bandwidth.
Laser Diodes-Introduction, Optical Feedback & Laser Oscillations, Resonant
Frequencies, Laser Modes, and Threshold Condition for Laser Oscillation, Laser
Diode Rate Equations, Semiconductor injection Laser- Efficiency, Laser Single
Mode operation, Reliability of LED & ILD.

UNIT-4 : POWER LAUNCHING IN FIBER (4–1 D to 4–27 D)

Power Launching in Fiber: Source to Fiber Power Launching and Coupling
Techniques, Power Launching Vs Wavelength, Equilibrium Numerical Aperture.
Photo Detectors: Introduction, Physical Principles of Photodiodes: The PIN Photo
Detector, Avalanche Photodiodes, Temperature Effect on Avalanche Gain, Detector
Response Time, Photo Detector Noise: Noise Sources, Signal to Noise Ratio,
Comparison of Photo Detectors, Fundamental Receiver Operation with Digital
Signal Transmission.

UNIT-5 : DIGITAL RECEIVER PERFORMANCE (5–1 D to 5–25 D)

Probability of Error / BER, Receiver Sensitivity & The Quantum Limit, Error
Control Techniques, Eye Diagram Pattern Features, Coherent Detection:
Homodyne Detection and Heterodyne Detection, Digital links: Point to Point
Links, Power Penalties, Multichannel & Multiplexing Transmission Techniques,
basic concept of Free Space Optics (FSO) based Communication System.

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 D to SQ-16 D)

SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 D to SP-16 D)

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ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
KEC-058 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION 3L:0T:0P 3 Credits

Unit Topics Lectures

Introduction to Optical Communication: Optical Spectral Band with Operating
Windows, General Communication System, Optical Communication System with its
advantages.
Optical Fiber Waveguides: Ray Theory of Transmission with TIR, Acceptance Angle,
I Numerical Aperture and Skew Rays, Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Optical 08
Propagation, Modes in a Planar Guide, Phase and Group Velocity, Phase Shift with
Total Internal Reflection, Evanescent Field, Goos-Haenchen Shift, Cylindrical Fiber
Modes, Mode Coupling, Step Index fibers Vs Graded Index fibers, Single Mode Fibers-
Cut off wavelength, MFD & Spot Size.
Signal Loss in Optical Fibers: Attenuation, Material Absorption Losses (Intrinsic and
Extrinsic absorption), types of Linear and Non-Linear Scattering Losses, Fiber Bending
Losses, Kerr Effect.
Dispersion: Introduction with its types: Chromatic / Intramodal Dispersion (Material 08
II
and Waveguide Dispersion), Intermodal dispersion (for MSI and MGI fibers), Overall
(Total) Fiber Dispersion in Multimode and Singe Mode Fiber, Dispersion Modified
Single Mode Fibers, Polarization & Fiber Birefringence.

Optical Sources: LEDs-Introduction to LEDs & Materials used for fabrication, LED
Power and Efficiency, LED Structures, LED Characteristics, Modulation Bandwidth.
Laser Diodes-Introduction, Optical Feedback & Laser Oscillations, Resonant
III 08
Frequencies, Laser Modes, and Threshold Condition for Laser Oscillation, Laser Diode
Rate Equations, Semiconductor injection Laser- Efficiency, Laser Single Mode
operation, Reliability of LED & ILD.
Power Launching in Fiber: Source to Fiber Power Launching and Coupling
Techniques, Power Launching Vs Wavelength, Equilibrium Numerical Aperture.
Photo Detectors: Introduction, Physical Principles of Photodiodes: The PIN Photo
IV Detector, Avalanche Photodiodes, Temperature Effect on Avalanche Gain, Detector 08
Response Time, Photo Detector Noise: Noise Sources, Signal to Noise Ratio,
Comparison of Photo Detectors, Fundamental Receiver Operation with Digital Signal
Transmission.
Digital Receiver Performance: Probability of Error / BER, Receiver Sensitivity & The
Quantum Limit, Error Control Techniques, Eye Diagram Pattern Features, Coherent
V Detection: Homodyne Detection and Heterodyne Detection, Digital links: Point to Point 08
Links, Power Penalties, Multichannel & Multiplexing Transmission Techniques, basic
concept of Free Space Optics (FSO) based Communication System.
Text Book:
1. John M. Senior, “Optical Fiber Communications”, Pearson, 3rd Edition, 2010.
2. Gerd Keiser, “Optical Fiber Communications”, McGraw Hill, 5th Edition, 2013.
3. Govind P. Agrawal, “Fiber Optic Communication Systems”, John Wiley, 3rd Edition, 2004.
4. Joseph C. Palais, “Fiber Optic Communication”, Pearson Education, 4th Edition, 2004
Course Outcomes: At the end of this course students will demonstrate the ability to:
1. Define and explain the basic concepts and theory of optical communication.
2. Describe the signal losses with their computation and dispersion mechanism occurring inside the
optical fiber cable.
3. Differentiate the optical sources used in optical communication with their comparative study.
4. Identify different optical components on receiver side; assemble them to solve real world
problems related to optical communication systems.
5. Evaluate the performance of an optical receiver to get idea about power budget and ultimately be
an engineer with adequate knowledge in optical domain.
.

Curriculum & Evaluation Scheme (V & VI semester) Page 18

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1 Introduction to
Optical Communication

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Optical Spectral Band with ...................... 1–2D to 1–5D
Operating Windows, General
Communication System,
Optical Communication
System with its Advantages

Part-2 : Optical Fiber Waveguides : .................... 1–5D to 1–13D

Ray Theory of Transmission
with TIR, Acceptance
Angle, Numerical
Aperture and Skew Rays

Part-3 : Electromagnetic Mode .......................... 1–13D to 1–19D

Theory for Optical
Propagation, Modes in
a Planar Guide, Phase
and Group Velocity

Part-4 : Phase Shift with Total .......................... 1–19D to 1–22D

Internal Reflection,
Evanescent Field,
Goos-Haenchen Shift

Part-5 : Cylindrical Fiber Modes, ....................... 1–22D to 1–31D

Mode Coupling, Step
Index Fibers Vs Graded
Index Fibers, Single Mode
Fibers-Cut-off Wavelength,
MFD and Spot Size
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PART-1
Optical Spectral Band with Operating Windows, General
Communication System, Optical Communication System
with its Advantages.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What are optical spectral band designations used in

optical fiber communication ? Also state different ways to measure
the physical properties of a wave in various region.

Answer
A. Optical spectral band :
1. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has designated six
spectral bands for use in optical fiber communications within the 1260 to
1675 nm region.
2. These long-wavelength band designations arose from the attenuation
characteristics of optical fibers and the performance behaviour of an
erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA).
3. Fig. 1.1.1 shows and Table 1.1.1 defines the regions which are known by
the letters O, E, S, C, L and U.
Table 1.1.1. Spectral band designations used in optical fiber
communications

Name Designation Spectrum Origin of name

(nm)

Original band O-band 1260 to 1360 Original (first) region

used for single mode
fiber links
Extended band E-band 1360 to 1460 Link use can extend
into this region for
fibers with low water
content
Short band S-band 1460 to 1530 Wavelengths are
shorter than the
C-band but higher
than the E-band
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Conventional C-band 1530 to 1565 Wavelength region
used by a conventional
EDFA
Long band L-band 1565 to 1625 Gain decreases
steadily to 1 at
1625 nm in this longer
wavelength band
Ultra long band U-band 1625 to 1675 Region beyond the
response capability of
an EDFA

O-Band E-Band S-Band C-Band L-Band U-Band

1260 1360 1460 1530 1565 1625 1675

Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 1.1.1. Designations of spectral bands used for optical
fiber communications.
4. The 770 to 910 nm band is used for shorter wavelength multimode fiber
systems. Thus this region is designated as the short wavelength or
multimode fiber band.
B. Physical properties :
1. There are three different ways to measure the physical properties of a
wave in various regions in the EM spectrum.
2. These measurement units are related by some simple equations. First
of all, in a vacuum the speed of light c is equal to the wavelength  times
the frequency , so that
c = 
where, the frequency  is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz).
3. The relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency (or
wavelength) is determined by the equation known as Planck’s Law.
E = h
where, the parameter h = 6.63 × 10–34 J-s = 4.14 eV-s is Planck’s constant.
The unit J means joules and the unit eV stands for electron volts.
4. In terms of wavelength (measured in units of µm), the energy in electron
volts is given by
1.2406
E(eV) =
 (m)
5. The optical spectrum ranges from about 5 nm in the ultraviolet region to
1 mm for far-infrared radiation.
Introduction to Optical Communication 1–4 D (EC-Sem-5)
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6. In between these limits is the 400 to 700 nm visible band. Optical fiber
communications use the near-infrared spectral band ranging from
nominally 770 to 1675 nm.

Que 1.2. Draw a block diagram of fiber optic communication

system and describe the function of each component.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
1. Fig. 1.2.1 shows the block diagram of optical fiber communication.

Information Electrical Optical Optical fiber

source transmit source cable

Optical Electrical Destination

detector receive

Optical fiber communication system

Fig. 1.2.1. The optical fiber communication system.

2. The information source provides an electrical signal to the transmitter,

comprising of an electrical stage which drives an optical source to give
modulation of the light wave carrier.
3. The optical source is used to provide an electrical optical conversion. It
may be either a semiconductor Laser or LED.
4. The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the
receiver is an optical detector which drives the further electrical stage
and hence provides the demodulation of the optical carrier.
5. Photodiodes and in some instances photo transistors and photo
conductors may be utilized for the detection of the optical signal and its
conversion to electrical signal.
6. Thus, electrical interfacing at either end of the optical link is needed.

Que 1.3. What are the various advantages of optical fiber

communication system ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
Advantages of optical fiber communication system :
1. Enormous potential bandwidth : The optical carrier frequency in
the range 1013 Hz to 1016 Hz yields a far greater potential transmission
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bandwidth than metallic cable system. Thus, the information-carrying
capacity of optical fiber systems has proved far superior to the best
copper cable systems.
2. Small size and weight : The optical fiber have very small diameter
which are often no greater than the diameter of human hair. Even
when such fibers are covered with protective coatings, they are far
smaller and much lighter than corresponding copper cable.
3. Electrical isolation : Optical fibers which are fabricated from glass or
polymer are electrical insulators and therefore do not exhibit earth loop
and interface problems.
4. Signal security : The light from optical fibers does not radiate
significantly and thus provide a high degree of signal security.
5. Low transmission loss : Optical fibers have been developed in which
losses are as low as 0.2 dB km – 1. Therefore, repeater links will be
required after hundreds of km.
6. Ruggedness and flexibility : Although protective coatings are
essential, optical fibers may be manufactured with very high tensile
strength.
7. System reliability and ease of maintenance : As less number of
repeaters or line amplifiers are required, therefore reliability is high
and is easy to maintain.
8. Potential low cost : The glass which generally provides the optical
fiber transmission medium is made from sand, not a scarce resource.
So, in comparison with copper conductors, optical fibers offer the
potential for low cost line communication.

PART-2
Optical Fiber Waveguides : Ray theory of Transmission with TIR,
Acceptance Angle, Numerical Aperture and Skew Rays.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.4. Explain the structure of optical waveguide.

Answer
1. Optical fiber consists of mainly three regions. The central region is
known as the core. The middle region is called the cladding. The
outer region is a protective sheath.
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2. The refractive index of cladding i.e., n2 is always lower than that of
core i.e., n1.
3. Cladding keeps the light waves within the core. It also provides
some strength to the core.
Sheath

Cladding

125 m
n1

150 m
n2 Cladding
Core Core

Fig. 1.4.1. Cross sectional view of an optical fiber.

4. The outer most protective sheath protects the cladding and core
from moisture, contamination and abrasions.
5. Optical fiber is made from glass or plastic which are transparent to
optical frequencies.
6. With these materials three major type of fibers are made :
i. Plastic core with plastic cladding.
ii. Glass core with plastic cladding.
iii. Glass core with glass cladding.

Que 1.5. Explain Snell’s law. What is total internal reflection?

Explain with suitable diagram. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
1. The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of
light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a medium i.e., n = c/v.
2. When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectric of different
refractive indices (e.g., glass-air), refraction occurs as shown in
Fig. 1.5.1.
3. The angle of incidence 1 and refraction 2 are related to each other and
to the refractive indices of dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction.
Low index n2 Exit ray n1
(air)

High index n1 Partial internal

(glass) reflection
n2

Incident ray
(a) (b)
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n1

 > c
n2
(c)
Fig. 1.5.1. Light rays incident on high to low refractive index interface
(e.g., glass-air) : (a) refraction; (b) the limiting case of refraction showing
the critical ray at an angle fc ; (c) total internal reflection where f > fc.

4. It states that
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
sin 1 n
or, = 2
sin 2 n1
5. From Fig. 1.5.1(a), it is observed that a small amount of light is reflected
back into the originating dielectric medium, this phenomenon is partial
internal reflection.
6. As n1 > n2, the angle of refraction is always greater than angle of
incidence.
7. From Fig. 1.5.1(b), it is observed that when angle of refraction 2 is 90°
and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the
dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than 90°.
8. Thus the angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of refraction
in rarer medium is 90° is called critical angle.
9. It is given as,
n2
sin c =
n1
10. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then the light
is reflected back into the originating dielectric medium then this process
is known as total internal reflection as shown in Fig. 1.5.1(c).
11. Fig. 1.5.2 explains the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via a
series of total internal reflection. The ray has an angle of incidence  at
the interface which is greater than the critical angle and is reflected at
the same angle to the normal. This light ray is known as meridional ray.

Low index cladding

   

High index core Core axis

Fig. 1.5.2. The transmission of a light ray in a perfect optical fiber.

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Que 1.6. What do you mean by acceptance angle of an optical
fiber ? Derive an expression for numerical aperture of optical fiber.

Answer
A. Acceptance angle :
1. The geometry concerned with launching a light ray into an optical fiber
is shown in Fig. 1.6.1.

Conical
half A Eventually lost by radiation
angle

Acceptance Core
Cone Cladding

B
Fig. 1.6.1. The acceptance angle a when launching light into
an optical fiber.

2. In this, it is observed that the meridional ray ‘A’ enters the fiber core at
an angle a to the fiber axis and is refracted at the air core interface
before transmission to the core-cladding interface at the critical angle.
3. Thus, any ray which is incident into the fiber core at an angle greater
than a will be transmitted to the core-cladding interface at an angle less
than c, and will not be totally internally reflected.
4. In the Fig. 1.6.1, it is observed that incident ray B at an angle greater
than a is refracted into the cladding and eventually lost by radiation.
5. Thus a is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the
fiber in the order to be propagated, and is referred as acceptance angle.
B. Numerical aperture :
1. In the Fig. 1.6.2, it is observed that a light ray incident on the fiber core
at an angle 1 is less than the acceptance angle a .
2. The ray enters into the fiber from a medium of air having refractive
index n0, and the fiber core has refractive index n1.
3. The refractive index n1 is greater than the cladding refractive index n2.
4. By considering the refraction at the air-core interface and using Snell’s
law, we get
n0 sin 1 = n1 sin 2 ...(1.6.1)
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Air (n0)
n2

n1
A C

B n2

Fig. 1.6.2. The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical
fiber in air at an input angle less than the acceptance angle for the fiber.
5. Considering the right-angled triangle ABC, the

=  2 ...(1.6.2)
2
Here  is greater than the critical angle at core-cladding interface.
6. Eq. (1.6.1) can be written as
n0 sin  = n1 cos  ...(1.6.3)
7. By using relationship sin2  + cos2  = 1, then eq. (1.6.3) can be written as
n0 sin 1 = n1 (1 – sin2 )1/2 ...(1.6.4)
8. When the limiting case of total internal reflection is consider,  becomes
equal to critical angle for core cladding interface. In this case θ1 becomes
the acceptance angle θa. Therefore
2
n 
n0 sin a = n1 1   2  ...(1.6.5)
 n1 
n0 sin a = (n12 – n22)1/2 ...(1.6.6)
9. Thus the NA is defined as the light capturing capability that can be
accepted by a fiber.
NA = n0 sin a = (n12 – n22)1/2 ...(1.6.7)
10. The numerical aperture may also be given in terms of relative refractive
index difference  between the core and cladding
n1 2  n2 2
i.e., = ...(1.6.8)
2 n12
n1  n2
 for  << 1 ...(1.6.9)
n1
11. Hence combining eq. (1.6.7) with eq. (1.6.8), we get
NA = n1 (2 )1/2

Que 1.7. What are skew rays ?

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Answer
1. The rays which outnumber the meridional rays and follow a helical path
through the fiber are called skew rays.
2. This type of ray is transmitted without passing through fiber axis.
3. It is very difficult to visualize the skew ray paths in two dimension.
4. From Fig. 1.7.1, it is observed that the helical path traced through the
fiber gives a change in direction of 2 at each reflection where  is the
angle between the projection of the ray in two dimensions and radius of
fiber core at the point of reflection.

Core axis

n1 n2

(a)
( b)

Fig. 1.7.1. The helical path taken by a skew ray in an optical fiber:
(a) skew ray path down the fiber (b) cross-sectional view of the fiber.
5. The point of emergence of skew rays from the fiber in air will depend
upon the number of reflections they undergo rather than the input
condition to the fiber.
6. When the light input to the fiber is non-uniform, skew rays will tend to
have smoothing effect on the distribution of the light as it is transmitted,
giving a more uniform output.
7. The amount of smoothing is dependent on the number of reflections
encountered by the skew rays.
8. The acceptance conditions for skew rays are :
n0 sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA
9. When n0 = 1
sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA

Que 1.8. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. In that fiber, skew
rays which change direction by 100° at each reflection. Find out the
acceptance angle of skew rays. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05
OR
Discuss skew rays. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. Compare
the acceptance angle for meridional rays with that for skew rays
which change direction by 100° at each reflection.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
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Answer
A. Screw rays : Refer Q. 1.7, Page 1–9D, Unit-1.
B. Numerical :
Given : NA = 0.4
To Find : Acceptance angle.
1. As NA = n0 sin a
Here n0 = 1
NA = sin a
 a = sin–1 NA
 a = sin–1 0.4 = 23.58°
2. The skew rays change direction by 100° at each reflection, therefore
 = 50°
3. Acceptance angle for skew rays is
 NA  1  0.4 
as = sin 1   = sin  
 cos    cos 50 
= 38.32°
4. In this, the acceptance angle for the skew rays is about 15° greater than
meridional rays.

Que 1.9. Derive expression of acceptance angle for skew rays. An

optical fiber has numerical aperture of 0.344. What is the acceptance
angle for meridional rays ? Calculate the acceptance angle for skew
rays which change direction by 1000 at each reflection.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Derivation of acceptance angle for screw rays : Refer Q. 1.6,
Page 1–8D, and Refer Q. 1.7, Page 1–9D, Unit-1.
B. Numerical :

Given : NA = 0.344
To Find : Acceptance angle.
1. As NA = n0 sin a
Here n0 = 1
NA = sin a
 a = sin – 1 NA
 a = sin – 1 0.344
= 20.13°
2. The skew rays change direction by 100° at each reflection, therefore
 = 50°
3. Acceptance angle for skew rays is
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1  NA  1  0.344 
as = sin   = sin  
 cos    cos 50 
= 32.3°
4. In this, the acceptance angle for the skew rays is about 12° greater than
meridional rays.

Que 1.10. Sketch the block diagram of optical fiber communication

system. With the suitable ray diagram, explain the propagation of
skew rays in the optical waveguide and compare it with meridional
rays. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Block diagram of optical fiber communication : Refer Q. 1.2,
Page 1–4D, Unit-1.
B. Screw rays : Refer Q. 1.7, Page 1–9D, Unit-1.
C. Comparison between skew rays and meridional rays :
S. No. Skew rays Meridional rays
1. This type of ray transmitted This type of ray enters the core
without passing through and passes through its axis.
fiber axis.
2. These types of rays are not The se rays are co nfined to
confined to single plane, but meridian planes of the fiber which
instead tend to follow a are the planes that contain the
helical type path alone the axis of symmetry of the fiber.
fiber.
3. These rays are difficult to As these rays lies in a single plane
locate as they are confined its path is easy to track as it travels
to single plane. along the fiber.

Que 1.11. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough
to be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive index
of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine :
a. The critical angle at the core-cladding interface ;
b. The NA for the fiber ;
c. The acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
OR
What do you mean by acceptance angle of an optical fiber ? Derive
an expression for numerical aperture of optical fiber. A silica optical
fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray
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theory analysis has a core refractive index of 1.5 and cladding
refractive index of 1.47. Determine critical angle at core cladding
interface, NA (Numerical aperture) for the fiber and Acceptance angle.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Acceptance angle : Refer Q. 1.6, Page 1–8D, Unit-1.
B. Derivation of numerical aperture : Refer Q. 1.6, Page 1–8D, Unit-1.
C. Numerical :
Given : n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.47
To Find : Critical angle, NA, acceptance angle.
i. Critical angle to core cladding interface,
n 1.47 
c = sin – 1  2   sin 1   = 78.52°
 n   1.5 
1

2
ii. NA = n12  n22  1.5  (1.47)2 = 0.298
iii. Acceptance angle, A = sin–1 (NA) = sin–1(0.298) = 17.36°

PART-3
Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Optical Propagation, Modes
in a Planar Guide, Phase and Group Velocity.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. State electromagnetic wave theory. Describe Maxwell’s

equation for electromagnetic wave propagation.

Answer
1. There are two approaches which describe the guiding of light in optical
fiber. The first one is geometrical or ray optics approach and the second
one is wave optics approach.
2. In wave optics approach the light is considered as an electromagnetic
wave. To obtain an improved model for the propagation of light in an
optical fiber, electromagnetic wave theory must be considered.
3. The basis for the study of electromagnetic wave propagation is provided
by Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s equations give the relationships
between the electric and magnetic fields.
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

B
E=  ...(1.12.1)
t


  H = D ...(1.12.2)
t

  D = 0 (no free charges) ...(1.12.3)

  B = 0 (no free poles) ...(1.12.4)
   
where D =  E and B = µ H . The parameter  is the permittivity (or
dielectric constant) and µ is the permeability of the medium.
4. A relationship defining the wave phenomena of the electromagnetic
fields can be derived from Maxwell’s equations.
5. Taking the curl of eq. (1.12.1), we have
    
  (  E) =  (  B)    (  H )
t t

  2 D
 ( . E)   2 E =  
t 2


2 E
 2 E =  
t2


2 E
or  2 E =  ...(1.12.5)
t 2
6. Similarly, by taking the curl of eq. (1.12.2) it can be shown that


2 H
2 H =  ...(1.12.6)
t 2
7. Eq.(1.12.5) and eq.(1.12.6) are known as standard wave equations.
8. For rectangular cartesian and cylindrical polar coordinates, the above
wave equations satisfying the scalar wave equation :
1 2
2  = ...(1.12.7)
v2p t 2
 
where  may represent a component of the E or H field and vp is the
phase velocity (velocity of propagation of a point of constant phase in the
wave) in the dielectric medium.
9. It follows that
1 1
vp =  ...(1.12.8)
 ( r  0 ) ( r  0 )
where µr and r are the relative permeability and permittivity for the
dielectric medium and µ0 and 0 are the permeability and permittivity of
free space.
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10. The velocity of light in free space is
1
c= ...(1.12.9)
0 0
11. In planar waveguides, described by rectangular cartesian coordinates
(x, y, z) or circular fibers, described by cylindrical polar coordinates
(r, , z) are considered, then the Laplacian operator takes the form :
2   2 2 
2  =   ...(1.12.10)
2 2
x y z2
2 1  1  2  2
or 2  =    2 ...(1.12.11)
2 r r r 2 2
r z
12. The basic solution of the wave equation is a sinusoidal wave, that varies
with t and it is a function of only one position variable, which in our case
we will initially assume, is z.
 
13. Thus,  = 0 exp j(t  k . z ) ...(1.12.12)

where  is the angular frequency of the field, t is the time, k is the
propagation vector which gives the direction of propagation and the rate
of change of phase with distance.

14. The vacuum phase propagation constant k (where k = k ) is given by
2
k=

15. The complete expression for electric field and magnetic field when there
is no loss,
E(z, t) = E0 exp j(t ± kz) ...(1.12.13)
and H(z, t) = H0 exp j(t ± kz) ...(1.12.14)
 
16. For this condition, E and H are inphase to determine the directions
 
of E and H and the ratio of their magnitudes. This ratio is called the
intrinsic wave impedance.


B
17. From equation E =  , we have
t
ˆj Ex  iˆ E y =  iˆ Bx  ˆj By  k Bz ...(1.12.15)
z z t t t
because  is a function of z only. The terms iˆ, jˆ and kˆ are unit vectors.
18. If we arbitrarily choose the x direction to be parallel to E, Bx = Bz = 0
Ex By
and = 
z t
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
E0x =   H0 y
k
E0 x
=  
H0 y 
x

E0
z
H0

y
Fig. 1.12.1. A plane electromagnetic wave propagating in the + z direction.
19. The plus sign is for a wave moving in the + z direction and the minus
sign is for a wave moving in the – z direction. One can see that
    
E  H  k (Fig. 1.12.1) and the vector E × H is parallel to the
direction of propagation.

Que 1.13. Explain modes in a planar guide. Also state the formation
of modes in a planar dielectric guide.
OR
Analyze the light propagation in dielectric slab waveguide.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide. We may
assume it consists of a slab of dielectric with refractive index n1
sandwiched between two regions of lower refractive index n2.
2. In order to obtain an improved model for optical propagation it is useful
to consider the interference of plane wave components within this
dielectric waveguide.
3. A plane monochromatic wave propagating in the direction of the ray
path within the guide as shown in Fig. 1.13.1(a).
4. As the refractive index within the guide is n1, the optical wavelength in
this region is reduced to /n1, while the vacuum propagation constant is
increased to n1k.
5. When  is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the
equivalent ray and the guide axis, the plane wave can be resolved into
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two component plane waves propagating in the z and x directions, as
shown in Fig. 1.13.1.
6. The component of the phase propagation constant in the z direction z is
given by :
 z = n1k cos  ...(1.13.1)
7. The component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction  x
is
 x = n1k sin  ...(2.13.2)
n2 Wave vector n 1 k
x = n 1k cos  x
P Q z direction

n1 > n2 1 = n1k sin  Guide axis
Guide
n2 Cladding
(a) x direction
(transverse)
n2 Wave vector Equiphase plane

 P Q
 Electric
Guide field
Wave vector Cladding

Electric field
z direction
(b)
Fig. 1.13.1. The formation of a mode in a planar dielectric guide.

8. The component of the plane wave in the x-direction is reflected at the

interface between the higher and lower refractive index media.
9. When the total phase change after two successive reflections at the
upper and lower interfaces (between the points P and Q) is equal to 2 m
radians, where m is an integer, then constructive interference occurs
and a standing wave is obtained in the x-direction.
10. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 1.13.1(b), the optical wave is effectively
confined within the guide and the electric field distribution in the
x-direction does not change as the wave propagates in the z-direction.
11. The sinusoidally varying electric field in the z-direction is also shown in
Fig. 1.13.1(b).
12. The stable field distribution in the x-direction with only periodic
z dependence is known as a mode.
13. A specific mode is obtained only when the angle between the propagation
vectors or the rays and the interface have a particular value, as indicated
in Fig. 1.13.1(b).
14. In effect, eq. (1.13.1) and eq. (1.13.2) define a group or congruence of
rays which in the case described represents the lowest order mode.
15. Hence the light propagating within the guide is formed into discrete
modes, each specified by a distinct value of .
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16. These modes have a periodic z dependence of the form exp (– j zz)
where  z becomes the propagation constant for the mode as the modal
field pattern is invariant except for a periodic z dependence.

Que 1.14. What is phase velocity and group velocity ? Derive the
relation between group velocity and group index of the guide.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
1. A monochromatic light wave propagates along a waveguide in the
z-direction these points of constant phase travel at a phase velocity vp
given by :

vp = ...(1.14.1)

where  is the angular frequency of the wave.
2. A group of waves with closely similar frequencies propagate so that
their resultant forms a packet of waves.
3. This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the individual
waves but is observed to move at a group velocity vg given by

vg = ...(1.14.2)


Envelope

Fig. 1.14.1. Combination of two waves with nearly equal frequencies.

The envelope travels at a group velocity vg.
4. The group velocity is of greatest importance in the study of the
transmission characteristics of optical fibers as it relates to the
propagation characteristics of observable wave groups or packets of
light.
5. If propagation in an infinite medium of refractive index n1 is considered,
then the propagation constant :
2 n1
 = n1  ...(1.14.3)
 c
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where c is the velocity of light in free space.
6. We assume propagation in the z direction only and hence cos  is equal
to unity. Using eq. (1.14.3) we obtain the following relationship for the
phase velocity.
c
vp = ...(1.14.4)
n1
 d
7. Similarly, employing eq. (1.14.4), where in the limit becomes ,
 d
the group velocity :
d d
vg = .
d d
1 1
=  2      =    1 dn1  n1 
d
 n1     
 d     2   d 2 
c c
= =
 dn1  Ng
 n1   
 d 
The parameter Ng is known as the group index of the guide.

PART-4
Phase Shift with Total Internal Reflection, Evanescent Field,
Goos-Haenchen Shift.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.15. Explain in detail the phase shift with total internal
reflection.

Answer
1. The wave equation in cartesian coordinates for the electric field in a
lossless medium is :
2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E
2 E =  2
 2
 2
 ...(1.15.1)
t x y z2
2. As the guide-cladding interface lies in the y-z plane and the wave is
incident in the x-z plane on the interface, then / y may be assumed to
be zero.
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B0 exp (jx2 x) x
2
n 2 (Cladding)
z
n 1 (Guide)
1 1 exp j(t – z)

C0 exp (jx2 x)
A0 exp (– jx2 x)

Fig. 1.15.1.
3. There the wave propagation in the z-direction may be described by
exp j(t – z). In addition, there will also be propagation in the x-direction.
4. When the components are resolved in this plane :
 x1 = n1k cos 1 ...(1.15.2)
 x2 = n2k cos 2 ...(1.15.3)
where  x1 and  x2 are propagation constants in the x-direction for the
guide and cladding respectively.
5. Thus, the three waves in the waveguide indicated in Fig. 1.15.1. The
incident, the transmitted and the reflected, with amplitudes A0, B0 and
C0, respectively, will have the forms :
A = A0 exp – ( j x1 x ) exp j(t – z) ...(1.15.4)
B = B0 exp – ( j x2 x ) exp j(t – z) ...(1.15.5)
C = C0 exp – ( j x1 x ) exp j(t – z) ...(1.15.6)
6. Using the simple trigonometrical relationship cos2  + sin2  = 1 :
 2x1 = (n12 k2  2 ) = – 12 ...(1.15.7)
2x2 = (n22 k2 2
 )= –  22 ...(1.15.8)
7. When an electromagnetic wave is incident upon an interface between
two dielectric media, Maxwell’s equation require that both the tangential
components of E and H and the normal components of D (=E) and
B (=H) are continuous across the boundary.
8. The normal components of the E and H fields at the interface may be
equated giving
A0 + C0 = B0 ...(1.15.9)
9. An electric field component in the y direction is related to the tangential
magnetic field component Hz following
J E y
Hz = ...(1.15.10)
r 0  x
10. Applying the tangential boundary conditions and equating Hz by
differentiating Ey gives :
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– x1A0 +  z2C0 = – x2B0 ...(1.15.11)
11. Algebraic manipulation of eq. (1.15.9) and (1.15.10) provides the following
results :
    x2 
C0 = A0  x1 = A0rER ...(1.15.12)
  x1   x2 
 2 x1 
B0 = A0  = A0rET ...(1.15.13)
  x1   x2 
12. If f1 is further increased the component  x2 becomes imaginary and we
may write it in the form – j2. Under the conditions of total internal
reflection eq. (1.15.12) may therefore be written as :
   j 2 
C0 = A0  x1 = A0 exp 2jE ...(1.15.14)
  x1  j 2 
13. Where we observe there is a phase shift of the reflected wave relative to
the incident wave. This is signified by E which is given by :
 22
tan E = ...(1.15.15)
 x1

Que 1.16. Write a short note on evanescent field.

Answer
1. The phenomenon of interest under conditions of total internal reflection
is the form of the electric field in the cladding of the guide.
2. Before the critical angle for total internal reflection is reached, and
hence when there is only partial reflection, the field in the cladding is of
the form given by
B = B0 exp – (j x2 x) exp j(t – z) ...(1.16.1)
3. However, as indicated previously, when total internal reflection occurs,
 x2 becomes imaginary and may be written as – j2. Substituting for  x2
in eq. (1.16.1) gives the transmitted wave in the cladding as :
B = B0 exp (–2x ) exp j(t – z) ...(1.16.2)
4. Thus the amplitude of the field in the cladding is observed to decay
exponentially in the x direction.
5. Such a field, exhibiting and exponentially decaying amplitude, is often
referred to as evanescent field.
6. Fig. 1.16.1 shows a diagrammatic representation of the evanescent field.
7. A field of this type stores energy and transports it in the direction of
propagation (z) but does not transport energy in the transverse
direction (x).
8. Nevertheless, the existence of an evanescent field beyond the plane of
reflection lower index medium indicates that optical energy is transmitted
into the cladding.
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Evanescent field

n2 Cladding
n1 > n2 Guide

Wave vector
of the incident
plane wave
Standing wave

Fig. 1.16.1. The exponentially decaying evanescent field

in the cladding of the optical waveguide.

Que 1.17. Explain Goos-Hanchen shift.

Answer
1. The phase change incurred with the total internal reflection of a light
beam on a planar dielectric interface may be understood from physical
observation.
2. Careful examination shows that the reflected beam is shifted laterally
from the trajectory predicted by simple ray theory analysis, as illustrated
in Fig. 1.17.1.
3. This lateral displacement is known as the Goos-Hanchen shift, after its
first observer.
Virtual reflecting plane

Reflecting n2 Penetration
interface depth
n1 > n2
1 1

Lateral shift

Fig. 1.17.1. The lateral displacement of a light beam on reflection at a

dielectric interface (Goos-Haenchen shift).

PART-5
Cylindrical Fiber Modes, Mode Coupling, Step Index Fibers vs
Graded Index Fibers, Single Mode Fibers-Cut-off
Wavelength, MFD and Spot Size.
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Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.18. Explain the modes in cylindrical fiber and derive an

expression for normalised frequency.

Answer
1. The cylindrical waveguide is bounded in two dimensions rather than
one. Thus two integers, l and m, are necessary in order to specify the
modes.
2. For cylindrical waveguide we therefore refer to TElm and TMlm modes.
These modes correspond to meridional rays travelling within the fiber.
3. However, hybrid modes where Ez and Hz are non-zero also occur within
the cylindrical waveguide.
4. For the cylindrical homogeneous core waveguide the scalar wave
equation can be written in the form :
d2 1 d 1 d 2 
   (n12 k2   2 ) = 0 ...(1.18.1)
dr 2 r dr r 2 d2
where  is the field (E or H), n1 is the refractive index of the fiber core,
k is the propagation constant for light in a vacuum, and r and  are
cylindrical coordinates.
5. The propagation constants of the guided modes  lie in the range :
n2k <  < n1k
where n2 is the refractive index of the fiber cladding.
6. Solutions of the wave equation for the cylindrical fiber are separable,
having the form:
 cos l 
 = E  r  exp (t  z) ...(1.18.2)
 sin l 
where in this case  represents the dominant transverse electric field
component.
7. The periodic dependence on  following cos l or sin l gives a mode of
radial order l. Hence the fiber supports a finite number of guided modes
of the form of eq. (1.18.2).
8. Introducing the solutions given by eq. (1.18.1) into eq. (1.18.2) results in
a differential equation of the form :

d2 E 1 dE  l2 
  (n1k2  2 )  2  E = 0 ...(1.18.3)
dr 2 r dr  r 
9. For a step index fiber with a constant refractive index core, eq. (1.18.1)
is a Bessel differential equation and the solutions are cylinder functions.
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10. In the core region, the solutions are Bessel functions denoted by Jl. A
graph of these gradually damped oscillatory functions (with respect to r)
is shown in Fig. 1.18.1.
1.0
0.8 J0
(r J1(r)
0.6 ) J2(r)
J3(r)
0.4
J(r) 0.2
0 r
0.2
0.4 J2(r) J3(r)
J0(r) J1(r)
0.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 1.18.1.
11. The electric field may therefore be given by :
E(r) = GJl(UR) ...(1.18.4)
For R < 1 (core)
K l (WR)
= GJ l (U )
K l (W )
For R > 1 (cladding)
where G is the amplitude coefficient and R = r/a is the normalized radial
coordinate when a is the radius of the fiber core.
12. U and W which are the eigen values in the core and cladding respectively,
are defined as
U = a(n12k2 –  2)1/2 ...(1.18.5)
W = a(b2 – n22k2)1/2 ...(1.18.6.)
13. The normalized frequency V where
V = (U2 + W2)1/2
V = ka(n12 – n22)1/2 ...(1.18.7)
14. The normalized frequency may be expressed in terms of the numerical
aperture (NA) and the relative refractive index difference (),
respectively, as :
2
V=
a( NA) ...(1.18.8)

2
V= an1 (2 )1/2 ...(1.18.9)

15. The normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter and hence is
also sometimes simply called the V number or value of the fiber.

Que 1.19. Define mode coupling in cylindrical fiber.

Answer
1. Waveguide perturbations such as deviations of the fiber axis from
straightness, variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the core
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cladding interface and refractive index variations may change the
propagation characteristics of the fiber.
2. These will have the effect of coupling energy travelling in one mode to
another depending on the specific perturbation.
3. Ray theory aids the understanding of this phenomenon, as shown in
Fig. 1.19.1, which illustrates two types of perturbation. It may be observed
that in both cases the ray no longer maintains the same angle with the
axis.
4. In electromagnetic wave theory this corresponds to a change in the
propagating mode for the light.
5. Thus individual modes do not normally propagate throughout the length
of the fiber without large energy transfers to adjacent modes, even
when the fiber is exceptionally good quality and is not strained or bent
by its surroundings. This mode conversion is known as mode coupling
or mixing.
6. Mode coupling affects the transmission properties of fibers in several
important ways, a major one being in relation to the dispersive properties
of fibers over long distances.

Irregularity

2
1
C or e
ing
Clad d

(a)

 1 1
2 2

Cor
e
Cl a
d d in
(b) g

Fig. 1.19.1. (a) irregularity at the core-cladding interface;

(b) fiber bend.

Que 1.20. Describe with simple ray diagram the step index fiber.
OR
What is mode coupling ? Describe step index fiber with its refractive
index profile and ray transmission through it.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
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Answer
A. Mode Coupling : Refer Q. 1.19, Page 1–24D, Unit-1.
B. Step Index Fiber :
1. A step index fiber is one for which the refractive index of core n1 is
constant and is larger than the refractive index of the cladding n2.
2. The refractive index profile for this type of fiber makes a step change at
the core-cladding interface that’s why it is named as step index fiber.
3. The refractive index profile may be defined as :
n(r) = {n1, r < a (core)
= {n2, r  a (cladding)
4. There are two major types of step index fiber
a. Multimode step index fiber
b. Single mode step index fiber.
5. The Fig. 1.20.1 shows a multimode step index fiber and single mode step
fiber. In multimode step index fiber core diameter is around 50 m or
greater, which is large enough to allow the propagation of many modes
within the fiber whereas single mode step index fiber has a very fine
thin core, so that only one mode can be propagated.
r r

Refractive
index n(r) a

Core
Cladding
n1
(a)
n2
r

n(r)
a Core
Cladding
n1
n2
(b)
Fig. 1.20.1. The refractive index profile and transmission in step
index fibers : (a) multimode step index fiber ; (b) single-mode
step index fiber.
6. Multimode step index fiber allows the propagation of finite number of
guided modes along the channel.
7. The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical parameters
of the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted light which are
included in the normalized frequency V of fiber.
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2a
V= n12  n2 2 ...(1.20.1)

where a = Radius of the core,
 = Free space wavelength.
8. The eq. (1.20.1) can also be written in form
2 a
V= NA

2a
or V= n1 2

9. Guided modes are important in optical fiber communications as these
are confined to fiber over its full length.
10. The total number of guided modes is also known as mode volume
(MS).

V2
11. For step index fiber, M S 
2
12. For single mode fiber V < 2.405 and for multimode fiber V > 2.405.

Que 1.21. How does the ray of light propagate in a graded index
fiber ?
OR
Draw the structures of single and multimode step index fibers and
graded index fiber with their typical dimensions.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
A. Single and multimode step index fiber : Refer Q. 1.20, Page 1–25D,
Unit-1.
B. Graded index fiber :
1. Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core
but a decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance from a maximum
value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the core radius ‘a’ in
the cladding.
2. The index variation may be represented as
n(r) = {n1 (1 – 2  (r/a))1/2 r < a (core)
= {n1 (1 – 2 )1/2 = n2 r  a (cladding)
where  is relative refractive index difference and  is a profile parameter
which gives the refractive index profile of the fiber core.
3. The equations above is a convenient method of expressing the refractive
index profile of the fiber core as a variation of  allows representation of
the step index profile when  = , a parabolic profile when  = 2 and a
triangular profile when = 1.
Introduction to Optical Communication 1–28 D (EC-Sem-5)
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4. The graded index profiles which at present produce the best results for
multimode optical propagation have a near parabolic refractive index
profile core with  2.
Refractive index (n(r))
n1

10
2

=1
n2 n2

–a Radial distance (r)

Core axis a
Fig. 1.21.1. Possible fiber refractive index profiles for different
values of .

r r

n2
Refractive
index n(r)
n1 a

Core
Cladding

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.21.2. The refractive index profile and ray transmission in a

multimode graded index fiber.
5. A multimode graded index fiber with a parabolic index profile core is
shown in Fig. 1.21.2. It is observed that meridional rays appear to follow
a curved path through the fiber core.
6. Using the idea of geometric optics, the gradual decrease in refractive
index from the center of the core creates much refraction of the rays as
they are effectively incident on a large number of the high to low index
interface.
7. The rays travelling close to the fiber axis have shorter paths when
compared with rays which travel into outer regions.
8. The near axial rays are transmitted through a region of higher refractive
index and therefore travel with a lower velocity than the more extreme
rays.

Que 1.22. Describe with the aid of simple ray diagrams :

i. The multimode step index fiber,
ii. The single mode step index fiber.
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Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these two types of
fiber for use as an optical channel. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
OR
Compare the step index fiber and graded index fiber on their
performance parameters. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A. Simple ray diagram : Refer Q. 1.20, Page 1–25D, Unit-1.
B. Comparison :
S. No. Step index fiber Grade index fiber
1. A step index fiber has a central In graded index fiber, there is no
core with uniform refractive cladding and the refractive index
index. The core is surrounded of the core is non-uniform. It is
by an outside cladding with a highest at the cente r and
uniform refractive index less decreases gradually towards the
than that of central core. outer edge.
2. Data rate is slow. Data rate is higher.
3. Coupling efficiency is higher. Coupling efficiency is lower.

n1  n2 n12  n2 2
4. = =
n1 2n12
5. Pulse spreading by fiber length Pulse spreading is less.
is more.

Que 1.23. A graded index fiber with a parabolic refractive index

profile core has a refractive index at the core axis of 1.5 and a relative
refractive index difference of 1 %. Estimate the maximum possible
core diameter which allows single mode operation at a wavelength
of 1.3 m. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05

Answer
1. The maximum value of normalized frequency for single-mode operation
is
1 1
 22  2 2
V = 2.4  1   = 2.4  1   = 2.4 2
   2
2. The maximum core radius is given as
V
a= ,
2 n1 (2)1/ 2
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2.4 2  1.3  10 6
a= , a = 3.3 m
2  1.5  (0.02)1/ 2
Hence the maximum core diameter which allows single-mode operation
is 6.6 m.

Que 1.24. Write a short note on following :

a. Cut-off wavelength
b. Mode field diameter.
OR
What do you mean by spot size ?

Answer
a. Cut-off wavelength :
1. Single mode operation only occurs above a theoretical cut-off wavelength
C which is given as :
2 an1
C = (2)1/ 2 ...(1.24.1)
VC
where VC is the cut-off normalized frequency and C is the wavelength
above which a particular fiber becomes single mode.
2. For the same fiber inverse relationship also exist i.e. obtained by dividing
2
eq. (1.24.1) by V= an1 (2 )1/ 2 . It is given as

C V
=
 VC
3. Thus for step index fiber where VC = 2.405, the cut-off wavelength is
given by :
V
C =
2.405
4. An effective cut-off wavelength has been defined by the CCITT which is
obtained from a 2 m length of fiber containing a single 14 cm radius loop.
This definition was produced because the first higher order LP11 mode
strongly affected by fiber length and curvature near cut-off.
b. Mode field diameter :
1. The mode field diameter is an important parameter for characterizing
single mode fiber properties which takes into account the wavelength
dependent field penetration into the fiber cladding.
2. For step index and graded single mode fibers operating near cut off
wavelength C, the field is approximated by a gaussian distribution.
3. MFD is generally taken as the distance between the opposite 1/e = 0.37
times the near field strength (amplitude) and the power 1/e2 = 0.135
points in relation to corresponding values on the fiber axis as shown in
Fig. 1.24.1.
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4. Spot size is half the MFD. Thus the spot size 0 is,

MFD
0 =
2
OR
MFD = 20
where 0 is the nominal half width of the input excitation.

E(r) E0

E0/e
0

–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10

MFD = 2 0
Fig. 1.24.1. Field amplitude distribution E (r) of the fundamental mode
in single mode fiber illustrating the mode-field diameter (MFD)
and spot size ( 0).

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Draw a block diagram of fiber optic communication system

and describe the function of each component.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.2.

Q. 2. Explain Snell’s law. What is total internal reflection?

Explain with suitable diagram.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.5.

Q. 3. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. In that fiber, skew

rays which change direction by 100° at each reflection. Find
out the acceptance angle of skew rays.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.8.
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Q. 4. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to
be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive
index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine :
a. The critical angle at the core-cladding interface ;
b. The NA for the fiber ;
c. The acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.11.

Q. 5. What is phase velocity and group velocity ? Derive the

relation between group velocity and group index of the
guide.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.14.

Q. 6. What is mode coupling ? Describe step index fiber with its

refractive index profile and ray transmission through it.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.20.

Q. 7. Draw the structures of single and multimode step index

fibers and graded index fiber with their typical dimensions.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.21.

Q. 8. A graded index fiber with a parabolic refractive index profile

core has a refractive index at the core axis of 1.5 and a
relative refractive index difference of 1%. Estimate the
maximum possible core diameter which allows single mode
operation at a wavelength of 1.3 m.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.23.


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2 Signal Loss in
Optical Fiber

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Attenuation, Material ............................... 2–2D to 2–8D
Absorption Losses (Intrinsic
and Extrinsic Absorption),
Types of Linear and
Non-linear Scattering
Losses, Fiber Bending
Losses, Kerr Effect

Part-2 : Dispersion : Introduction ....................... 2–9D to 2–18D

with its Types :
Chromatic/Intramodal
Dispersion (Material and
Waveguide Dispersion),
Intramodal Dispersion
(for MSI and MGI Fibers)

Part-3 : Overall (Total) Fiber ............................. 2–18D to 2–24D

Dispersion in Multimode
and Single Mode Fiber,
Dispersion Modified Single
Mode Fibers, Polarization
and Fiber Birefringence
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PART-1
Attenuation, Material Absorption Losses (Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Absorption), Types of Linear and Non-linear Scattering
Losses, Fiber Bending Losses, Kerr Effect.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Write a short note on attenuation.

Answer
1. Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light
power that occurs as light pulses propagate through the length of the
fiber.
2. Signal attenuation within optical fibers is usually expressed in the
logarithmic unit of decibel (dB).
3. dB is used to compare two power levels, may be defined for a particular
optical wavelength in the ratio of the input power pi into a fiber to the
output optical power p0 from the fiber as
pi
Number of dB = 10 log 10
po
4. In optical fiber communication the attenuation usually expressed in dB
per km.
pi
dBl = 10 log 10
p0
where dB is signal attenuation per unit length in dB and l is the length
of the fiber.

Que 2.2. Explain absorption loss mechanisms with their causes

in the silica glass fibers in detail. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

OR
Explain absorption losses. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
Absorption loss is related to the material composition and fabrication
process of fiber. The absorption of the light may be intrinsic or extrinsic.
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i. Intrinsic absorption :
1. This type of absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure state,
no density variation and inhomogeneities. This is the natural property
of the glass.
2. An absolutely pure silicate glass has little intrinsic absorption due to its
basic material structure in the near infrared region.
3. Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in UV
regions and from atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.
4. The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps of the
amorphous glass materials.
5. Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the
valence band and excites it to higher energy level.
6. Intrinsic losses are mostly insignificant in a wide region where fiber
systems can operate, but these losses inhibit the extension of fiber
systems towards the ultraviolet as well as toward longer wavelengths.
ii. Extrinsic absorption :
1. Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between the
energy levels and because of charge transitions from one ion to another.
2. A major source of attenuation is from transition of metal impurity ions
such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper.
3. The presence of impurities in the fiber material is the major source of
loss in practical fibers.
4. Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption due to
water dissolved in the glass.
5. These hydroxyl groups are bonded into the glass structure and have
fundamental stretching vibrations which occur at wavelengths between
2.7 and 4.2 m depending on group position in the glass network.

Que 2.3. What do you understand by scattering loss ? Describe

its types with expressions.

Answer
1. Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variations in the material
density, from compositional fluctuations, and defects occurring during
fiber manufacture.
2. The scattering losses can be classified as :
Scattering Losses

Linear Scattering Losses Non Linear Scattering Losses

Rayleigh Mie Stimulated Stimulated

Scattering Scattering Brillouin Raman
Scattering Scattering
(SBS) (SRS)
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A. Linear Scattering losses :
1. Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the
optical power contained within one propagating mode to be transferred
linearly into a different mode.
2. There are two types of linear scattering losses.
i. Rayleigh scattering :
1. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant loss mechanism in the low absorption
window between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption tails. It results
from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a small scale
compared with wavelength of light.
2. For single-component glass the scattering loss at a wavelength  resulting
from density fluctuations is given by :
8 3 8 2
scatt = n p T K BTF ...(2.3.1)
3 4
where : scatt is the Rayleigh scattering co-efficient,
 is the optical wavelength,
n is the refractive index of medium,
p is the average photoelastic coefficient,
 T is the isothermal compressibility,
TF is fictive temperature, and
K is Boltzmann’s constant.
3. Rayleigh scattering co-efficient is related to the transmission loss factor
of the fiber T by
T = e  scatt L
where L is the length of fiber
ii. Mie Scattering :
1. Linear scattering may also occur at inhomogeneities which are
comparable in size to the guided wavelength.
2. When the scattering inhomogeneity size is greater than /10, the scattered
intensity which has an angular dependence can be made very large.
3. Thus the scattering which is mainly created by such inhomogeneities is
mainly in the forward direction and is called mie scattering. This type of
scattering depends upon the fiber material, design and the manufacture.
4. Following are the method to reduce inhomogeneities :
a. Removing imperfection due to glass manufacturing process.
b. By fiber coating.
c. Increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative refractive index
difference.
B. Non-Linear Scattering loss :
1. The non-linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be
transferred in either the forward or backward direction to the same or
other modes at a different frequency.
2. This type of scattering are of two types :
i. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) :
1. SBS may be regarded as the modulation of light through thermal
molecular vibrations within the fiber.
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2. The scattered light appears as upper and lower side bands which are
separated from the incident light by the modulation frequency.
3. Brillouin scattering is only significant above threshold power density.
4. The threshold power PB is given by :
PB = 4.4 × 10–3 d22 dB watts
where d and  are fiber core diameter and operating wavelength,
dB is the fiber attenuation in decibels per kilometer, and
 is the source bandwidth in gigahertz.
ii. Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) :
1. This type of scattering is similar to Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
except that a high frequency optical phonon rather than an acoustic
phonon is generated in scattering process.
2. The threshold optical power for SRS i.e. PR in a long single-mode fiber is
given by :
PR = 5.9 × 10–2 d2 2 dB watts.

Que 2.4. Silica has an estimated fictive temperature of 1400 K

with an isothermal compressibility of 7 × 10–11 m2 N – 1. The refractive
index and the photoelastic co-efficient for silica are 1.46 and 0.286
respectively. Determine the theoretical attenuation in decibels per
kilometers due to the fundamental Rayleigh scattering in silica at
optical wavelength of 0.63, 1.00, 1.30 m. Boltzmann’s constant is
1.38 × 10–23 J/K.

Answer

Given : TF = 1400 K,  T =7 × 10–11m2 N–1, n = 1.46, p = 0.286,

K = 1.381 × 10–23, 1 = 0.63 m, 2 = 1.00 m, 3 = 1.30 m
To Find : Attenuation in dB.
1. The Rayleigh’s scattering co-efficient is given by :
8 3 n8 p2T KTF
scatt = ...(2.4.1)
3 4
2. At a wavelength 1 = 0.63 m
8  (3.14)3  (1.46)8  (0.286)2  7  10 11  1.381  10 23  1400
scatt=
3  (0.63  106 )4
= 1.199 × 10–3 m–1
–3
T = e scatt L = e – (1.199 × 10 ) × 1000 = 0.301
 1 
Attenuation = 10 log10 
 Tkm 
= 10 log10 3.322 = 5.2 dB km–1
3. At a wavelength 2 = 1.00 m
8  (3.14)3  (1.46)8  (0.286)2  7  10 11  1.381  10 23  1400
scatt=
3  (1.00  10 6 )4
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= 1.895 × 10 – 4 m – 1
– 4 × 1000)
T= e scatt L = e – (1.895 × 10
= e – 0.1895
= 0.827
Attenuation = 10 log10 1.209
= 0.8 dB km – 1
4. At wavelength of 1.30 m
8  (3.14)3  (1.46)8  (0.286)2  7  10 11  1.381  10 23  1400
scatt=
3  (1.30  10 6 )4
= 0.664 × 10 – 4 m – 1
–4
T = e – (0.664 × 10 ) × 103
= 0.936
Attenuation = 10 log10 1.069
= 0.3 dB km – 1.

Que 2.5. With a neat diagram, enumerate the different

mechanisms that contribute to attenuation in optical fibers.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 12
OR
What are the losses on signal attenuation mechanisms in a fiber ?
Explain in detail. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
OR
Discuss the fiber bend loss.

Answer
The losses on signal attenuation mechanisms in fiber are :
i. Material absorption loss : Refer Q. 2.2, Page 2–2D, Unit-2.
ii. Scattering loss : Refer Q. 2.3, Page 2–3D, Unit-2.
iii. Fiber bend loss :
1. Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths.
This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at the bend exceeding
the velocity of light in the cladding and hence the guidance mechanism
is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated from the fiber.
2. The part of the mode which is on the outside of the bend is required to
travel faster than that on the inside so that a wavefront perpendicular
to the direction of propagation is maintained.
3. Hence, part of the mode in the cladding needs to travel faster than the
velocity of light in that medium.
4. The loss can generally be represented by the radiation attenuation
coefficient which is given as :
r = C1 exp (– C2R) ...(2.5.1)
where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend,
C1 C2 are constants and are independent of R.
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Cladding

Radiation
Core

Fig. 2.5.1. An illustration of the radiation loss at a fiber bend.

5. Large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a critical
radius of curvature RC, which is given by

RC  3n12  ...(2.5.2)
4  ( n12  n22 )3/ 2
6. From eq. (2.5.2), it is observed that potential macro bending losses may
be reduced by :
a. Designing fibers with large relative refractive index difference.
b. Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
7. The critical radius of curvature for a single mode fiber RCS is given by :
3
20  
RCS  2.748  0.996  ...(2.5.3)
(n1  n2 )3/ 2  c 
where c is the cut-off wavelength for the single mode fiber.
8. Thus, for single mode fiber, the critical wavelength of the radiated light
becomes progressively shorter as the bend radius is decreased. The
critical radius is called critical bending radius.
iv. Losses due to leaky modes.

Que 2.6. A 8 micrometer core diameter single mode fiber with a

core refractive index of 2, and relative refractive index difference of
0.3 % and operating wavelength of 1.55 micrometer. Determine
critical radius of curvature. Explain bending losses.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Numerical :
Given : Diameter = 8m, n1 = 2, = 0.003,  = 1.55 × 10–6 m
To Find : Critical radius of curvature
1. Given n22 = n12 – 2n12
n22 = 4 – (0.006 × 4) = 3.976
2. The cut-off wavelength for single mode fiber is given as :
2an1 (2)1/ 2
c =
2.405
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2  4  10 6  (2  0.003)1/ 2  2
c = = 1.62 m
2.405
3. The critical radius of curvature for the single mode fiber gives,
3
20  
Rc =  2.748  0.996  
(n1  n2 )3/ 2 c

3
20  1.55  106  0.996  1.55  106 
= 3/2  2.748   = 34 mm
(0.043)  1.62  10 6 
B. Bending losses : Refer Q. 2.5, Page 2–6D, Unit-2.

Que 2.7. What is self phase modulation ? Explain Kerr effect.

Answer
1. The refractive index n of many optical materials has a weak dependence
on optical intensity I (equal to the optical power per effective area in the
fiber) given by
P
n = n0 + n2I = n0 + n2 ...(2.7.1)
Aeff
where n0 is the ordinary refractive index of the material and n2 is the
non-linear index coefficient. In silica, the factor n 2 is about
2.6 × 10–8 µm2 W.
2. The non-linearity in the refractive index is known as the Kerr non-
linearity. This non-linearity produces a carrier induced phase modulation
of the propagating signal, which is called the Kerr effect.
3. In single wavelength links, this gives rise to self phase modulation (SPM),
which converts optical power fluctuations in a propagating light wave to
spurious phase fluctuations in the same wave.
4. The main parameter  which indicates the magnitude of the non-linear
effect for SPM is given by,
2 n2
= ...(2.7.2)
 Aeff
where  is the free space wavelength and Aeff is the effective core area.
5. The value of  ranges from 1 to 5 W–1 km–1 depending on the fiber type
and the wavelength. For example,  = 1.3 W–1 km–1 at 1550 nm for a
standard single mode fiber that has an effective area equal to 72 µm2.
6. The frequency shift  arising from SPM is given by
d dP
 = =  Leff ...(2.7.3)
dt dt
dP
Here Leff is the effective length given by eq. (2.7.3) and is the
dt
derivative of the optical pulse power, that is, it shows that the frequency
shift occurs when the optical pulse power is changing in time.
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PART-2
Dispersion : Introduction with its Types : Chromatic/Intramodal
Dispersion (Material and Waveguide Dispersion), Intramodal
Dispersion (for MSI and MGI Fibers).

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.8. Explain the phenomenon of dispersion and pulse

broadening.

Answer
1. Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for both
digital and analog transmission along optical fiber.

(a) 1 0 1 1
Amplitude

Time

Distinguishable Pulses
(b) 1 0 1 1
Amplitude

Time
Indistinguishable
Pulses Composite Pattern
(c) Non zero level
Amplitude

Time
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Fig. 2.8.1. An illustration using the digital bit pattern 1011 of the
broadening of light pulses as they are transmitted.
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2. The major implementation of optical fiber transmission involves some
form of digital modulation then dispersion mechanisms within the fiber
cause broadening of the transmitted light pulses as they travel along the
channel. This phenomenon is shown in the Fig. 2.8.1.
3. From Fig. 2.8.1 it may be observed that each pulse broadens and overlaps
with its neighbors, eventually becomes indistinguishable at the receiver
input the effect is known as intersymbol interference (ISI).
4. For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber link the
digital bit rate BT must be less than the reciprocal of the broadened pulse
duration (2)
1
Hence, BT  ...(2.8.1)
2
5. The eq. (2.8.1) gives a conservative estimate of maximum bit rate that
may be obtained as an optical fiber link as 1/2.
6. Another more accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate for an optical
channel with dispersion may be obtained by considering the light pulses
at the output to have a gaussian shape with an rms width of .
7. The maximum bit rate is given by
0.2
BT (max)  bit per sec ...(2.8.2)
6
8. Fig. 2.8.2 shows the three common optical fiber structures, multimode
step index, multimode graded index and single mode step index and also
shows pulse broadening associated with each fiber type.
Multimode step index fiber Input pulse Output pulse

r n2 Core cladding
n1 Amp Amp
Refractive
index n(r)
t t
Multimode graded index fiber
r n2 Amp Amp
n1

n (r)

Single-mode step index fiber

r n2
n1 Amp Amp

n (r)
t t

Fig. 2.8.2. An illustration showing the pulse broadening due to

inter model dispersion in each fiber type.
Optical Communication 2–11 D (EC-Sem-5)
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9. It is seen that multimode step index fiber exhibits the greatest dispersion
of transmitted light pulse and the multimode graded index fiber gives a
considerable improved performance.
10. The single mode fiber gives the minimum pulse broadening and thus is
capable of the greatest transmission bandwidths which are currently in
gigahertz range whereas transmission via multimode step index fiber is
limited to bandwidths of a few tens of megahertz.
11. The amount of pulse broadening is dependent upon the distance the
pulse travels within the fiber, and for a given optical fiber link the
restriction on usable bandwidth is dictated by the distance between
regenerative repeaters.

Que 2.9. Define graded index fibers. A multimode graded index

exhibits the total pulse broadening of 0.1 m over a distance of
15 km. Estimate :
a. Maximum possible BW without ISI.
b. Pulse dispersion per unit length.
c. Information carrying capacity. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
OR
A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of
0.1 s over a distance of 15 km and dispersion is 6.67 ns. km–1. Estimate
i. The maximum possible bandwidth on the link.
ii. The bandwidth length product for the fiber.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 03
OR
What do you understand by Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) ? A
multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of
0.1 s over a distance of 15 km.
Estimate :
i. The maximum possible bandwidth without ISI.
ii. Pulse dispersion per unit length. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
A. Graded index fibers : Refer 1.21, Page 1–27D, Unit-1.
B. ISI : Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2–9D, Unit-2.
C. Numerical :
Given :  = 0.1 s, L = 15 km
To Find : BT, Pulse dispersion per unit length, bandwidth length product.
i. Maximum possible bandwidth without ISI :
1 1
BT =  = 5 MHz
2 2  0.1  10 6
ii. Pulse dispersion per unit length :
Signal Loss in Optical Fiber 2–12 D (EC-Sem-5)
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 0.1  10  6
= = 0.67 × 10 – 8 s/km
L 15
iii. Bandwidth length product :
BT × L = 5 × 15 = 75 MHz-km.

Que 2.10. A multimode graded index fiber exhibit total pulse

broadening of 0.1 microsecond over a distance of 10 km. Determine
maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no inter symbol
interference. Pulse dispersion per unit length and bandwidth length
product for the fiber. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

Given :  = 0.1 s, L = 10 km

To Find : BT, Pulse dispersion per unit length, bandwidth length product.
i. Maximum possible bandwidth without ISI :
1 1
BT =  = 5 MHz
2 2  0.1  10 6
ii. Pulse dispersion per unit length :
 0.1  10  6
= = 1 × 10 – 8 s/km
L 10
= 5 MHz
iii. Bandwidth length product :
BT × L = 5 × 10 = 50 MHz-km.

Que 2.11. What is Intramodal (chromatic) dispersion ? Explain

material dispersion and waveguide dispersion in brief.
OR
Discuss the waveguide dispersion with relevant mathematical
treatment. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
OR
Explain material dispersion and waveguide dispersion in detail.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
Intramodal dispersion :
1. Intramodal or chromatic dispersion is a pulse spreading that occurs
within a single mode.
2. This dispersion is due to the fact that group velocity of guided mode is a
function of the wavelength.
3. It depends upon the wavelength and therefore, its effect on signal
distortion increases with the spectral width of the optical source.
Optical Communication 2–13 D (EC-Sem-5)
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4. The spectral width of the optical source is defined as the band of
wavelengths over which the optical source emits light.
5. The intramodal dispersion has two main regions :
a. Material dispersion :
1. Pulse broadening due to material dispersion results from the different
group velocities of the various spectral components launched into the
fiber from the optical source.
2. It occurs when the phase velocity of a plane wave propagating in the
dielectric medium varies non-linearly with wavelength, and a material
is said to exhibit material dispersion when the second differential of the
 d2 n 
refractive index with respect to wavelength is not zero  i.e.,  0 .
 d 2 
3. The pulse spread due to material dispersion may be obtained by
considering the group delay τg in the optical fiber which is the
reciprocal of the group velocity vg. Hence the group delay is given by :
d 1  dn 
g =   n1   1  ...(2.11.1)
d c  d 
when n1 is the refractive index of the core material.
4. The pulse delay m due to material dispersion in a fiber of length L is
therefore :
L dn1 
m =  n1    ...(2.11.2)
C d 
5. For a source with rms spectral width  and a mean wavelength , the
rms pulse broadening due to material dispersion m may be obtained
from the expansion of equation in a Taylor series about  where :
d m 2d 2  m
m =     .... ...(2.11.3)
d d 2
6. As the first term in eq. (2.11.3) usually dominates, especially for sources
operating over the 0.8 to 0.9 µm wavelength range, then :
d
m =  m ...(2.11.4)
d
7. Hence the pulse spread may be evaluated by considering the dependence
of m on , where from eq. (2.11.3).
d m L  dn1 d 2 n1 dn1 
=    
d c  d d 2 d 
 L d 2 n1
= ...(2.11.5)
c d 2
8. Therefore, substituting the expression obtained in the rms pulse
broadening due to material dispersion is given by,
 L d2 n1
m =  ...(2.11.6)
c d 2
Signal Loss in Optical Fiber 2–14 D (EC-Sem-5)
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9. The material dispersion for optical fibers is sometimes quoted as a value
 d 2 n1  d2 n1
for  2   or
 d  2 d 2
10. However, it may be given in terms of a material dispersion parameter M
with is defined as :
1 dm  d 2 n1
M=  ...(2.11.7)
L d c d 2
and which is often expressed in units of ps nm–1 km–1.
b. Waveguide dispersion :
1. The waveguiding of the fiber may also create intramodal dispersion.
This results from the variation in group velocity with wavelength for a
particular mode.
2. Considering the ray theory approach it is equivalent to the angle between
the ray and the fiber axis varying with wavelength which subsequently
leads to a variation in the transmission times for the rays, and hence
dispersion.
3. For a single mode whose propagation constant is , the fiber exhibits

( d 2)
waveguide dispersion when  0.
( d 2 )
4. Multimode fibers, where the majority of modes propagate far from
cut-off, are almost free of waveguide dispersion and it is generally
negligible compared with material dispersion ( 0.1 to 0.2 ns km–1).
5. However, with single mode fibers where the effects of the different
dispersion mechanisms are not easy to separate, waveguide dispersion
may be significant.

Que 2.12. Discuss various dispersion mechanisms.

Answer
Dispersion

Intramodal Dispersion Intermodal

(Chromatic) Dispersion

Material Waveguide Multimode Multimode

dispersion dispersion step graded
index fiber index fiber
Fig. 2.12.1.
i. Intramodal dispersion : Refer Q. 2.11, Page 2–13D, Unit-2.
Optical Communication 2–15 D (EC-Sem-5)
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ii. Intermodal dispersion :
1. Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion results from propagation
delay difference between modes within a multimode fiber.
2. The different modes which constitute a pulse in a multimode fiber travel
along the channel at different group velocities, the pulse width at the
output is dependent upon the transmission times of the slowest and
fastest modes.
3. Thus multimode step index fibers exhibit a large amount of intermodal
dispersion which gives a great pulse broadening.

Que 2.13. Describe the mechanism of intermodal dispersion in a

multimode step index fiber. Show that the total broadening of light
pulse TS due to intermodal dispersion in a multimode step index
L( NA)2
fiber may be given by TS = where L is the fiber length, NA
2 cn1
is numerical aperture, n1 is the core refractive index and c is the
velocity of light. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer

Cladding (n 2)
Air (n 0 = 1)
 c Axial ray Core (n 1)
a Extreme meridional ray

Fig. 2.13.1. The paths taken by the axial and an extreme meridional ray
in a perfect multimode step index fiber.
1. Let us consider a ray diagram showing the axial and an extreme
meridional ray in a perfect multimode step index fiber.
2. The delay difference between these two rays when travelling in the
fiber core allows estimation of the pulse broadening resulting from
intermodal dispersion within the fiber.
3. As both rays are travelling at the same velocity within the constant
refractive index fiber core, then the delay difference is directly related
to their respective path lengths within the fiber.
4. The time taken for the axial ray to travel along a fiber of length L gives
the minimum delay time Tmin as
L Ln1
T min = = ...(2.13.1)
(c / n1 ) c
where n1 is the refractive index of the core and c is the velocity of light
in vacuum.
5. The extreme meridional ray exhibits the maximum delay time Tmax
where
Signal Loss in Optical Fiber 2–16 D (EC-Sem-5)
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L / cos  Ln1
Tmax = = ...(2.13.2)
c / n1 c cos 
6. Using Snell’s law of refraction at core-cladding interface
n2
sin c = = cos  ...(2.13.3)
n1
where n2 = refractive index of cladding
7. Putting the value of eq. (2.13.3) in eq. (2.13.2)
Ln1 Ln1 2
Tmax = = ...(2.13.4)
c ( n2 / n1 ) cn2
8. The delay difference TS between the extreme meridional ray and axial
ray may be obtained as,
TS = Tmax – Tmin
Ln12 Ln1 Ln12  n1 n2 
=  = ...(2.13.5)
cn2 c cn2  n1 
Ln12 
 when  << 1
cn2
where  is the relative refractive index difference
9. When  << 1, the relative refractive index difference may be given as :
n1  n2
=
n2
Ln1  n1  n2  Ln1 
Thus TS =
c  n   c
2
2
L  NA 
And TS =
2n1 c
where NA is the numerical aperture for the fiber.
10. The expression of delay difference is usually employed to estimate the
maximum pulse broadening in time due to intermodal dispersion in
multimode step index fibers.
11. The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion is given as :
Ln1 
S = .
2 3c

Que 2.14. Describe the mechanism of intermodal dispersion in

multimode graded index fiber.

Answer
1. Intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers is minimized with the use of
graded index fibers.
2. By using multimode graded index fiber, bandwidth is improved as
compared to multimode step index fibers. The reason for the improved
performance of the fibers may be observed by considering a ray diagram.
Optical Communication 2–17 D (EC-Sem-5)
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3. The index profile is given as
2 1/ 2
  r 
n(r) = n1 1  2    r < a (core)
  a 
1/ 2
n1 1  2 = n2 r  a (cladding)
r

n2

n1 a

Refractive Core
index n(r)
Cladding

(a) (b ) Axial ray

Fig. 2.14.1. A multimode graded index fiber :
(a) parabolic refractive index profile ;
(b) meridional ray paths within the fiber core.
4. From Fig. 2.14.1, it is shown that from the axial ray the meridional rays
follow sinusoidal trajectories of different path lengths which result from
index grading.
5. As group velocity is inversely proportional to the local refractive index
and therefore the longer sinusoidal paths are compensated for by higher
speeds in lower index medium away from the axis.
6. Multimode fiber bandwidth is improved by using a parabolic refractive
index profile. This can be explained by considering reduced delay
difference between the fastest and slowest modes for this graded index
fiber Tg.
7. Ray theory gives an expression for delay difference as :
4
Ln1  2  NA
Tg = =
2c 8n13 c
8. The electromagnetic mode theory gives an expression as :
Ln1  2
Tg =
8c
9. The rms pulse broadening of a near parabolic index profile graded index
fiber is related to the rms pulse broadening of step index fiber by the
expression as

g = S
D
where D is the constant between 4 and 10 depending on the precise
evaluation.
10. The best theoretical intermodal rms pulse broadening for a graded index
fiber is given as
Signal Loss in Optical Fiber 2–18 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ln1  2
g =
20 3 c

PART-3
Overall (Total) Fiber Dispersion in Multimode and Single Mode
Fiber, Dispersion Modified Single Mode Fibers, Polarization
and Fiber Birefringence.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.15. Discuss overall fiber dispersion in multimode fibers.

Answer
1. The overall dispersion in multimode fibers consists of both intramodal
and intermodal terms.
2. The total rms pulse broadening T is given as :
T = (c2 + n2)1/2
where c = Intramodal or chromatic broadening
n = Intermodal broadening caused by de lay
differences between the modes.

Que 2.16. Explain overall fiber dispersion in single mode fiber.

Answer
1. The pulse broadening in single mode fiber consist of only intramodal or
chromatic dispersion as only single mode is allowed to propagate.
2. The transit time or specific group delay g for a light pulse propagating
along a unit length of single mode fiber may be given as :
1 d
g =
c dr
where c = Velocity of light in vacuum
= Propagation constant for a mode within the fiber
core of refractive index n1
k = Propagation constant for the mode in the
vacuum.
3. The total first order dispersion parameter of a single mode fiber is given
as :
d g
DT =
d
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4. When the variable  is replaced by ,
  d g   d 2
then DT = =
 d  d 2
d g  L 2  d 2
5. The total rms pulse broadening =   L =  2
d c dk2
where  is the source rms spectral line width centered at a wavelength .
6. This showed that pulse broadening depends upon material properties
and normalized propagation constant and give rise to three interrelated
effects which involve complicated cross product terms.

Que 2.17. Define dispersion modified single mode fiber.

Answer
1. The dispersion characteristics of single mode fibers are modified by the
tailoring of specific fiber parameters. However, the major trade off which
occurs in this process between material dispersion and waveguide
dispersion may be expressed as :
DT = DM + DW
 d 2 n1 2
 n  n2  Vd  Vb
=  1 
c d 2  c  dV 2
material dispersion waveguide dispersion
2. At wavelengths longer than the zero material dispersion (ZMD) point in
most common fiber designs, the DM and DW components are of opposite
sign and can therefore be made to cancel at some longer wavelength.
3. Hence the wavelength of zero first order chromatic dispersion can be
shifted to the lowest loss wavelength for silicate glass fibers at 1.55 µm
to provide both low dispersion and low loss fiber.
4. This may be achieved by such mechanisms as a reduction in the fiber
core diameter with an accompanying increase in the relative or fractional
index difference to create so called dispersion shifted (DS) single mode
fibers.
20

Dispersion 1.3 µm optimized

–1 –1
(ps nm km ) 10
1.5 Wavelength
(µm)
0
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7

– 10 Dispersion flattened

Dispersion shifted
– 20

Fig. 2.17.1. Total dispersion characteristics for the various types

of single-mode fiber.
Signal Loss in Optical Fiber 2–20 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Que 2.18. Describe the scheme for realizing the dispersion shifted

fiber. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. Single mode fiber refractive index profiles are capable of modification in
order to tune the zero dispersion wavelength point 0 to a specific
wavelength within a region adjacent to the zero material dispersion
(ZMD) point.

n1

n

n2

0 Radius
Fig. 2.18.1. Refractive index profile of a step index dispersion shifted
fiber (solid) with a conventional non-shifted profile design (dashed).

n1

(a)

n 1

n2

( b)
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n 1

(c )
Fig. 2.18.2. Refractive index profiles for graded index dispersion
shifted fibers; (a) triangular profile; (b) depressed-cladding trianglar
profile, (c) Gaussian profile.

2. The step index profile gives a shift to longer wavelength by reducing the
core diameter and increasing the fractional index difference. Typical
values for the two parameters are 4.4 µm and 0.012 m respectively.
3. 0 could be shifted to longer wavelength by altering the material
composition of the single mode fiber.
4. For suitable power confinement of the fundamental mode, the normalized
frequency V should be maintained in the range 1.5 to 2.4 µm and the
fractional index difference must be increased as a square function while
the core diameter is linearly reduced to keep V constant.

Que 2.19. Explain dispersion flattened fibers.

Answer
1. To modify the dispersion characteristics of single mode fibers in order to
give two wavelengths of zero dispersion. A typical W fiber index profile
(double clad) is shown in Fig. 2.19.1(a).
2. The first practical demonstration of dispersion flattening using the W
structure was reported in 1981.
3. However, drawbacks with the W structural design included the
requirement for a high degree of dimensional control so as to make
reproducible DF fibers.
4. To reduce the sensitivity to bend losses associated with the W fiber
structure the light which penetrates into the outer cladding area can be
retrapped by introducing a further region of raised index into the
structure.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.19.1. Dispersion flattened fiber refractive index profiles:
(a) double clad fiber (W fiber); (b) triple clad fiber;
(c) quadruple clad fiber.
Signal Loss in Optical Fiber 2–22 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Que 2.20. Explain modal birefringence and state of polarization.

Answer
1. When the light propagates through cylindrical optical fibers, the state of
polarization of the light input does not remain same.
2. There are some applications for which the state of polarization of input
light should be maintained over significant distance.
3. Thus the phenomenon of maintaining the state of polarization is known
as modal birefringence.
4. When the fibre cross-section is independent of the fibre length L in the
z direction the modal birefringence BF for fiber is given as :
( x   y )
BF = ...(2.20.1)
(2 / )
where  x and  y are propagation constants for two modes along x and y
direction.
5. The difference in phase velocities causes the fiber to exhibit a linear
retardation (z) assuming that the phase coherence of two modes
components maintained is given by :
(z) = ( x –  y) L ...(2.20.2)
6. The condition for the birefringent coherence to be maintained over a
length of fiber LC is known as coherence length
y

Linear x
y

Circular x
(anticlockwise)

Linear x LC

Circular x
(clockwise)
y

Fig. 2.20.1. An illustration of the beat length in a single mode optical fibre.

c 
LC = = ...(2.20.3)
BF f BF 
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where f = Source frequency width
= Source line width
7. When phase coherence is maintained, then
= k n1 [1 – 2(1 – b)1/2] ...(2.20.4)
leads to polarization state which is generally elliptical which varies
periodically along the fiber. This situation is shown in Fig. 2.20.1.
8. The incident linear polarization which is at 45° with respect to the x-axis
circular polarization at = /2 and linear at  = . This process continues
through another circular polarization at  = 3/2 before returning to
initial linear polarization at  = 2.
9. The characteristic length LB corresponding to this process known as
beat length.

LB =
BF
  2 2
LB = =
( x   y )  x  y

Que 2.21. What is Modal Birefringence ? The beat length in a single-

mode optical fiber is 9 cm when light from an injection laser with a
spectral line width of 1 m and a peak wavelength of 0.9 µm is
launched into it. Determine the modal birefringence and estimate
the coherence length in this situation. In addition calculate the
difference between the propagation constants for the two orthogonal
modes and check the result. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Modal birefringence : Refer Q. 2.20, Page 2–22D, Unit-2.
B. Numerical :
Given : LB = 9 cm = 0.09 m,  = 1 nm,  = 0.9 m
To Find : Modal birefringence, and coherence length.
1. Modal birefringence is given by,
 0.9  10  6
BF =   10 5
LB 0.09
2. Coherence length,
2 (0.9  10  6 )2
LC =  = 81 × 102 = 8.1 km
BF  10  5  10  9

Que 2.22. Two polarization maintaining fibers operating at a

wavelength of 1.3 m have beat lengths of 0.7 mm and 80 m. Determine
the model birefringence in each case. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05
Signal Loss in Optical Fiber 2–24 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Answer
Numerical :
Given : Wavelength, = λ1.3µ m, Beat length of fiber 1, LB1 = 0.7 mm,
Beat length of fiber 2, LB2 = 80 m
To Find : Modal birefringence.
1. Modal birefringence of fiber 1,
 1.3  106
BF1 =  = 1.857 × 10– 3
LB1 0.7  103
2. Modal birefringence of fiber 2,
 1.3  10 6
BF2 =  = 1.625 × 10– 8
LB 2 80

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Explain absorption loss mechanisms with their causes in

the silica glass fibers in detail.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.2.

Q. 2. With a neat diagram, enumerate the different mechanisms

that contribute to attenuation in optical fibers.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.5.

Q. 3. A 8 micrometer core diameter single mode fiber with a core

refractive index of 2, and relative refractive index difference
of 0.3 % and operating wavelength of 1.55 micrometer.
Determine critical radius of curvature. Explain bending
losses.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.6.

Q. 4. Define graded index fibers. A multimode graded index

exhibits the total pulse broadening of 0.1 m over a distance
of 15 km. Estimate :
a. Maximum possible BW without ISI.
b. Pulse dispersion per unit length.
c. Information carrying capacity.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.9.
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Q. 5. What is Intramodal (chromatic) dispersion ? Explain
material dispersion and waveguide dispersion in brief.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.11.

Q. 6. Describe the mechanism of intermodal dispersion in a

multimode step index fiber. Show that the total broadening
of light pulse T S due to intermodal dispersion in a
L( NA)2
multimode step index fiber may be given by TS =
2 cn1
where L is the fiber length, NA is numerical aperture, n1 is
the core refractive index and c is the velocity of light.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.13.

Q. 7. Describe the scheme for realizing the dispersion shifted

fiber.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.18.

Q. 9. What is Modal Birefringence ? The beat length in a single-

mode optical fiber is 9 cm when light from an injection
laser with a spectral line width of 1 m and a peak
wavelength of 0.9 µm is launched into it. Determine the
modal birefringence and estimate the coherence length in
this situation. In addition calculate the difference between
the propagation constants for the two orthogonal modes
and check the result.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.21.


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3 Optical Sources

CONTENTS
Part-1 : LEDs-Introduction to LEDs ................... 3–2D to 3–13D
and Materials used for
Fabrication, LED Power and
efficiency, LED Structures,
LED Characteristics,
Modulation Bandwidth

Part-2 : Laser Diodes : Introduction, ................ 3–13D to 3–24D

Optical Feedback & Laser
Oscillations, Resonant Frequencies

Part-3 : Laser Modes and Threshold ................. 3–24D to 3–27D

Condition for Laser
Oscillations, Laser
Diode Rate Equations

Part-4 : Semiconductor Injection ...................... 3–28D to 3–31D

Laser : Efficiency, Laser
Single Mode Operation,
Reliability of LED & ILD
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PART-1
LEDs-Introduction to LEDs and Materials used for Fabrication,
LED Power and efficiency, LED Structures, LED
Characteristics, Modulation Bandwidth.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Write a short note on LEDs. Explain its working.

Answer
1. LEDs are special diodes that emit light when connected in a circuit.
2. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor p-n junction operating
under proper forward biased conditions and are capable of emitting
external spontaneous radiations in the visible range (370 nm to 770 nm)
or the nearly ultraviolet and infrared regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
3. The circuit symbol of LED is shown in Fig. 3.1.1.

+ –

Circuit symbol
Fig. 3.1.1.
Working :
1. The negative side of an LED is indicated in two ways
i. By the flat side of the bulb and
ii. By the shorter of the two wires extending from the LED.
2. The negative lead should be connected to the negative terminal of a
battery. LED’s operate at relative low voltages between about 1 and 4
volts, and draw currents between about 10 and 40 milliamperes.
3. Voltages and current substantially above these values can melt a LED
chip.
4. The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the
semiconductor chip located in the center of the bulb and is attached to
the top of the anvil.
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5. The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p-region is
dominated by positive electric charges, and the n-region is dominated by
negative electric charges.

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

p-type p-type n-type

Depletion n-type
(negative ions (negative ions + –
region
and mobile holes) and mobile holes)
VD V
(a) ( b)
Fig. 3.1.2. Light radiation by the p-n junction of a semiconductor
(a) Depletion region and Depletion voltage VD; (b) Light radiation
as the result of electron-hole recombinations.

6. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the p and
n-regions.
7. Only when sufficient voltage is applied to the semiconductor chip, can
the current flow and the electrons cross the junction into the p-region.
8. In the absence of a large enough electric potential difference (voltage)
across the LED, the junction presents an electric potential barrier to the
flow of electrons.

Que 3.2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of LED.

Answer
Advantages :
1. It has a simple fabrication since there are no mirror facets and in some
structures no striped geometry.
2. The simple construction of LED leads to much reduced cost.
3. It is reliable as it does not exhibit catastrophic degradation.
4. It has simple drive circuitry due to generally lower drive currents and
reduced temperature dependence.
5. The LED has a linear light output against current characteristics.
Disadvantages :
1. Lower optical power coupled into a fiber.
2. Usually lower modulation bandwidth.
3. Harmonic distortion.

Que 3.3. Explain the structure of double heterojunction LED.

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OR
Discuss heterojunction in LED diodes.

Answer
1. The principle of operation of the DH LED is shown in Fig. 3.3.1
2. The device consists of a p-type GaAs layer sandwiched between a p-type
AlGaAs and an n-type AlGaAs layer.
3. When a forward bias is applied, electrons from n-type layer are injected
through the p-n-junction into the p-type GaAs layer where they become
minority carriers.
4. These carriers diffuse away from the junction, recombining with majority
carriers. Photons are therefore produced with energy corresponding to
the bandgap energy of the p-type GaAs layers.
5. The injected electrons are inhibited from diffusing into the p-type AlGaAs
laye r because of the pote ntial barrier presented by the p–p
heterojunction.
6. Hence electroluminescence only occurs in GaAs junction layer, providing
both good internal quantum efficiency and high radiance emission.
Al Ga 1–x As GaAsAlx Ga1–x As

+ Optical
output

Hetero junctions
p p n
( a)

Injection
electrons
h

Holes
(b )

Fig. 3.3.1. ( a) The double heterojunction LED, layer structure.

(b) The corresponding energy band diagram.
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Que 3.4. What are the types of LED structures ? Explain each of
them.
Answer
Types of LED structure :
a. Planar LED :
1. The planar LED is the simplest structure that is available and fabricated
by either liquid or vapour phase epitaxial processes over the whole
surface of GaAs substrate.
2. This involves a p-type diffusion into the n-type substrate in order to
create the junction as shown in Fig. 3.4.1. Forward current flow through
the junction gives Lambertian spontaneous emission and the device
emits light from all surfaces.
Light output

p-type
epitaxial Ohmic
layer n-type substrate contacts

Fig. 3.4.1. The structure of a planar LED showing the

emission of light from all surfaces.
b. Dome LED :
1. A hemisphere of n-type GaAs is formed around a diffused p-type region.
2. The diameter of the dome is chosen to maximize the amount of internal
emission reaching the surface within the critical angle of GaAs – air
interface.
3. Hence this device has higher external power efficiency than the planar
LED.
Light output

n-type

Ohmic
p-type
contacts
Fig. 3.4.2. Dome LED.
c. Surface emitter LEDs :
1. The structure of a high radiance etched well DH surface emitter for the
0.8 to 0.9 mm wavelength band is shown in Fig. 3.4.3.
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Light output

Multimode optical fiber

Epoxy
Metal tab resin
Etched n-AlGaAs
well
n type
50  m GaAs p-GaAs
p-AlGaAs
p-GaAs
Gold stud Metallization

SiO2 Contact Primary light emitting region

50  m
diameter
Fig. 3.4.3. The structure of an AlGaAs DH
surface–emitting LED (Burrus type).

2. The internal absorption of this device is very low due to large bandgap
confining layers, and the reflection coefficient at the back crystal face is
high giving good forward radiance. The power coupled PC into a multimode
step index fiber may be estimated as :
PC = (1 – r)ARD(NA)2
where r = Fresnel reflection coefficient.
A = Fiber cross section emission area of the source.
RD = Radiance of the source.
3. The addition of epoxy resin in the etched well tends to reduce the
refractive index mismatch and increase the external power efficiency of
device.
d. Edge emitter LEDs :
1. The basic high radiance structure currently used in fiber communication
is stripe geometry DH edge emitter LED (ELED).
2. The edge emitter depicted in Fig. 3.4.4 consists of active junction region,
which is the source of incoherent light and two guiding layers.
3. The guiding layers both have a refractive index which is lower than that
of active region but higher than the index of surrounding material.
4. This structure forms a waveguide channel that directs the optical
radiation towards the fiber core.
5. To match the typical fiber core diameter (50 – 100 mm), the contact
stripes for the edge emitter are 50 – 70 mm wide.
6. The emission pattern of the edge emitter is more directional than that of
the surface emitter.
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Stripe 350  m

Metallization
SiO2
p-AlGaAs
n-AlGaAs p-AlGaAs Optical
(active layer) n-GaAs guiding
Carrier n-GaAs
m layers
confinement n-GaAs-substrate 0
15
layer
~120° ~30°

Fig. 3.4.4. Schematic illustration of the structure of a stripes geometry

DH AlGaAs edge emitting LED.
e. Superluminescent LEDs :
1. The third device geometry which provides significant benefits over SLED
and ELED in communication applications is the superluminescent diode
or SLD.
2. This device gives :
i. More output power
ii. A directional output beam
iii. A narrow spectral bandwidth
Stripe metallic contact

SiO 2

p
n
Cleaved
face
Incoherent
Si-Ni output
contact beam
Fig. 3.4.5.
3. The structure of SLD is a long rectangular stripe, a ridge waveguide or
a buried heterostructure.
4. One end of the device is made optically lossy to prevent reflections and
thus suppress lasing, the output being from the opposite end.
5. Fig. 3.4.5 employs a contact stripe together with an absorbing region at
one end to suppress laser action.
6. Such device provides peak power of 60 mW at a wavelength of 0.87 mm
in pulsed mode.
7. AR coating is applied to the cleaved facets of SLDs in order to suppress
lasing action.
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Que 3.5. Explain the working principle of LED. How the quantum
efficiency of LED is defined ? List out various parameters which are
needed to be optimized for getting maximum output power from the
LED. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

OR
What do you understand by the term external quantum efficiency
and internal quantum efficiency of a LED ?
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
A. Working principle of LED : Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3–2D, Unit-3.
B. Quantum efficiency
1. The internal quantum efficiency (ηint) is defined as the ratio of radiative
recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
Rr
int =
Rr  Rnr
where,
Rr = Radiative recombination rate, and
Rnr = Non-radiative recombination rate.
n
2. If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, r = , and
Rr
non-radiative life time,
n
nr = .
Rnr
3. The internal quantum efficiency is given as,
1
int =
R
1  nr
Rr
1
int =

1 r
 nr
4. The recombination time of carriers in active region is t. It is also known
as bulk recombination life time.
1 1 1
= 
  r  nr
Therefore, internal quantum efficiency is given as,

int =
r
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5. If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge, then
total number of recombination per second is,
I
Rr + Rnr =
q
Rr
int =
I/q
I
Rr = int 
q
6. Optical power generated internally in LED is given as,
Pint = Rr . h
 I
Pint =  int   h
 q
 I c
Pint =  int   h
 q 
hcI
Pint = int 
q
7. The external quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted power.
The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons emitted
from LED to the number of photons generated internally. It is given by
equation,
1
ext =
n(n  1)2
8. The optical output power emitted from LED is given as,
P = hext . Pint
1
P= Pint
n(n  1)2
C. Parameters : The various parameters which are needed to be optimized
for getting maximum output power from the LED are :
1. center
2. 
3. d/dT
4. dPopt/dT
5. POF basic attenuation
6. Change of Popt
7. Effect of wavelength drift
8. Effect of spectral width
9. Effective loss for 50 m POF
10. Change in received power
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Que 3.6. Discuss heterojunction in light emitting diode (LED).
Explain the efficiency and modulation capability of LED.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Heterojunction LED : Refer Q. 3.3, Page 3–3D, Unit-3.
B. Efficiency : Refer Q. 3.5, Page 3–8D, Unit-3.
C. Modulation Capability : The various characteristics of LED are as
follows :
i. Optical output power :
1. The ideal light output power against current characteristics for an LED
is shown in Fig. 3.6.1. It is linear corresponding to the linear part of
injection laser optical power output characteristics before lasing occurs.
Light output
(power)

Current
Fig. 3.6.1. An ideal light output against current
characteristics for an LED.
2. The LED is a very linear device in comparison with the majority of
injection Lasers and hence it tends to be more suitable for analog
transmission where several constraints are put on the linearity of the
optical source.
ii. Modulation bandwidth :
1. The modulation bandwidth in optical communication may be defined in
either electrical or optical terms. It is more convenient to find the electrical
signal power with the variation of modulated portion of the optical signal.
2. As the optical sources operate on DC, we consider the high frequency
3 dB point. The modulation bandwidth being the frequency range
between zero and this high frequency 3 dB point.
Current ratio
1.0 Electrical 3 dB point
Iout Optical 3 dB point
0.707
Iin
0.500

Electrical bandwidth Frequency

Optical bandwdith

Fig. 3.6.2. The frequency response for an optical fiber system

showing the electrical and optical bandwidths.
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3. If 3 dB bandwidth of modulated optical carrier is considered, an increased
value for the modulation bandwidth is obtained.
4. The modulation bandwidth of LEDs is generally determined by three
mechanisms.
a. The doping level in the active layer.
b. The reduction in radiative lifetime due to the injection carrier.
c. The parasitic capacitance of device.
iii. Reliability :
1. LEDs are not affected by catastrophic degradation mechanisms which
can severely affect injection Lasers.
2. Maximum LED operational time is expressed as
failure
RF = BF TF EF QF 
1  106 hr
where RF = Reliability factor
BF = Base failure rate
EF = Environment factor
QF = Quality factor

Que 3.7. Name the materials used for fabrication of LEDs. Explain
the working principle of LED and how its efficiency can be defined ?
Discuss the double heterojunction LED. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Name the material used for the fabrication of LED. What are basic
requirement of optical sources to be used for optical fiber ?
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Material used for fabrication of LEDs :
i. GaAS/AlGaAs : Operate in shorter wavelength region.
ii. InGaASP/InP : Operate in longer wavelength region.
B. Working of LED : Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3–2D, Unit-3.
C. Efficiency : Refer Q. 3.5, Page 3–8D, Unit-3.
D. Double heterojunction LED : Refer Q. 3.3, Page 3–3D, Unit-3.
E. Requirement of optical sources :
1. Physical dimensions to suit the optical fiber geometry.
2. Narrow radiation pattern.
3. Ability to be directly modulated by varying driving current.
4. Fast response time.
5. Adequate output power to couple into the optical fiber.
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6. Narrow spectral width.
7. Driving circuit issue.
8. Stability, efficiency, reliability and cost.

Que 3.8. What types of materials are used for optical sources?
What are the advantages of double Hetro structure ? Compare
surface emitting and edge emitting LED structures.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
A. Types of materials are used for optical sources :
i. Types of materials used for LED (Optical source) are :
1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
2. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
ii. Types of materials used for edge emitting semiconductor laser diode
(Optical source) are :
1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
2. Indium Phosphide (InP)
3. Gallium Antimonide (GaSb)
4. Gallium Nitride (GaN)
B. Advantages :
1. It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance compare to single
homojunction (p – n +) LED type.
2. Emitting wavelength of GaAs/AlGaAs based DH LEDs range approx.
between 0.8 to 0.9 µm.
C. Comparison :

S. No. SLED structures ELED structures

1. Easy to fabricate. Difficult to fabricate.
2. Easy to mount and handle. Difficult to mount and handle.
3. Require less critical tolerances. N ee d critical tolerance o n
fabrication.
4. Less reliable. Highly reliable.
5. Low system performance. High system performance.
6. Less modulation Bandwidth. Better Modulation, Bandwidth of
the order of hundreds of MHz.
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Que 3.9. The radiative and non-radiative recombination lifetimes
of the minority carriers in the active region of double
heterostructure LED are 60 ns and 100 ns respectively. Determine
the total carrier recombination lifetime and the power internally
generated within the device when the peak emission wavelength is
0.87 µm at a drive current of 40 mA.

Answer

Given : r = 60 ns, nr = 100 ns

To Find : Total carrier recombination lifetime, internal power.
1. The total carrier recombination lifetime is given as
 r  nr 60  100
=  = 37.5 ns
 r   nr (60  100)
2. The internal quantum efficiency is given as
 37.5
int =  = 0.625 = 62.5%
r 60

3. Internal power, Pint = int hcI

e
0.625  6.626  10 34  2.998  108  40  10 3
Pint =
1.602  1019  0.87  10 6
Pint = 35.6 mW

PART-2
Laser Diodes : Introduction, Optical Feedback & Laser
Oscillations, Resonant Frequencies.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.10. Explain the principle of semiconductor lasers and draw

the emission characteristics.

Answer
A. Principle of semiconductor laser : The general operation of laser
are as follows :
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i. Absorption :
1. The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete energy packets
called quanta or photons.
2. The quantum theory suggests that atoms exist only in discrete energy
states such that absorption and emission of light causes them to make a
transition from one discrete energy state to another.
3. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related as the
difference in energy between the higher energy state E2 and lower
energy state E1 by the expression :
E = E2 – E1 = hf
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js

E2 Initial State Final State

Absorption
E1
Fig. 3.10.1.
4. Fig. 3.10.1 illustrates a two energy state where an atom is initially in
lower energy state E1.
5. When a photon with energy (E2 – E1) is incident on the atom it may be
excited into the higher energy state E2 through absorption of the photon.
This process is referred as stimulated absorption of photon.
ii. Emission :
1. When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2 it can make a
transition to the lower energy state E1 providing the emission of a photon.
2. The emission process can occur in two ways :
a. Spontaneous emission
b. Stimulated emission
E2
Spontaneous
emission
E1 (a)
E2
Stimulated
emission
E1 (b )
Fig. 3.10.2.

3. From Fig. 3.10.2, it is observed that in spontaneous emission atom from

higher energy state returns to lower energy state in an entirely random
manner whereas in stimulated emission, a photon having an energy
equal to (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom in the higher energy state
causing it to return to the lower state with the creation of a second
photon.
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B. Emission characteristics :

Output
power (P),
mW
Forward
ith current I(mA)
LED Laser action
Fig. 3.10.3. Emission characteristics.

Que 3.11. Discuss the working principle of Laser. The total

efficiency of an injection Laser with a GaAs active region is 18 %.
The voltage applied to the device is 2.5 V and the band gap energy for
GaAs is 1.43 eV. Calculate the external power efficiency of the device.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5

Answer
A. Working principle of laser : Refer Q. 3.10, Page 3–13D, Unit-3.
B. Numerical :
Given : T = 18 % = 0.18, V = 2.5, Eg = 1.43 eV
To Find : External power efficiency.
1. The external power efficiency is given as :
E   1.43 
ep = T  g   100 % = 0.18   100  10 %
V   2.5 
2. This result indicates the possibility of achieving high overall power
efficiencies from semiconductor Laser which are much larger than other
Laser.

Que 3.12. Explain and derive Einstein relation.

Answer
1. Einstein described that the rates of three transition processes i.e.,
absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission were related
mathematically.
2. This can be achieved by considering the atomic system to be in thermal
equilibrium such that the rate of upward transitions must equal to the
rate of downward transitions.
3. The population of two energy levels of such system are described by
Boltzmann statistics as :
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N1 g1 exp( E1 / KT )
=
N2 g2 exp( E2 / KT )
g1
= exp (E2 – E1/KT)
g2
g1
= exp (hf/KT) ...(3.12.1)
g2
where,
N1 and N2 represent the density of atoms in energy levels E1 and E2,
g1 and g2 is corresponding degeneracies of levels,
K is Boltzmann constant,
T is absolute temperature.
4. As the density of atoms in the lower energy state E1 is N1, the rate of
upward transition or absorption is proportional to both N1 and the spectral
density f of the radiation energy at transition frequency f. Hence the
upward transition rate R12 may be given as :
R12 = N1 f B12 ...(3.12.2)
where B12 is known as Einstein coefficient of absorption.
5. If the density of atoms within the system with energy E2 is N2, then
1
spontaneous emission rate is given by the product of N2 and , which
2
is written as N2 A21 where A21 is Einstein coefficient of spontaneous
emission, is equal to reciprocal of the spontaneous life time.
6. The rate of stimulated emission is given by N2 f B21, where B21is Einstein
coefficient of stimulated emission. Thus, the sum of spontaneous and
stimulated contributions is given as:
R2 = N2 A21 + N2 f B21 ...(3.12.3)
7. In equilibrium condition
R12 = R21
N1 f B12 = N2 A21 + N2 f B21
N2 A21
f = ...(3.12.4)
N1 B12  N2 B21

A21 / B21
and f = ...(3.12.5)
( B12 N1 / B21 N2 )  1
8. Substituting the eq. (3.12.1) into eq. (3.12.5) the value will be
A21 / B21
f = ...(3.12.6)
[( g1 B12 / g2 B21 ) exp (hf / KT )]  1
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8hf 3  1 
9. Thus f = ...(3.12.7)
c3  exp (hf / KT )  1 
10. Comparing eq. (3.12.7) with eq. (3.12.6), the Einstein relation is obtained
as
g 
B12 =  2  B21
 g1 
A21 8 hf 3
and =
B21 c3
11. The ratio of the stimulated emission rate to the spontaneous emission
rate is given by :
Stimulated emission rate B21 f 1
= 
Spontaneous emission rate A21 exp ( hf / KT )  1

Que 3.13. Explain the process of population inversion.

Answer
1. Under thermal equilibrium condition by Boltzmann’s law, the lower
energy level E1 contains more atoms than upper energy level E2.
2. Thus, to achieve optical amplification it is necessary to create a
non-equilibrium distributions of atoms such that population of the upper
energy level is greater than that of lower energy level (N2 > N1). This is
known as population inversion.
3. Thus in order to achieve population inversion, it is necessary to excite
atoms into upper energy level E2 and hence obtain a non-equilibrium
distribution. This process is achieved by using an external energy source
referred as ‘pumping’.
Energy (E) Energy (E)
exp (–E / KT)
E2 exp (–E / KT) E2

E1 E1
N2 N1 N2 N1 Density of
( a) ( b) atoms (N)
Fig. 3.13.1. Population in two energy level system : (a) Boltzmann
distribution for a system in thermal equilibrium ; (b) a non-equilibrium
distribution showing population inversion.
4. The population inversion may be obtained in three or four energy levels
as shown in the Fig. 3.13.2.
5. In order to obtain population inversion both systems display a central
metastable state in which atoms spend an unusual long time. It is from
the metastable level that stimulated emission or lasing takes place.
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Energy (E) Energy (E)
E3
E2 Rapid
Rapid decay
E2
decay
Pumping Lasing
E1
E1
Pumping Rapid
Lasing
decay
E0 E0
(a) (b )
Fig. 3.13.2. Energy level diagrams showing population inversion and
lasing for two non-semiconductor Lasers : (a) three level system – ruby
(crystal) Laser ; (b) four level system – He–Ne (gas) Laser.
6. The three level system consist of ground level E0, a metastable level E1
and a third level E2. With suitable pumping the electrons in some of the
atoms is excited from ground state into higher level E2.
7. As E2 is normal level thus by non-radiative process, the electrons will
rapidly decay to either E1 or directly to E0. Hence empty states will
always be provided in E2.
8. A drawback with three level system, ruby laser, is that it generally
requires very high pump powers because the terminal state of the laser
transition is the ground state whereas a four level system such as
He – Ne Laser is characterized by lower pumping requirements.
9. In this the pumping excites the atoms from the ground state into energy
level E3 and then they decay rapidly to metastable state.
10. As the populations of E3 and E1 remain unchanged a small increase in
the number of atoms in energy level E2 creates population inversion,
and lasing takes place between this level and E1.
Que 3.14. Explain Fabry–Perot Laser diode in detail.

Answer
1. Fig. 3.14.1 shows a Laser diode which consists of two mirrors and the
active medium between them. Two mirrors form a resonator with
length L.
2. Let an arbitrary wave travel from the left hand mirror to the right hand
one. At the right hand mirror, this wave is reflected, hence, the wave
experiences a 180° phase shift.
3. As it is clear from Fig. 3.14.1(b) that the wave should have a break in its
phase, which is impossible here. In other words, this resonator does not
support this wave.
4. Now consider another wave travel inside a resonator, as shown in
Fig. 3.14.1(c).
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5. At the right hand mirror, the wave experiences a 180° phase shift and
continues to propagate. At the left hand mirror, this wave again has the
same phase shift and continues to travel. Thus, this wave yield a stable
pattern called a standing wave.
Active layer
Mirror Gain

Mirror Loss

L
(a)
(nm)

N+2 N+1 N N–1 N–2

Output power (mW)
( d)
(b)

(nm)

(c) (e )
Fig. 3.14.1. Fabry–Perot Laser diode; (a) A Laser diode; (b) Fabry-Perot
resonator with arbitrary wave; (c) Fabry–Perot resonator with standing
wave; (d) Gain loss Curve and possible longitudinal modes;
(e) Actual mulitmode radiation.
6. Two waves shown in Fig. 3.14.1(b) and 3.14.1(c) differs in their
wavelength. Thus, a resonator can support only a wave with a certain
wavelength, the wave that forms a standing wave pattern.
7. This physical requirement can be written as :
2L
=N ...(3.14.1)

where L is the distance between mirrors and N is an integer.
2L 2L 2L
8. This resonator supports a wavelength equal to , , ,
N ( N  1) ( N  2)
2L
and so forth. Wavelengths selected by a resonator are called
( N  3)
longitudinal modes.
9. When the length of a resonator increases or decreases, the laser switches
from one longitudinal mode to another. This is called mode hop.
10. A resonator can support an infinite number of waves whose wavelengths
satisfy eq. (3.14.1.). However, the active medium provides gain within
only a small range of wavelengths.
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11. Since a laser is formed by a resonator and an active medium and since
radiation is the result of their interaction, only several resonant
wavelengths that fall within the gain curve might be radiated. This is
shown in Fig. 3.14.1(d).
12. The light generates only when gain exceeds loss. Thus, eventually only
those resonant wavelengths that are within the gain over loss curve will
actually be radiated.
13. Waves with N, N±1 and N±2, might be radiated, but only waves with N
and N±1 will be the actual laser output. Modes N±2, shown black, are
not generated.
14. More specifically, we can explain this by introducing the spacing between
two adjacent longitudinal modes, N – N+1.

2L 2
N – N+1  
2 2L
N
Que 3.15. Explain distributed feedback (DFB) laser diode.

Answer
1. A typical DFB laser configuration is shown in Fig. 3.15.1(a). A DFB laser
diode has the Bragg grating incorporated into its heterostructure in the
vicinity of an active region.
2. The Bragg grating works like a mirror, selectively reflecting only one
wavelength, B. This wavelength can be found from the Bragg condition
given as :
2  n sin q = B.
where  is the period of grating and n is the refractive index of the
medium.

Active
layer
 Active

layer

Grating Laser
Substrate output
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.15.1. Distributed feedback, (DFB) laser diode; (a) Structure of
DFB laser diode; (b) Working of distributed feedback.
3. In distributed feedback laser diode, the meaning of the word, distributed,
is that reflection takes place not a one point (as in Fabry Perot LDs), but
at many points dispersed along the active region and the word feedback
emphasizes that we have the means to return stimulated photons to an
active medium.
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4. This is done by reflecting a portion of the light at each slope of the
grating as shown for one beam in Fig. 3.15.1.(b). All the portions reflected
at each slope of this corrugated structure then combine so that most of
the light will be reflected back provided that Bragg’s condition is satisfied.
5. The final output of the DFB laser diode is the wave of wavelength B
containing the radiation of only single longitudinal mode and as a result,
the spectral width of this radiation is extremely narrow, as shown in
Fig. 3.15.2. Output Power (mw)

Gain


Wavelength ( ) nm
Fig. 3.15.2. Actual single mode radiation of DFB Laser diode.

Que 3.16. Derive the formula for resonant frequency and plot the
spectrum of gain verses frequency of a multimode laser.

Answer
1. To examine the resonant frequencies of the laser, e–j2L = 1. The condition
holds when,
2L = 2m ...(3.16.1)
2n
where m is an integer. Using  = for the propagation constant

L 2 Ln
m=   ...(3.16.2)
 /2n c
where n = .
2. This states that the cavity resonates (i.e., a standing wave pattern exists
within it) when an integer number m of half wavelengths spans the
region between the mirrors.
3. The relationship between gain and frequency can be assumed to have
the gaussian form
     2 
0
g() = g(0) exp    ...(3.16.3)
 22 
where 0 is the wavelength at the center of the spectrum,  is the
spectral width of the gain, and the maximum gain g(0) is proportional to
the population inversion.
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4. The frequency spacing, between two successive modes of frequencies
m–1 and m represented by the integers m – 1 and m,
2 Ln
m–1=  m1 ...(3.16.4)
c
2 Ln
and m= m ...(3.16.5)
c
5. Subtracting eq. (3.16.4) from eq. (3.16.5) yields
2 Ln 2 Ln
1=
c
 m  m1   c 
from which we have the frequency spacing
c
 = ...(3.16.6)
2 Ln
6. This can be related to the wavelength spacing  through the relationship
 
= , yielding
 
2
 = ...(3.16.7)
2Ln
7. The output spectrum of a multimode laser follows the typical gain versus
frequency plot given in Fig. 3.16.1 where the exact number of modes,
their heights, and their spacing depend on the laser construction.

0

 Gaussian
output
profile

822 824 826 828

Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 3.16.1. Typical spectrum from a Fabry–Perot GaA/As / GaAs

Laser diode.
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Que 3.17. Draw and discuss the basic laser structure using optical
feedback for producing laser oscillations/laser modes at resonant
frequencies. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
1. Light amplification in a laser occurs when a photon colliding with an
atom in the excited state causes stimulated emission of a second photon
and then these photons release two more.
2. Continuation of this process causes avalanche multiplication and when
these photons are in phase, amplified coherent emission is obtained.
3. To achieve laser action it is necessary to contain photons within the
laser medium and maintain the condition for coherence. This is obtained
by placing mirrors at either end of amplifying medium as shown in
Fig. 3.17.1.

L
Optical
Amplifying medium output

Mirror Mirror
Fig. 3.17.1. The basic Laser structure incorporating plane mirrors.
4. The optical cavity formed is more analogous to an oscillator than an
amplifier as it provides positive feedback of the photons by reflection at
the mirrors at either end of the cavity.
5. Hence the optical signal is fed back many times while receiving
amplification therefore this structure act as Fabry Perot resonator.
6. A stable output is obtained at saturation when the optical gain is exactly
matched by the losses experienced in the amplifying medium.
Relative
amplification
Gain curve
or envelope

Frequency
Fig. 3.17.2. The relative amplification in the Laser amplifying medium
showing the broadened Laser transition line or gain curve.
7. The major losses occur from the factors such as absorption and scattering
in the amplifying medium, absorption, scattering and diffraction at the
mirrors and non-useful transmissions.
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8. Oscillations in the laser cavity occur over a small range of frequencies
where cavity gain is sufficient to overcome the losses. Thus the device is
not a perfectly monochromatic source but emits over a narrow spectral
band.
9. The central frequency of this spectral band is determined by the mean
energy level difference. Other oscillation frequencies within the spectral
band results from frequency variation due to thermal motion of atoms
within amplifying medium.
10. Hence the amplification within the laser medium results in a broadened
gain curve over a finite spectral width.
11. When the optical spacing between the mirrors is L the resonance
condition along the axis of cavity is given as.
q
L= ...(3.17.1)
2n
where = Emission wavelength
n = Refractive index of amplifying medium
q = Integer
12. This discrete emission frequency f is given as
qc
f= ...(3.17.2)
2nL
where, c is velocity of light.
13. Since eq. (3.17.1) and (3.17.2) apply only when L is along the longitudinal
axis of the structure, the frequency (f) given is known as longitudinal or
axial modes.
14. These modes are separated by f where
c
f = ...(3.17.3)
2nL
c
15. Assuming f << f and f =

2
f 
 = = f
f c
2
 =
2nL

PART-3
Laser Modes and Threshold Condition for Laser
Oscillations, Laser Diode Rate Equations.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

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Que 3.18. Write a short note on laser mode.

Answer
1. The typical output spectrum for a broad area injection laser is shown in
Fig. 3.18.1. It does not consist of a single wavelength output but a series
of wavelength peaks corresponding to different longitudinal (in the
plane of the junction, along the optical cavity) modes within the structure.
2. The spacing of these modes is dependent on the optical cavity length as
each one corresponds to an integral number of lengths. They are
generally separated by a few tenths of a nanometer, and the laser is said
to be a multimode device.
Relative
intensity
Longitudinal
modes

4nm Wavelength
Fig. 3.18.1. Laser modes.
3. Some broadening of the longitudinal mode peaks due to subpeaks caused
by higher order horizontal transverse modes.
4. These higher order lateral modes may exist in the broad area device due
to the unrestricted width of the active region.
5. The correct stripe geometry inhibits the occurrence of the higher order
lateral modes by limiting the width of the optical cavity leaving only a
single lateral mode which gives the output spectrum.

Que 3.19. Explain the working of semiconductor laser. What is

threshold condition for lasing action ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Working of semiconductor laser : Refer Q. 3.10, Page 3–13D, Unit-3.
B. Threshold condition for lasing action :
1. Steady state condition is reached when the gain in the amplifying medium
exactly balances the losses.
2. Though population inversion is necessary for oscillation to be established,
in addition a minimum or threshold gain is also required.
3. All losses due to transmission through the mirror may be included in a
single loss coefficient  per cm.
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4. Let assume the amplifying medium occupies a length L completely filling
the region between the two mirrors which have reflectivities r1 and r2.
5. On each round trip beam passes through the medium twice. Hence the
fractional loss experienced by the light beam is
Fractional loss = r1r2 exp (– 2L) ...(3.19.1)
6. If the gain coefficient per cm is g, the fractional gain in the round trip is
Fractional gain = exp (2gL) ...(3.19.2)
7. Hence exp (2gL) × r1r2 exp (– 2L) = 1
and r1r2 exp [2L(g – )] = 1 ...(3.19.3)
8. Threshold gain gth per cm may be obtained by rearranging the expression
1 1
gth =  + ln
2L r1r2
9. The second term on RHS represents transmission loss through mirrors.

Que 3.20. Explain laser diode rate equations.

Answer
1. The relationship between optical output power and the diode drive
current can be determined by examining the rate equations that govern
the interaction of photons and electrons in the active region.
2. For a p-n junction with a carrier confinement region of depth d, the rate
equations are given by
d 
= Cn  Rsp  ...(3.20.1)
dt  ph
= Stimulate d emission + Spo ntaneo us e missio n
+ Photon loss which governs the number of photons ,
dn J n
and =   Cn ...(3.20.2)
dt qd sp
= injection + spontaneous recombination + stimulated emission
which governs the number of electrons n.
Here, C is a coefficient describing the strength of the optical absorption
and emission interactions,
Rsp is the rate of spontaneous emission into the lasing mode (which is
much smaller than the total spontaneous emission rate),
ph is the photon lifetime,
s is the spontaneous recombination lifetime, and
J is the injection current density.
4. The first term in eq. (3.20.1) is a source of photons resulting from
stimulated emission.
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5. The second term, describing the number of photons produced by
spontaneous emission, is relatively small compared with the first term.
6. The third term indicates the decay in the number of photons caused by
loss mechanisms in the lasing cavity.
7. In eq. (3.20.2), the first term represents the increase in the electron
concentration in the conduction band as current flows into the device.
8. The second and third terms give the number of electrons lost from the
conduction band owing to spontaneous and stimulated transitions,
respectively.
9. The steady state is characterized by,
1
Cn  >0 ...(3.20.3)
 ph
10. This shows that n must exceed a threshold value nth in order for  to
increase.
nth J
= th ...(3.20.4)
 sp qd
11. This expression defines the current required to sustain an excess electron
density in the laser when spontaneous emission is the only decay
mechanism.
12. Consider the photon and electron rate equations in the steady state
condition at the lasing threshold. Respectively, eq. (3.20.1) and eq. (3.20.2)
become

0 = Cnth s  Rsp  s ...(3.20.5)
 ph
J n
and 0=  th  Cnth s ...(3.20.6)
qd  sp
where s is the steady state photon density.
nth
13. Adding eq. (3.20.5) and eq. (3.20.6), using eq. (3.20.4) for the term
 sp
and solving for s yields the number of photons per unit volume.
 ph
s =  J  Jth    ph Rsp ...(3.20.7)
qd
14. The first term in eq. (3.20.7) is the number of photons resulting from
stimulated emission. The power from these photons is generally
concentrated in one or a few modes.
15. The second term gives the spontaneously generated photons. The power
resulting from these photons is not mode selective, but is spread over all
the possible modes of the volume, which are on the order of 108 modes.
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PART-4
Semiconductor Injection Laser : Laser Single Mode Operation
Reliability of LED & ILD.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.21. What is external quantum efficiency ?

Answer
1. The external differential quantum efficiency ext is defined as the number of
photons emitted per radiative electron hole pair recombination above threshold.
2. Under the assumption that above threshold the gain coefficient remains
fixed at gth, hext is given by
 ( g  )
ext = i th ...(3.21.1)
gth
3. Here, i is the internal quantum efficiency. This is not a well defined
quantity in laser diodes, but mo st measurements show that
i  0.6 – 0.7 at room temperature.
4. Experimentally, ext is calculated from the straight line portion of the
curve for the emitted optical power P versus drive current I, which gives
q dP dP (mW )
ext =  0.8065 ( m) ...(3.21.2)
E g dI dI (mA)
where Eg is the band gap energy in electron-volts, dP is the incremental
change in the emitted optical power in milliwatts for an incremental
change dI in the drive current (in milliamperes), and  is the emission
wavelength in micrometers.
5. For standard semiconductor Lasers, external differential quantum
efficiencies of 15-20 percent per facet are typical. High quality devices
have differential quantum efficiencies of 30-40 percent.

Que 3.22. Elucidate the principle of operation of a laser diode and

derive an expression for the lasing threshold current density. Find
the external quantum efficiency for a Ga1–xAlx As laser diode (with
x = 0.03) which has an optical power versus drive current
relationship of 0.5 mW/mA. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 15

Answer
A. Principle of operation of laser diode : Refer Q. 3.10, Page 3–13D,
Unit-3.
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B. Threshold current density : Refer Q. 3.19, Page 3–25D, Unit-3.
C. Numerical :
Given : x = 0.03.
To Find : External quantum efficiency.

dP (mW)
1. We have, ext = 0.8065  (m) ...(3.22.1)
dI (mA)
2. The band gap of Ga1 – x AlxAs is given by,
Eg(x) = 1.424 + 1.247x
= 1.424 + 1.247 (0.03) = 1.46141 eV
1.24 1.24
(m) =  = 0.848 m
E g (eV) 1.46141
3. Substituting these values in eq. (3.22.1)
ext = 0.8065 × 0.848 × 0.5
= 0.34215  34.22 %

Que 3.23. Explain single mode operation of laser.

Answer
1. For single mode operation, the optical output from a laser must contain
only a single longitudinal and single transverse mode.
2. Hence the spectral width of the emission from the single mode device is
far smaller than the broadened transition linewidth.
3. It was indicated that an inhomogeneously broadened laser can support
a number of longitudinal and transverse modes simultaneously, giving
a multimode output.
4. Single transverse mode operation, however, may be obtained by reducing
the aperture of the resonant cavity such that only the TEM00 mode is
supported.
5. To obtain single mode operation it is then necessary to eliminate all but
one of the longitudinal modes.
6. One method of achieving single longitudinal mode operation is to reduce
the length L of the cavity until the frequency separation of the adjacent
modes is larger than the laser transition linewidth or gain curve.
7. Then only the single mode which falls within the transition linewidth
can oscillate within the laser cavity.
8. It is clear that rigid control of the cavity parameters is essential to
provide the mode stabilization necessary to achieve and maintain this
single-mode operation.
For example, the correct DH structure will restrict the vertical width of
the waveguiding region to less than 0.4 m allowing only the fundamental
transverse mode to be supported and removing any interference of the
higher order transverse modes on the emitted longitudinal modes.
9. The lateral modes (in the plane of the junction) may be confined by the
restrictions on the current flow provided by the stripe geometry.
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Relative
intensity

1.55 Wavelength (m)

Fig. 3.23.1. Single mode laser.
10. In general, only the lower order modes are excited which appear as
satellites to each of the longitudinal modes. Stripe contact devices often
have instabilities and strong non-linearities in their light output against
current characteristics.
11. Tight current confinement as well as good waveguiding are therefore
essential in order to achieve only the required longitudinal modes which
form between the mirror facets in the plane of the junction.
12. Finally, as indicated above, single mode operation may be obtained
through control of the optical cavity length such that only a single
longitudinal mode falls within the gain bandwidth of the device.
13. Fig. 3.23.1 shows a typical output spectrum for a single mode device.
However, injection lasers with short cavity lengths (around 50 m) are
difficult to handle and have not been particularly successful.

Que 3.24. Explain the principle of semiconductor lasers and, draw

the emission characteristic. A ruby laser contains a crystal length
4 cm with refractive index of 1.78. The peak emission wavelength
from the device is 0.55 m. Determine the number of longitudinal
modes and their frequency separation.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Principle of semiconductor lasers and, draw the emission
characteristic : Refer Q. 3.10, Page 3–13D, Unit-3.
B. Numerical :
Given : L = 0.04 m, n = 1.78,  = 0.55 m
To Find : Number of longitudinal modes, frequency.
1. The number of longitudinal modes supported within the structure is
given by
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q
L=
2n
2nL 2  1.78  0.04
q=  = 0.258 × 106
 0.55  10  6
3. The frequency separation of modes is
c 3  108
f = = = 2.106 GHz
2nL 2  1.78  0.04

Que 3.25. Write down the difference between semiconductor diode

and LED.

Answer

S. No. Semiconductor Diode LED

1. Semiconductor diode can be LED can be use d fo r any
used for any application in application only in forward bias
both forward and reverse bias direction.
depending upon requirement.
2. N o se mico nducto r diode LED is used as indicator, it can
except LED can produce light produce light of different colours
for indication. depends on the material used.
3. It is not compulsion to sustain It is necessary to sustain electron-
e le ctro n-ho le pair hole pair recombination to emit a
recombination, if electron- quantum of electromagnetic
hole pair recombination is energy (light) and this process is
sustained; it releases energy called electroluminescence.
in the thermal form.
4. Here both (radiative and non- Only radiative recombination
radiative) recombination takes takes place.
place.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Explain the structure of double heterojunction LED.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.3.
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Q. 2. Explain the working principle of LED. How the quantum
efficiency of LED is defined ? List out various parameters
which are needed to be optimized for getting maximum
output power from the LED.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5.

Q. 3. Name the materials used for fabrication of LEDs. Explain

the working principle of LED and how its efficiency can be
defined ? Discuss the double heterojunction LED.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.7.

Q. 4. Discuss the working principle of Laser. The total efficiency

of an injection Laser with a GaAs active region is 18 %. The
voltage applied to the device is 2.5 V and the band gap energy
for GaAs is 1.43 eV. Calculate the external power efficiency
of the device.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.11.

Q. 5. Draw and discuss the basic laser structure using optical

feedback for producing laser oscillations/laser modes at
resonant frequencies.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.17.

Q. 6. Explain the working of semiconductor laser. What is

threshold condition for lasing action ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.19.

Q. 7. Elucidate the principle of operation of a laser diode and

derive an expression for the lasing threshold current
density. Find the external quantum efficiency for a
Ga1–xAlx As laser diode (with x = 0.03) which has an optical
power versus drive current relationship of 0.5 mW/mA.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.22.

Q. 8. Explain the principle of semiconductor lasers and, draw

the emission characteristic. A ruby laser contains a crystal
length 4 cm with refractive index of 1.78. The peak emission
wavelength from the device is 0.55 m. Determine the
number of longitudinal modes and their frequency
separation.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.24.


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4 Power Launching
in Fiber

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Source to Fiber Power Launching ......... 4–2D to 4–9D
and Coupling Techniques, Power
Launching Vs Wavelength,
Equilibrium Numerical Aperture

Part-2 : Photodetectors : Introduction, .............. 4–9D to 4–17D

Physical Principles of Photodiodes :
The PIN Photodetector, Avalanche
Photodiodes, Temperature Effect
On Avalanche Gain

Part-3 : Detector Response Time, ..................... 4–17D to 4–27D

Photo Detector Noise : Noise Sources,
Signal to Noise Ratio, Comparison
of Photo Detector, Fundamental
Receiver Operation With Digital
Signal Transmission
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PART-1
Source to Fiber Power Launching, Source Output Patterns,
Power Coupling Calculation, Power Launching Verses
Wavelength, Equilibrium Numerical Aperture.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1. Write a short note on source to fiber power launching.

Answer
1. Optical output from a source is measured in radiance.
2. Radiance is defined as the optical power radiated into a solid angle per
unit emitting surface area.
3. Radiance is specified in watts/cm2/steradian.
Source output pattern :
1. Spatial radiation pattern of source helps to determine the power accepting
capability of fiber.
2 Fig. 4.1.1 shows three dimensional spherical co-ordinate systems for
characterizing the emission pattern from an optical source. Where the
polar axis is normal to the emitting surface and radiance is a function of
and .

Emitting area of source

Fig. 4.1.1. Dimensional spherical co-ordinate system.

3. The Lambartian output by surface emitting LED is equally bright from
any direction.
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4. The emission pattern of Lambartian output is shown in Fig. 4.1.2 and its
output is :
B(, ) = B0 cos
where, B0 is the radiance along the normal to the radiating surface.
5. Both radiation in parallel and normal to the emitting plane are
approximated by expression
1 sin2  cos2 
= 
B(, ) B0 cosT  B0 cos L 
where, T and L are transverse and lateral power distribution coefficients.

Radiance B (q, 0) in parallel plane

Radiance B (q, 90°) in normal plane
Optical source

Lateral Output of Laser diode

LED pattern

Fig. 4.1.2. Radiance pattern of Lambartian source.

Que 4.2. How power coupling into the fiber can be calculated ?

Answer
1. To calculate coupling into the fiber, let us consider an optical source
launched into fiber as shown in Fig. 4.2.1.
Radiation pattern

Cladding

Optical
source Acceptance angle Core

Cladding

Lost power
Fig. 4.2.1. Optical source coupled to fiber.
2. Let brightness of source is expressed as B (As,  s) where As is area of
source, and  s is solid emission angle of source.
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3. The coupled power P can be calculated as

P=
 dA  d B( A ,  )
Af
s
f
s s s

r 2  2   0 max 
P=   d rdr ...(4.2.1)
  

0 0  0
B(, )sin  d d  s
0 
4. The integral limits are area of source and solid acceptance angle
(0 max).
Here ds rdr is incremental emitting area.
5. Let us consider the radius of surface emitting LED is r s and for
Lambartian emitter,
B(, ) = B0 cos , then
rs 2  2 0 max 
 2 B cos  sin  d s rdr
P=

0 0 
0
0
  0


rs 2 0 max
= B0
 
0 0 0
(2sin  cos ) d s rdr

rs 2 0 max
= B0
  sin 2 d s rdr
0 0 0
rs 2

  cos2  0max
= B0
  2 
 0
ds rdr
0 0
rs 2
 1 
= B0
   2 (cos 2 0 max  cos 0)  d s rdr

0 0
rs 2
 1 
= B0
   2 (cos 2 0 max  1)  d s rdr

0 0
rs 2
1 
= B0
   2 (1  cos 2
0 0
0 max ) 

ds rdr

rs 2
1 2 
= B0
   2 (2 sin
0 0
0 max )  d s rdr

Optical Communication 4–5 D (EC-Sem-5)
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rs 2 rs 2
2 2
= B0
  sin 0 max d s rdr = B0
  NA ds rdr
0 0 0 0

Since, NA = n1 2
Que 4.3. Derive the expression for power coupling to a step index
fiber by a surface emitting LED.

Answer
1. For a step index fiber numerical aperture is not dependent on s and r.
2. Thus LED power from step index fiber is

PLED, step = 2 rs2 B0 ( NA)2

PLED, step= 2 2rs2 B0 (n12 ) ...(4.3.1)

3. Consider optical power Ps emitted from source area As into hemisphere
(2 Sr)
2  / 2
Ps = As
  B(, )sin  d d
0 0
 /2
2
Ps = rs 2B0
 cos  sin  d
0

Ps = 2rs2
B0 ...(4.3.2)
4. When source radius rs  a, the fiber core radius, the LED output power
is given from eq. (4.3.1)
PLED, step = PS (NA)2 ...(4.3.3)
where, rs > a, Eq. (4.3.1) becomes
2
 a
PLED, step =   Ps ( NA)2 ...(4.3.4)
 rs 

Que 4.4. Derive the expression for power coupling to a graded

index fiber by a surface emitting LED.

Answer
1. In graded index fiber, the index of refraction varies radially from fiber
axis. Numerical aperture for graded index fiber is given by
NA (r) = [n2(r) – n22]1/2
2. If source radius (rs) is less than fiber core radius (a) i.e., rs > a, the power
coupled from surface emitting LED is given as
Power Launching in Fiber 4–6 D (EC-Sem-5)
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rs
2 2 2
PLED, graded = 2 B0
 [n (r)  n ] r dr
2
0
 
2  rs  
PLED, graded = 2 2 rs2 B0n12 1    
   2  a  
3. For coupling maximum power to fiber, the refractive index of the medium
separating source and fiber must be same, otherwise there will be loss
of power.
4. The power coupled is reduced by factor

(n1  n)2
R=
(n1  n)2
where, n is the refractive index of medium.
n1 is the refractive index of fiber core.
R is the Fresnel reflection or reflectivity.

Que 4.5. For a surface emitting LED has radiance of

150 W/(cm2. Sr) and radius of emitting area is 35 m. Calculate the
optical power coupled to the fiber with
i. a1 = 25m and NA = 0.20 step index
ii. a2 = 50 and NA = 0.20, step index

Answer

Given : B0= 150 W/cm2.Sr, rs = 35 m = 35 × 10–4 cm, a1 = 25 m,

NA = 0.20, a2 = 50 m, NA = 0.20
To Find : Optical power coupled.
i. For rs > a1, the power coupled to the fiber is given by,
2
 a
PLED, step =   PS (NA)2
 rs 
where, PS = 2 rs2 B0
2
 a
So, PLED, step =   (2 rs2 B0 ) ( NA)2
 rs 
2
25
PLED, step =   [ 2  (35  10 –4 )2  150][0.202 ]
 35 
= 370 W
ii. For rs < a2, the power coupled to the fiber is given by,
PLED, step= PS (NA)2
Optical Communication 4–7 D (EC-Sem-5)
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= 2 rs2 B0 ( NA)2
= [2 × (35 × 10 – 4)2 × 150] (0.20)2
= 725.41 W
Que 4.6. Write s hort note on power launching versus
wavelength.

Answer
1. The optical power launched into a fiber does not depend on the
wavelength of the source but only on its brightness that is, its radiance.
2. The number of modes that can propagate in a multimode graded index
fiber of core size a and index profile  is
2
  2an1 
M=   
2  

3. Thus, for example, twice as many modes propagate in a given fiber at

900 nm than that at 1300 nm.

4. The radiated power per mode, Ps , from a source at a particular

M
wavelength is given by the radiance multiplied by the square of the
nominal source wavelength,

Ps
= B02
M
5. Thus, twice as much power is launched into a given mode at 1300 nm
than at 900 nm. Hence, two identically sized sources operating at different
wavelength but having identical radiances will launch equal amounts of
optical power into the same fiber.

Que 4.7. Write a short note on equilibrium numerical aperture.

Answer

1. The excess power loss must be analyzed carefully in any system design,
since it can be significantly higher for some types of fiber than for
others.
2. At the input end of the fiber, the light acceptance is described in terms of
fiber numerical aperture.
3. If the light emitting area of the LED is less than the cross-sectional area
of the fiber core, then at this point, the power coupled into the fiber is
given by,
Power Launching in Fiber 4–8 D (EC-Sem-5)
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PLED, step = Ps(NA)2
where, NA = NAin
4. When the optical power is measured in long multimode fibers after the
launched modes have come to equilibrium the effect of the equilibrium
numerical aperture NAeq becomes apparent.
5. At this point, the optical power in the fiber scales as

2
 NAeq 
Peq. = P50  
 NAin 

where, P50 is the power expected in the fiber at the 50 m point based on
the launch NA.
0.40

0.35 NAin

0.25
Numerical
aperture
0.20

0.15

0 50 100 150
Fiber length (m)
Fig. 4.7.1.

Que 4.8. Discuss the various factors which effect the launching
of optical signal into fiber. Determine the power coupled into step
index fiber whose n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46, if surface emitting LED radiates
150 W of power. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A.
1. The launching of optical signal or optical power into a fiber depends on
various factors like numerical aperture and size of core diameter,
refractive index profile, radiance and angular power distribution of optical
source.
i. Optical power launched into fiber does not depend on the wavelength of
optical source, but only depends on its brightness that is, its radiance.
Optical Communication 4–9 D (EC-Sem-5)
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The radiated power per mode, Ps /M from a source at a particular
wavelength is given by radiance multiplied by the square of nominal
source wavelength,
Ps
= Bo2
M
Thus, twice as much power is launched into a given mode at
1300 nm than at 900 nm. Hence two identically sized sources operating
at different wavelengths but having identical radiances will launch equal
amounts of optical power into same fiber.
ii. A certain amount of optical power is lost during coupling of optical
power from source to fiber. To achieve a low coupling loss, the light
sources should be connected to a system fiber that has a nominally
identical NA and core diameter. The fiber end face should be centered
over the emitting surface of the source and is positioned as close to it as
possible.
iii. For proper launching of optical power, there should be perfect coupling
conditions between source and fiber. This can be achieved only if
refractive index of medium separating the source and fiber end matches
the refractive index n1 of the fiber core. But if the refractive index n of
this medium is different from n1 then power coupled into fiber reduces
by the factor
2
 n1  n2 
R=  
 n1  n2 
where R is Fresnel reflection.
B. Numerical :
Given : Pemitted = 150 m,n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46
To Find : Coupled power.
2 2
 n1  n2   1.48  1.46 
1. The Fresnel reflection, R =   =   = 4.63 × 10–5
 n1  n2   1.48  1.46 
2. Coupled power, Pcoupled = (1 – R) Pemitted
= 1.499 × 10–4 = 149.9 W

PART-2
Photo Detectors : Introduction, Physical Principle of Photodiodes :
The PIN Photo Detector, Avalanche Photodiodes, Temperature
Effect on Avalanche Gain.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Power Launching in Fiber 4–10 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Que 4.9. Explain the working of p-i-n photodiode. Also explain
the factors that limit the speed of response of photodiode.
OR
Explain the working principle of PIN photo detector in detail.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
A. Working principle of photodiode (Photodetector) :
1. To allow the operation at longer wavelengths where the light penetrates
more deeply into the semiconductor material, a wider depletion region
is necessary.
2. For this purpose n-type material is doped so lightly that it can be
considered intrinsic and to make a low resistance contact highly doped
n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p-i-n structure where all the
absorption takes place in the depletion region.
hf
E field

p
Depletion region
Absorption region
n
Load x

Fig. 4.9.1. p-i -n photodiode showing combined absorption and

depletion region.
Antireflection
p coating Metal contact
hf
Metal p+
contact hf
SiO2 i
Depletion
i n+
layer
n+
(a) Antireflection Reflection coating
coating ( b)
Fig. 4.9.2. ( a) Structure of a front illuminated silicon p– i– n photodiode
(b) Structure of a side illuminated (parallel to junction) p– i– n photodiode.
3. Fig. 4.9.2 shows the structure of two types of silicon p-i-n photodiode for
operation in the shorter wavelength band below 1.09 m.
4. The front illuminated photodiode when operating in the 0.8 to 0.9 m
band requires a depletion region of between 20 and 50 m to attain high
quantum efficiency together with fast response and low dark current.
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B. Three main factors that limit the speed of response of a
photodiode are :
a. Drift time of carriers through the depletion region :
1. The speed of response of a photodiode is limited by the time it takes
photogenerated carriers to drift across the depletion region. When the
field in the depletion region exceeds the saturation value then the carriers
may assumed to travel at constant vd.
2. The transit time tdrift, for carriers which must traverse the full depletion
layer width w is given by
w
tdrift =
vd
b. Diffusion time of carriers generated outside the depletion
region :
Carrier diffusion is a slow process where the time taken tdiff, for carriers
to diffuse a distance d may be written as
d2
tdiff =
2 Dc
where Dc is the minority carrier diffusion coefficient
c. Time constant incurred by the capacitance of the photodiode
with its load :
1. A reverse biased photodiode exhibits a voltage dependent capacitance
caused by the variation in the stored charge at the junction. The junction
capacitance Cj is given by
S A
Cj =
W
where s = Permittivity of semiconductor material
A = Junction area
w = Small depletion layer width
2. The small depletion layer width w increases the junction capacitance.
The capacitance of the photodiode Cd is that of junction together with
the capacitance of the leads and packaging.
3. The maximum photodiode Bm is given by :
1 vd
Bm =
2 tdrift 2w
Significance :
1. The significance of intrinsic layer in PIN photodiode is that it is used for
controlling the width of depletion region.
2. Appropriate width is chosen as a compromise between sensitivity and
speed of response.
3. If width of depletion layer is large most of incident photon will be absorbed
in depletion region, leading to high sensitivity and small junction
capacitance thereby reducing RC time constant of detector circuit.
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Que 4.10. Explain various requirement of optical detector.
Explain the working principle of PIN diode.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Various requirement of optical detector : Photodetectors used for
optical fibre communication must fulfill the following requirements
for good performance :
1. Sensitivity at the operating wavelengths should be very high.
2. To reproduce the received signal waveform with fidelity, for analogy
transmission the response of the photodetector must be linear with
regard to the optical signal over a wide range.
3. The photodetector should produce a maximum electrical signal for a
given amount of optical power i.e., the quantum efficiency should be
high.
4. In order to obtain a suitable bandwidth, response time should be as
small as possible.
5. Dark currents, leakage currents and shunt conductance should be
low. Noises in the circuitry must be low.
6. In an ideal detector, the performance characteristics should be
independent of changes in ambient conditions.
7. The detector to be used must be of small size in order to have efficient
coupling with fiber.
8. The detector should be reliable i.e., it must be capable of continuous
stable operation at room temperature for many years.
9. It must be of low cost.
B. Working principle of PIN diode : Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4–10D, Unit-4.

Que 4.11. Explain the working of PIN photodiode. A PIN

photodiode has a quantum efficiency of 55 % at a wavelength of 0.9 m.
Calculate :
i. Its responsivity at 0.9 m.
ii. The received optical power if the mean photocurrent is
10 – 8 A.
iii. The corresponding number of received photons at this
wavelength. AKTU 2017-18, 2018-19; Marks 10

Answer
A. Working of PIN photodiode : Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4–10D, Unit-4.
Optical Communication 4–13 D (EC-Sem-5)
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B. Numerical :
Given :  = 55 % = 0.55,  = 0.9 m
To Find : Responsivity, received optical power, number of received
photons.
q   
i. Responsivity, R=   (nm)
h  1248 
0.55
R=  900 = 0.396 A/W
1248
I
ii. R= P
Pop
IP 10 8
 Pop=  = 2.52 × 10–8 W
R 0.396
hc 6.62  1034  3.0  108
iii. Pop = n =n
 0.9  10 6
– 8
2.52 × 10 = n × 22.067 × 10 –20

 n = 1.14 × 1011

Que 4.12. Enumerate the principle of operation of APD.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. The second major type of optical communication detector is avalanche
photodiode.
hf
E field

n
p Gain region
Absorption
i region
Electron
p+ Ionizing collision
Hole
Load
( a) X (b )

Fig. 4.12.1. ( a) Avalanche photodiode showing high electric field (gain)

region. ( b) Carrier pair multiplication in the gain region.
2. The depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and the
primary carrier pairs generated there is a high field region in which
holes and electrons can acquire sufficient energy to excite new electrons
hole pairs.
3. This process is known as impact ionization and is the phenomenon that
leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse biased diodes.
Power Launching in Fiber 4–14 D (EC-Sem-5)
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hf
n+
Metal contact
SiO2 Guard ring
Depletion region
p
p+
Fig. 4.12.2. Structure of a silicon avalanche photodiode with guard ring.
4. Carrier multiplication factors as great as 104 may be obtained using
defect free materials to ensure uniformity of carrier multiplication over
the entire area.
5. Operation of these devices at high speed requires full depletion in the
absorption region.
6. When carriers are generated in undepleted material, they are collected
somewhat slowly by the diffusion process.

Que 4.13. Explain the s tructure of silicon reach through

avalanche photodiode (RAPD) with its gain mechanism.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05

Answer
1. The silicon reach through APD consist of p+––p–n+ layers as shown in
a Fig. 4.13.1.
2. In the Fig. 4.13.1(b), the high field region where the avalanche
multiplication takes place is relatively narrow and centred on the p-n+
junction.
h
n+ E field
p
Gain region
50 m 
Absorption region
p+
x
(a) (b )
Fig. 4.13.1. (a) Structure of a silicon RAPD. (b) The field distribution
in the RAPD showing the gain region across the p-n+ junction.

3. When the reverse bias voltage is increased the depletion layer widens
across the p-region until it reach through to the nearly intrinsic
-region.
4. Since the -region is much wider than the p-region, the field in the
-region is much lower than the p-n+ junction.
5. This has the effect of removing some of the excess applied voltage from
the multiplication region to p-region giving a relatively slow increase in
multiplication factor with applied voltage.
Optical Communication 4–15 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Que 4.14. Describe the factors which limit the speed of response of
a photodiode and show the impact of change in temperature over
the avalanche multiplication factors/internal gain.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Explain avalanche photodiode and also explain effect of temperature
on avalanche gain. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Explain the physical principle of APD. What is the temperature effect
on avalanche gain ? Describe automatic gain control using
Op-Amp. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
OR
Explain avalanche photodiode and also explain effect of temperature
on avalanche gain. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
A. Principle of APD : Refer Q. 4.12, Page 4–13D, Unit-4.
B. Three main factors that limit the speed of response of a
photodiode are : Refer Q. 4.12, Page 4–13D, Unit-4.
C. Temperature effect on avalanche gain :
1. The gain mechanism of an avalanche photodiode is very temperature
sensitive because of temperature dependence of the electron and hole
ionization rates.
2. This temperature dependence is particularly critical at high bias voltage,
where small changes in temperature can cause large variations in gain.
3. Let us consider an example for a silicon avalanche photodiode. If the
operating temperature decreases and applied bias voltage is kept
constant, the ionization rates for electrons and holes will increase and
so will be the avalanche gain.
4. To maintain a constant gain as the temperature changes, the electric
field in the multiplying region of the p-n junction must also be changed.
5. This requires that the receiver incorporate a compensation circuit which
adjusts the applied bias voltage on the photodetector when the
temperature changes.

1
M=
1  (V / VB )n
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1000 67
23 46
500 0
Temperature (°C)

200

Current gain
+
100 Silicon n+ – p –  – p
avalanche
50 photodiode

20
10

2
1
0 200 300 400
Voltage (V)
Fig. 4.14.1.
D. Automatic gain control using Op-Amp :
1. An AGC is a form by which multiplication factor can be held constant.
The advantage of using AGC is that it reduces the dynamic range at the
receiver input.
2. One simple method of providing AGC is to bias avalanche photodiode
(APD) with a constant DC current source bias, as shown in Fig. 4.14.2.
APD bias supply

R1

C APD

Amp

Fig. 4.14.2.
3. In this, constant current source is decoupled with capacitor C at all
frequencies to prevent gain modulation.
4. When the mean optical input power is known, the mean current to the
APD is defined by the bias which gives a constant multiplication factor at
all temperatures.
5. Any variation in the multiplication factor will produce a variation in
charge on C.
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6. The output current from the photodetector is defined by input current
from the constant current source giving full automatic gain control,
thus this simple AGC technique is dependent on a constant, mean optical
input power level and takes no account of dark current generated within
detector.

+HV
Comparator
high voltage
regulator

Output
Amp

Fig. 4.14.3. Bias of an APD by peak detection and

feedback to provide AGC.

PART-3
Detector Response Time, Photodetector Noise : Noise Sources,
Signal to Noise Ratio, Comparison of Photodetector, Fundamental
Receiver Operation With Digital Signal Transmission.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.15. Explain detector response time.

Answer
1. In order to determine detector response time, let us consider a reversed
biased PIN photodiode.
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Negative voltage

i
p Depletion layer n
– + +
RL
Electron – Hole
Incident photons diffusion
diffusion Carrier drift

Fig. 4.15.1. Reverse biased PIN diode.

2. After observing Fig. 4.15.1 the total current density through depletion
layer is Jtot = Jdr + Jdiff ...(4.15.1)
where
Jdr is drift current density due to carriers generated in depletion region.
Jdiff is diffusion current density due to carriers generated outside
depletion region.
3. The drift current density is expressed as :
Ip
Jdr =
A
 W
Jdr = q 0 ( e s )
where, A is photodiode area and 0 is incident photon flux per unit area.
4. The diffusion current density is expressed as :
s Lp Dp
Jdiff = q0 e sW  qPn
1   s Lp 0 Lp
where, Dp is hole diffusion co-efficient, Pn is hole concentration in
n-type material, and Pn0 is equilibrium hole density.
5. Substituting in eq. (4.15.1), total current density through reversed biased

 e sW  Dp
depletion layer is Jtot = q 0 1    q pn0
 1   s L p  Lp

6. The factors that determine the response time of a photodiode are :

i. Transit time of photo carriers within the depletion region.
ii. Diffusion time of photo carriers outside the depletion region.
iii. RC time constant of diode and external circuit.

Que 4.16. What do you mean by photodetector noise ? Explain

noise source.

Answer
1. The photodiode is generally required to detect very weak optical signals.
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2. The power signal to noise ratio S/N at the output of an optical receiver is
defined by :
S Signal power from photocurrent
=
N Photodetector noise power + Amplifier noise power
3. The noise sources in the receiver arise from the photodetector noises
resulting from the statistical nature of the photon to electron conversion
process and the thermal noise associated with the amplifier circuitry.
4. To achieve a high signal to noise ratio, the following conditions should
be met :
i. The photodetector must have a high quantum efficiency to generate a
large signal power.
ii. The photodetector and amplifier noises should be kept as low as possible.
5. The principal noise associated with photodetectors that have no internal
gain are quantum noise, dark current noise generated in the bulk
material of the photodiode, and surface leakage current noise.
6. The quantum or shot noise arises from the statistical nature of the
production and collection of photoelectrons when an optical signal is
incident on a photodetector.
2 2
ishot = shot = 2qIp BeM2F (M)
7. The photodiode dark current is the current that continues to flow through
the bias circuit of the device when no light is incident on the photodiode.
8. This is a combination of bulk and surface currents. The bulk dark current
iDB arises from electrons and/or holes which are thermally generated in
the pn junction of the photodiode.
9. In an APD, these liberated carriers also get accelerated by the high
electric field present at the pn junction, and are therefore multiplied by
the avalanche gain mechanism.
10. The mean-square value of this current is given by
2
iDB = 2DB = 2qID M2F (M) Be
where ID is the primary (unmultiplied) detector bulk dark current.
11. The surface dark current is also referred to as a surface leakage current
or simply the leakage current. It is dependent on surface defects,
cleanliness, bias voltage, and surface area.
12. An effective way of reducing surface dark current is through the use of
a guard ring structure which shunts surface leakage currents away
from the load resistor.
13. The mean square value of the surface dark current is given by
2
iDS = 2DS = 2qIL Be
where IL is the surface leakage current.
Power Launching in Fiber 4–20 D (EC-Sem-5)
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14. The surface dark current increases in proportion to the square root of
the active area, and the bulk dark current is directly proportional to the
area.

Que 4.17. Draw and explain avalanche photodiode receiver and

derive expression for SNR. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. APD : Refer Q. 4.12, Page 4–13D, Unit-4.
B. Expression for SNR :
1. The origin of avalanche excess noise in APD is the difference in ionization
of electrons and holes.
2. The ratio of the actual noise generated in an avalanche photodiode to
the noise that would exist if all carrier pairs were multiplied by exactly M
is called the excess noise factor F, which is determined by the following
formula :
 1
F = kAM + (1 – kA)  2  
 M
where kA is the ratio of the electron and hole ionization rates.
3. The shot noise in an APD is
is2 (APD) = M2 [2eF (I*P) (BW)]
4. For dark-current noise the value of F is very small. Thermal noise, on
the other hand, does not depend on current and, therefore, is not changed
by the ionization process. This is because thermal noise is created on
resistors.
5. As a result, then, for the formula for the RMS value of an APD’s thermal-
noise current is :
 4 K BT 
it(APD) =  R  ( BW )
L

6. Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio for an APD can be written as :

* 2

SNR (APD) =
I *2
p

M I  p
2
Inoise i
2
s  it2 

M 2 I *2
p
SNR =
 2 * 4 K BT 
 2eM I p  R  BW
 L 
Que 4.18. Write a short note on noise sources in optical fiber
communication.

Answer
Noise sources in optical fiber communication are :
Optical Communication 4–21 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1. Quantum or shot noise : It arises from statistical nature of the
production or collection of photoelectrons when optical signal is incident
on a photodetector. The shot noise current has a mean square value in
a receiver bandwidth BC which is proportional to average value of
photocurrent Ip.
2
=  2shot = 2qIp Be M2F(M)
ishot
2. Dark current noise generated in bulk material of a photo diode :
The bulk dark current iDB arises from electrons or holes which are
thermally generated in the p-n junction photodiode. The mean square
value of this current is given by
2
iDB =  2DB = 2qIDM2F(M) Be
3. Surface dark current/surface leakage current : It depends on
surface defects, cleanliness, bias voltage, and surface area. An effective
way to reduce dark current is through guard ring structure which shunts
surface leakage current away from load resistor.
The mean square value of dark current is
2
iDS =  2DS = 2q IL Be

Que 4.19. A silicon PIN photodiode incorporated into an optical

receiver has a quantum efficiency of 60 % when operating at a
wavelength of 0.9 mm. The dark current is 3 nA and the load resistance
is 4 k. The incident optical power is 200 nW and the post detection
bandwidth of the receiver is 5 MHZ. Calculate the root mean square
(rms) shot noise and thermal noise currents generated.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer

Given :  = 60 %,  = 0.9 mm, Id = 3 nA, RL = 4 k, P0 = 200 nW,

BW = 5 MHz
To Find : Root mean square (rms) shot noise current, RMS thermal
noise current.
1. The photocurrent is given by,
P0 e P0 e
Ip = 
hf hc

0.6  200  10 9  1.602  10  19  0.9  10 3

= = 8.70 × 10 – 5 A
6.626  10 34  3  108
= 87 A = 0.087 nA
2. The total shot noise is,
2
iTS = 2eBW (Id + Ip)
Power Launching in Fiber 4–22 D (EC-Sem-5)
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= 2 × 1.602 × 10 – 19 × 5 × 106 [(3 + 0.087) × 10 – 9]
= 49.45 × 10 – 22 A2
And the root mean square (rms) shot noise current is
2 1/ 2
(iTS ) = 7.03 × 10 – 11 A
3. The thermal noise current is,

iT2 = 4 kTBW
RL

4  1.381  10 23  293  5  106

=
4  103
[ Assume T = 20 °C = 293° K]
= 2.02 × 10 – 17 A2
4. Therefore, the rms thermal noise current is

(iT2 )1/ 2 = 4.49 × 10 – 9 A

Que 4.20.
3.20. Dis cuss the comparison between PIN and ADP
photodetectors.

Answer

S. No. Parameters PIN ADP

1. Sensitivity Less sensitive i.e., More sensitive i.e.,
form 0-12 dB from 5 to 15 dB
2. Biasing Low reverse biased High reverse biased
(5 to 10 V) voltage (200–400 V)
3. Wavelength region 300-1100 nm 400–100 nm
4. Gain No internal gain Internal gain
5. S / N ratio Poor Better
6. Detector circuit Simple More complex
7. Conversion 0.5 to 1.0 Amps / Watt 0.5 to 100 Amps /Watt
efficiency
8. Cost Cheaper More expensive

Que 4.21. Draw and explain the operation of optical receiver.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Optical Communication 4–23 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Answer
1. A block schematic of an optical fiber receiver is shown in Fig. 4.21.1.
2. The linear conversion of the received optical signal into an electrical
current at the detector is amplified to obtain a suitable signal level.
3. Initial amplification is performed in the pre-amplifier circuit where it is
necessary that additional noise is kept to minimum in order to avoid
corruption of the received signal.

Optical Optical Main

Pre-amplifier Equalizer Filter
signal detector amplifier
Fig. 4.21.1.
4. The main amplifier provides low noise amplification of the signal to give
an increased signal level.
5. The transfer function of pre-amplifier-main amplifier combination may
be such that the input signal becomes distorted.
6. Thus, to provide a suitable signal shape for the filter an equalizer is used
in the receiver.
7. The function of the final element in the receiver, the filter, is to maximize
the received signal to noise ratio.
8. In digital system, mainly the function of the filter is to reduce intersymbol
interference whereas in analog system it is generally required to hold
the amplitude and phase response of received signal.
9. The filter is also designed to reduce the noise bandwidth as well as
inband noise levels.

Que 4.22. What is the function of an optical detector ? Draw an

optical receiver configuration with different possible structures
for front-end amplifier. Explain the different types of error/noise
sources in an optical receiver. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Write a short note on front end amplifier.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 3.5

OR
Explain the necessity of preamplifier in optical receiver. Mention
the types of preamplifier and explain the working of any one of
them. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Explain in detail with relevant circuit diagrams the different types
of optical pre-amplifiers.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Power Launching in Fiber 4–24 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Answer
A. Function of optical detector :
1. The function of optical detector is to convert the received optical signal
into an electrical signal, which is then amplified before further processing.
2. Therefore when considering signal attenuation along the link, the system
performance is determined at the detector.
B. Necessity of preamplifier :
Initial amplification is performed in the preamplifier circuit where it is
essential that additional noise is kept to a minimum in order to avoid
corruption of the received signal.
C. Types of preamplifier :
a. Low impedance front end receiver :

hf Rb Ra

Detector and bias Voltage amplifier

Fig. 4.22.1. Low impedance front end optical
fiber receiver with voltage amplifier.

1. This configuration consists of a voltage amplifier together with a detector

bias resistor. This is the simplest and most commonly used receiver.
2. In order to make the design suitable it is necessary to consider both
bandwidth and noise.
3. The bandwidth is determined by the passive impedance which appears
across the detector terminal taken as RL.
4. However RL may be modified to incorporate the parallel resistance of
the detector bias resistor Rb and amplifier input resistance Ra.
5. The total resistance RTL is given as :
Rb Ra
RTL =
Rb  Ra
6. To achieve an optimum bandwidth both Rb and Ra must be minimized.
7. This leads to low impedance front end design for the receiver amplifier.
8. This design allows thermal noise to dominate within the receiver which
may severely limit its sensitivity.
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b. High impedance front end receiver :

hf Rb Ra

~
~
Equalizer

Detector and bias High input impedance

voltage amplifier
Fig. 4.22.2. High impedance integrating front end
optical fiber receiver with equalized voltage amplifier.
1. This configuration consists of high input impedance amplifier together
with a large detector bias resistor in order to reduce the effect of thermal
noise.
2. This structure gives a degraded frequency response as bandwidth is not
maintained for wideband operation.
3. The detector output is effectively integrated over a large time constant
and must be restored by differentiation. This may be performed by
correct equalization.
4. The high impedance front end structure provides a significant
improvement in the sensitivity over a low impedance front end structure
but it creates a heavy demand for equalization and has problems of
limited dynamic range.
5. The limitations on dynamic range results from the attenuation of the
low frequency signal components by the equalization process which
causes the amplifier to saturate at high signal levels.
c. The transimpedance front end receiver :
1. This configuration mainly overcomes the drawbacks of the high
impedance front end by utilizing a low noise, a high input impedance
amplifier with negative feedback.

it

Rr
–
~ –G
Va +

idet RTL Cr ia Vin Vout

Fig. 4.22.3. An equivalent circuit for the optical fiber receiver

incorporating a transimpedance (current mode) preamplifier.
Power Launching in Fiber 4–26 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2. This device operates as a current mode amplifier where the high input
impedance is reduced by negative feedback.
3. In the above equivalent circuit, the parallel resistances and capacitances
are combined into RTL and CT.
D. Types of error / noise sources : Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4–20D, Unit-4.

Que 4.23. Explain a digital signal transmission setup suitable for

fiber optic communication.

Answer
1. Transmitted signal is a two level binary data stream consisting of either
a 0 or a 1 in a time slot of duration Tb. This time slot is referred as bit
period.
2. Fig. 4.23.1, illustrates the shape of a digital signal at different points
along an optical link.
Tb Tb
1 0 1

LED or Laser
Electric input transmitter Optical power
Attenuated and
pulses pulses
distorted optical
power pulses

PIN or
Amplifier
avalanche
Electric current and filter
photodiode Voltage pulses and
pulses containing
photodetector amplifier noise
noise
1 0 1
Decision circuit Signal
and pulse processing
regenerator Regenerated equipment The arrows denote
output voltage time slot centers
pulses

Fig. 4.23.1. Signal path through an optical data link.

3. One of the simplest techniques for sending binary data is amplitude
shift keying or on-off keying wherein a voltage level is switched between
two values, which are usually ON or OFF.
4. The resultant signal wave thus consists of voltage pulse of amplitude V
relative to zero voltage level when a binary 1 occurs and zero voltage
level space when a binary 0 occurs.
5. Depending on the coding scheme to be used, a binary 1 may or may not
fill the time slot Tb.
Optical Communication 4–27 D (EC-Sem-5)
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6. For simplicity here we assume that when 1 is sent, a voltage pulse of
duration Tb occurs, whereas for 0 the voltage remains at its zero level.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Derive the expression for power coupling to a step index

fiber by a surface emitting LED.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.3.

Q. 2. Discuss the various factors which effect the launching of

optical signal into fiber. Determine the power coupled into
step index fiber whose n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46, if surface emitting
LED radiates 150 W of power.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.8.

Q. 3. Explain the working of p-i-n photodiode. Also explain the

factors that limit the speed of response of photodiode.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.9.

Q. 4. Enumerate the principle of operation of APD.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.12.

Q. 5. Describe the factors which limit the speed of response of a

photodiode and show the impact of change in temperature
over the avalanche multiplication factors/internal gain.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.14.

Q. 6. Explain the working of PIN photodiode. A p-i-n photodiode

has a quantum efficiency of 55 % at a wavelength of 0.9
micrometer. Calculate :
i. Its responsivity at 0.9 micrometer.
ii. The received optical power if the mean photocurrent is
10 – 8 A.
iii. The corresponding number of received photons at this
wavelength.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.20.

Q. 7. Draw and explain the operation of optical receiver.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.22.

Optical Communication 5–1 D (EC-Sem-5)
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5 Digital Receiver
Performance

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Probability of Error/BER, ......................... 5–2D to 5–9D
Receiver Sensitivity & The
Quantum Limit,
Error Control Techniques,
Eye Diagram Pattern Features

Part-2 : Coherent Detection : ............................. 5–10D to 5–20D

Homodyne Detection and
Heterodyne Detection,
Digital Links : Point to Point
Links, Power Penalties

Part-3 : Multichannel & Multiplexing .............. 5–20D to 5–24D

Transmission Techniques, Basic
Concept of Free Space Optics
(FSO) Based Communication System
Digital Receiver Performance 5–2 D (EC-Sem-5)
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PART-1
Probability of Error/BER,Receiver Sensitivity & The Quantum
Limit, Error Control Techniques, Eye Diagram Pattern Features.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Write a short note on probability of error sensitivity.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 3.5

OR
Explain quantum limit.

Answer
The performance criterion fo r receivers is governed by the
bit-error rate (BER), defined as the probability of incorrect identification
of a bit by the decision circuit of the receiver.
BER :
1. Bit error rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of number of errors occurring
over a time interval to the number of pulses transmitted during the
interval.
Ne
BER = ...(5.1.1)
Nt
Ne
BER = ...(5.1.2)
Bt
where,
Ne is the number of errors occurring during the interval,
Nt is the number of pulses transmitted during the interval, and
B is the bit rate (1/Tb) or pulse transmission rate.
2. BER for optical fiber communication system is ranging between 10–9
and 10–12. BER of receiver depends on S/N ratio.
3. To compute the BER at receiver probability distribution of output signal
is considered.
1   V 
Pe = 1  erf  
2  2 2  
where, V is the pulse amplitude and is standard deviation.
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Quantum limit :
1. For an ideal photo detector quantum efficiency = 1 and has zero dark
current then the minimum received.
2. Power for a specific bit-error rate is known as quantum limit.
3. Let an optical pulse of energy E is incident on photo detector in time
interval .
4. Then the probability of emitting zero electrons during the interval is 
N
Pr(0) = e .
where, N is average number of electrons hole pair.
Que 5.2. How to measure the BER and Q factor in digital

transmission ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A. BER :
1. BER is a statistical parameter; its value depends on the measurement
time and on the factors that cause the errors.
2. If the errors are due to Gaussian noise in a relatively stable transmission
link, then a measurement time in which about 100 errors occur may be
needed to ensure a statistically valid BER determination.
3. BER means that one bit error occurs every 100 seconds. Such a level
may be unacceptable, so even lower bit error rates.
4. For example, to detect 100 errors for measuring a 10–12 BER in a
10 Gb/s link will require 2.8 hours. Thus test times on installed links
could run anywhere from 8 to 72 hours. To reduce such costly and time
consuming test periods, a Q-factor technique can be used.
B. Q-factor measurement :
1. In this method the receiver threshold is decreased, which increases the
probability of errors and thus decreases test time.
2. Q-factor based measurements are more complex equipment also
measure performance by using a degraded signal that more closely
represents what is seen in fielded links.
3. This method is described in the IEEE 802.3 specification for testing
10-Gigabit Ethernet (10-GbE) devices.

Que 5.3. Define bit error rate (BER) of digital optical receiver.
Obtain its express ion for binary receiver as suming noise
distribution to be Gaussian. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Digital Receiver Performance 5–4 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Answer
A. BER : Refer Q. 5.1, Page 5–2D, Unit-5.
B. Derivation :
1. We assume that the average received power is equal to P1 when the
symbol 1 is transmitted and to P0 when the symbol 0 is transmitted.
Since some noise contributions depend on the received optical power,
the photocurrent fluctuations are also functions of the transmitted
symbol.
2. The output photocurrent i fluctuates from one bit to another, around
an average value 1 with the variance 1 when the symbol 1 is
transmitted and 0 with the variance 0 when the symbol 0 is
transmitted.
3. At the decision time tD determined by the clock recovery circuit, the
decision circuit compares the observed current value i with a threshold
value iD.
4. When i is found to be above the threshold value in the firm decision
that a 1 is transmitted can be made.
5. When i is found to be below the threshold value iD the firm decision
can be made that a 0 is transmitted.
6. Fig. 5.3.1 shows the probability distributions of the photocurrent for
the two transmitted symbols.
P0(i)

Symbol ‘0’
transmitted

P(1/0)

i
<i0> ID

P1(i)
Symbol ‘1’
transmitted

P(1/0)

i
iD <i1>
Fig. 5.3.1. Probability distributions of the photocurrent for the two
transmitted symbols and selection of the decision thresholds.
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7. When, due to the signal and receiver noises, i is found above the
threshold value iD whereas the symbol 0 has been transmitted, an
error occurs. In the same way, when i is found below the threshold
value iD whereas the symbol 1 has been transmitted, an error also
occurs.
8. Both of these two error sources degrade the performance of the
communication system.
9. The performance of a digital communication system is expressed in
terms of bit error probability, also called the bit error ratio (BER),
defined as the ratio of the number of wrong decisions to the number of
transmitted bits :
BER = p(1)p(0/1) + p(0)p( 1 /0) ...(5.3.1)
10. In which P(1) and P(0) are the probabilities of transmitting 1 and 0
respectively and P(0/1) is the probability of deciding that 0 is received
when 1 is transmitted, and P(1/0) is the probability of deciding 1 when
0 is transmitted.
11. The two products express the two joint probabilities to make a wrong
decision. The bit error ratio is also frequently referred to as the bit
error rate.
12. A binary message is more informative when the symbols 1 and 0 have
the same probability to occur so that P(1) = P(0) = {1/2}. The BER is
thus given by :
1
BER = [P(0/1) + P(1/0)] ...(5.3.2)
2
13. Both the average and the variance of the photocurrent are different
for bit 1 and bit 0. Using a Gaussian model, the probabilities P(0/1) and
P(1/0) are written as :
iD
1  (i   1 )2  1  1  iD 
p(0/1) =
1 2
 exp  
 212 
 di  erfc 
2  1 2 
...(5.3.3)
iD 2
1  (i   0 )  1  iD   0 
p(1/0) =  exp   di  erfc 
1 2  202  2  0 2 
...(5.3.4)
14. In which erfc(x) = 1 – erf(x) is the complementary error function
defined as :

2 2
erfc(x) =  exp [  u ] du ...(5.3.5)
 x

15. Putting the value of P(0/1) and P(1/0) in eq. (5.3.2), we get
1   iD  0   1  iD  
BER =  erfc    erfc  
4   0 2   1 2  
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Que 5.4. Explain the term receiver sensitivity in reference to
digital receiver performance.

Answer
1. To achieve a desired BER at a given data rate, a specific minimum
average optical power level must arrive at the photodetector. The value
of this minimum power level is called the receiver sensitivity.
2. A common method of defining the receiver sensitivity is as an average
optical power (Pavg) in dBm incident on the photodetector.
3. Alternatively it may be defined as an optical modulation amplitude (OMA)
given in terms of a peak to peak current at the photodetector output.
The receiver sensitivity gives a measure of the minimum average power
of OMA needed to maintain a maximum (worst case) BER at a specific
data rate.
4. The receiver sensitivity factor Q in terms of signal currents from 1 and
0 pulses (I1 and I0, respectively) and their corresponding noise current
variations (1 and 0, respectively), and assuming there is no optical
power in a zero pulse, yields.
I1  I0 I1
Q= 
1  0 1   0
5. The receiver sensitivity Psensitivity is found from the average power
contained in a bit period for the specified data rate as :
P1 I1 (   0 )
Psensitivity =  Q 1 ...(5.4.1)
2 (2 RM ) (2 RM )
where R is the unity gain responsivity and M is the gain of the photodiode.
6. If there is no optical amplifier in a fiber transmission link, then thermal
noise and shot noise are the dominant noise effects in the receiver.
7. The thermal noise is independent of the incoming optical signal power,
but the shot noise depends on the received power.
8. Assuming there is no optical power in a received zero pulse, the noise
variances for 0 and 1 pulses, respectively, are
02 = T2 and 12 = T2 + shot
2
.
9. The shot noise variance for a 1 pulse is
2
shot = 2q RP1 M2 F(M)Be
= 4q R Psensitivity M2F(M)B/2
10. The thermal noise current variance is :
4 kBT B
T2 = Fn
RL 2
2
11. Substituting 1 = (shot   2T )1/ 2
Optical Communication 5–7 D (EC-Sem-5)
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and 0 = T in eq. (5.4.1), we have
 1  Q  qMF ( M ) BQ 
Psensitivity =    T 
R M  2 
Que 5.5. Write a short note on error control technique.

Answer
1. To control errors and to improve the reliability of a communication
line, first it is necessary to be able to detect the errors and then either
to correct them or retransmit the information.
2. Error detection methods encode the information stream to have a
specific pattern.
3. If segments in the received data stream violate this pattern, then errors
have occurred.
4. The two basic schemes for error correction are automatic repeat
request (ARQ) and forward error correction (FEC).
i. ARQ :
1. ARQ schemes have been used for many years in applications such as
computer communication links that use telephone lines and for data
transmission over the Internet.
2. As shown in Fig. 5.5.1, the ARQ technique uses a feedback channel
between the receiver and the transmitter to request message
retransmission in case errors are detected at the receiver.

Source Transmit line Receive User

Encoder Decoder
controller controller
Feedback channel

Fig. 5.5.1. Basic setup for an automatic-repeat-request

(ARQ) error-correction scheme.

3. Since each such transmission adds at least one round-trip time of

latency, ARQ may not be feasible for applications in which data must
arrive within a certain time in order to be useful.
ii. Forward error correction :
1. Forward error correction avoids the shortcomings of ARQ for high
bandwidth optical networks requiring low delays.
2. In FEC techniques, redundant information is transmitted along with
the original information.
3. If some of the original data is lost or received in error, the redundant
information is used to reconstruct it.

Que 5.6. Draw eye diagram and explain eye pattern features.
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Answer
A. Eye diagram :
1. The eye diagram is powerful measurement tool for assessing the data
handling ability of a digital transmission system.
2. This method has been used extensively for evaluating the performance
of wire line systems and also applies to optical fiber data links.
Distortion at
Best sampling time sampling times
Maximum signal
voltage (V2)

Slope given sensitivity

to timing errors Noise margin (V1)
Threshold
Distortion at zero
crossing ( T)

Time interval over which

signal can be sampled

Fig. 5.6.1. Simplified eye diagram showing

the key performance parameters.
B. Eye pattern features :
1. The eye pattern measurements are made in the time domain and allow
the effects of waveform distortion to be shown immediately on the
display screen of standard BER test equipment.
2. Fig. 5.6.2 shows a typical display pattern, which is known as an eye
pattern or an eye diagram. The basic upper and lower bounds are
determined by the logic one and zero levels, shown by bon and boff,
respectively.
Overshoot on logic 1
80 to 20%
20 to 80% Fall time
Rise time
bon

80%
Eye jitter Eye jitter

Eye-opening Zero crossing

height

20%
boff
bdark
Eye width overshoot on logic 0 Undershoot logic 0
Fig. 5.6.2. General configuration of an eye diagram showing the
definitions of fundamental measurement parameters.
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3. The following information regarding the signal amplitude distortion,
timing jitter, and system rise time can be derived :
i. The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the
received signal can be sampled without error due to interference from
adjacent pulses (known as intersymbol interference).
ii. The best time to sample the received waveform is when the height of
the eye opening is largest. This height is reduced as a result of amplitude
distortion in the data signal. The vertical distance between the top of the
eye opening and the maximum signal level gives the degree of distortion.
The more the eye closes, the more difficult it is to distinguish between
ones and zeros in the signal.
iii. The height of the eye opening at the specified sampling time shows the
noise margin or immunity to noise. Noise margin is the percentage ratio
of the peak signal voltage V1 for an alternating bit sequence (defined by
the height of the eye opening) to the maximum signal voltage V2 as
measured from the threshold level, as shown in Fig. 5.6.1. That is
V1
Noise margin (percent) =  100 percent
V2
iv. The rate at which the eye closes as the sampling time is varied (i.e., the
slope of the eye pattern sides) determines the sensitivity of the system
to timing errors. The possibility of timing errors increases as the slope
becomes more horizontal.
v. Timing jitter (also referred to as edge jitter or phase distortion) in an
optical fiber system arises from noise in the receiver and pulse distortion
in the optical fiber. The amount of distortion DT at the threshold level
indicates the amount of jitter. Timing jitter is thus given by,

T
Timing jitter (percent) =  100 percent
Tb
where Tb is one bit interval.
vi. The rise time is defined as the time interval between the points where
the rising edge of the signal reaches 10 percent of its final amplitude to
the time where it reaches 90 percent of its final amplitude. To convert
from the 20 to 80 percent rise time to a 10 to 90 percent rise time, one
can use the approximate relationship.
T10-90 = 1.25 × T20-80
A similar approach is used to determine the fall time.
vii. Any non-linear effects in the channel transfer characteristics will create
an asymmetry in the eye pattern. If a purely random data stream is
passed through a purely linear system, all the eye openings will be
identical and symmetrical.
Digital Receiver Performance 5–10 D (EC-Sem-5)
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PART-2
Coherent Detection : Homodyne Detection and Heterodyne Detection,
Digital Links : Point to Point Links, Power Penalties.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.7. Draw a block diagram and explain the principle of

coherent detection method in optical fiber.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
1. In coherent detection techniques the light is treated as a carrier medium
which can be amplitude, frequency or phase modulated similar to the
methods used in microwave radio systems.
2. The key principle of the coherent detection technique is to provide gain
to the incoming optical signal by combining or mixing it with a locally
generated continuous wave (CW) optical field.
3. The term mixing means that when two waves which have frequencies
1 and 2 are combined, the result will be other waves with frequencies
equal to 21, 22 and 1 ± 2.
4. For coherent light wave systems, all frequency components except
1 – 2 are filtered out at the receiver. The device used for creating the
CW signal is a narrow linewidth laser called a local oscillator (LO).
Transmitter
Coherent receiver
Optical fiber
Photodiode
Signal (ASK, PSK) Optical
laser coupler
(1) Modulator Amplifier Data
Filter and out
(FSK) demodulator
IF signal
Data in Local-oscillator (1– 2)
Laser ( z)

Fig. 5.7.1. Fundamental concept of coherent lightwave system. The

three basic detection methods can have various modulation formats.
5. The electric field of the transmitted optical signal to be a plane wave
having the form
Es = As cos [st + s(t)]
where As is the amplitude of the optical signal field, s is the optical
signal carrier frequency, and s(t) is the phase of the optical signal.
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6. In a direct detection system the electrical signal coming into the
transmitter amplitude modulates the optical power level of the light
source. Thus output directly detected current is proportional to the
intensity IDD optical signal.
1 2
IDD = Es Es*  As [1  cos (2 s t  2 s )]
2
1 2
IDD = Es Es* As
2
7. At the receiving end in coherent lightwave systems, the receiver first
adds a locally generated optical wave to the incoming information bearing
signal and then detects the combination.
8. The mixing of the information bearing and local oscillator signals is done
on the surface of the photodetector (before photodetection takes place).
If the local oscillator (LO) field has the form
ELO = ALO cos [ LOt   LO (t)]
where ALO is the amplitude of the local oscillator field, LO and LO(t) are
the local oscillator frequency and phase, respectively, then the detected
current is proportional to the square of the total electric field of the
signal falling on the photodetector.
9. That is, the intensity Icoh(t) is
Icoh(t) = (Es + ELO)2
1 2 1 2
= As  ALO  As ALO cos [( s   LO ) t  (t)] cos (t)
2 2
where (t) = s(t) – LO(t) is the relative phase difference between the
incoming information bearing signal and the local oscillator signal, and
Es . ELO
cos(t) =
Es ELO
represents the polarization misalignment between the signal wave and
the local oscillator wave.
10. The optical power P(t) is proportional to the intensity, at the photodetector
we then have
P(t) = Ps + PLO + 2 Ps PLO cos [( s _  LO ) t  (t)] cos (t)
where Ps and PLO are the signal and local oscillator optical powers,
respectively, with PLO >> Ps.

Que 5.8. Write a short note on homodyne detection.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

OR
Explain the following :
i. Homodyne detection
ii. Heterodyne detection.
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Answer
i. Homodyne detection :
1. When the signal carrier and local oscillator frequencies are equal, that
is, when IF = 0, we have the special case of homodyne detection.
P(t) = Ps + PLO + 2 Ps PLO cos (t) cos ( t)
2. Thus one can use either OOK [varying the signal level Ps while keeping
(t) constant] or PSK [varying the phase s(t) of the signal and keeping
Ps constant] modulation schemes to transmit information.
3. Since PLO >> Ps and PLO is constant, the last term on the right hand side
of contains the transmitted information.
4. Homodyne detection brings the signal directly to the baseband frequency,
so that no further electrical demodulation is required.
5. Homodyne receivers yield the most sensitive coherent systems.
6. However, they are also the most difficult to build, since the local oscillator
must be controlled by an optical phase locked loop.
ii. Heterodyne detection :
1. In heterodyne detection, the intermediate frequency IF is non-zero
and an optical phase locked loop is not needed.
2. Consequently heterodyne receivers are much easier to implement than
homodyne receivers.
3. However, the price for this simplification is 3 dB degradation in sensitivity
compared to homodyne detection.
4. Consider the output current at the receiver. Since Ps << PLO receiver
output current then contains a DC term given by
q
iDC = PLO
h
and a time varying IF, term given by
q
iIF(t) = Ps PLO cos [ IF  (t)] cos (t)
h
5. The DC current is normally filtered out in the receiver, and the IF
current gets amplified. One then recovers the information from the
amplified current using conventional RF demodulation techniques.

Que 5.9. Derive an expression for the photo current in the case
of a homodyne and heterodyne optical receiver systems.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. A coherent field is generated locally at the receiver using a
narrow-linewidth laser, called the local oscillator (LO).
2. It is combined with the incoming optical field using a beam splitter,
typically a fiber coupler in practice.
3. Assuming the optical signal using complex notation as
Es = As exp[– i(0t + s)], ...(5.9.1)
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where 0 is the carrier frequency, As is the amplitude, and s is the
phase.
4. The optical field associated with the local oscillator is given by a similar
expression,
ELO = ALO exp[– i(LOt + LO)], ...(5.9.2)
where ALO, LO, and LO represent the amplitude, frequency, and phase
of the local oscillator, respectively.
5. The scalar notation is used for both Es and ELO after assuming that the
two fields are identically polarized.
6. The optical power incident at the photodetector is given by
P = |Es + ELO|2.
7. Using eq. (5.9.1) and eq. (5.9.2), then we get
P(t) = Ps  PLO  2 Ps PLO cos ( IF t   s   LO ) ...(5.9.3)
2 2
where, P(t) = A , PLO  A
s LO, IF = 0 = LO
8. The frequency vIF = IF/2 is known as the intermediate frequency (IF).
When 0  LO, the optical signal is demoluated in two stages. Its carrier
frequency is first converted to an intermediate frequency vIF (typically
0.1-5 GHz).
9. The resulting radio-frequency (RF) signal is then processed electronically
to recover the bit stream. It is not always necessary to use an
intermediate frequency.
10. In fact, there are two different coherent detection techniques to choose
from, depending on whether or not IF equals zero. They are known as
homodyne and heterodyne detection techniques.
i. Homodyne detection :
1. In this coherent-detection technique, the local-oscillator frequency LO
is selected to coincide with the signal-carrier frequency 0 so that
IF = 0.
2. From eq. (5.9.3), the photocurrent (I = RdP, where Rd is the detector
responsivity) is given by
I(t) = Rd ( Ps  PLO )  2 Rd Ps (t) PLO cos ( s   LO ) ...(5.9.4)
3. Typically, PLO >> Ps, + PLO  PLO. The last term in eq. (5.9.4) contains the
information transmitted and is used by decision circuit.
4. Consider the case in which the local-oscillator phase is locked to the
signal phase so that s = LO.
5. The homodyne signal is given by
Ip(t) = 2 Rd Ps (t) PLO ...(5.9.5)
ii. Heterodyne detection :
1. In the case of heterodyne detection the local-oscillator frequency LO is
chosen to differ from the signal-carrier frequency 0 such that the
intermediate frequency IF is in the microwave region (vIF ~ 1 GHz).
2. Using eq. (3) together with I = RdP, the photocurrent is now given by
I(t) = Rd ( Ps  PLO )  2 Rd Ps PLO cos ( IF t   s   LO ) ...(5.9.6)
Digital Receiver Performance 5–14 D (EC-Sem-5)
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3. Since PLO >> Ps in practice, the direct-current (DC) term is nearly
constant and can be removed easily using bandpass filters.
4. The heterodyne signal is then given by the alternating-current (AC)
term in eq. (5.9.6) or by
Iac(t) = 2 Rd Ps PLO cos ( IF t   s   LO )

Que 5.10. What is point-to-point link ? Enumerate the choice of

components and their characteristics required for designing optical
system.
OR
With the help of a neat block diagram, explain the principle of
working of point to point digital links. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10

Answer
1. Point-to-point link is the simplest form of optical communication link
that comprises of one transmitter and a receiver system.
2. For analyzing the performance of any link following important aspects
are to be considered :
i. Distance of transmission. ii. Channel data rate.
iii. Bit-error rate.
3. To fulfill these requirements, the designer has a choice of the following
components and their associated characteristics :
1. Multimode or single mode optical fiber :
a. Core size b. Core refractive index profile
c. Bandwidth or dispersion d. Attenuation
e. Numerical aperture or mode-field diameter
2. LED or Laser diode optical source :
a. Emission wavelength b. Spectral line width
c. Output power d. Effective radiating area
e. Emission pattern f. Number of emitting modes
3. Pin or avalanche photodiode (Optical detector) :
a. Responsivity b. Operating wavelength
c. Speed d. Sensitivity

Transmitter Regenerator Regenerator Receiver

Fig. 5.10.1. Point to point fiber links.

4. When the link length extends between 20 to 100 km, losses associated
with fiber cable increases.
5. In order to compensate the losses optical amplifier and regenerators are
used over the span of fiber cable.
6. A regenerator is a receiver and transmitter pair which detects incoming
optical signal, recovers the bit stream electrically and again convert
back into optical form by modulating an optical source.
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7. An optical amplifier amplifies the optical bit stream without converting
it into electrical form.

Que 5.11. Discuss the digital link design using the rise time budget.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 08

OR
Explain the analysis which carried out to measure overall
performance of optical fiber. Explain link budget analysis.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
Overall performance of optical fiber :
1. Two analyses usually are carried out to ensure that the desired system
performance can be met : these are the link power budget and the
system rise-time budget analyses.
2. In the link power budget analysis, one first determines the power margin
between the optical transmitter output and the minimum receiver
sensitivity needed to establish a specified BER.
3. This margin can then be allocated to connector, splice and other
components.
i. Link power budget :
1. An optical power loss model for a point-to-point link is shown in
Fig. 5.11.1.
Transmitter Receiver
Splices Optical fibers
Connector Connector

Optical Photon
source     detector
lc lsp lsp lc lsp lc
Fiber Fiber
flylead Connector (optional) flylead

Fig. 5.11.1. Optical power loss model for a point-to-point link.

The losses occur at connectors (lc), at splices (l sp),
and in the fiber ().

2. The optical power received at the photodetector depends on the amount

of light coupled into the fiber and the losses occurring in the fiber and at
the connectors and splices.
3. The link loss budget is derived from the sequential loss contributions of
each element in the link. Each of these loss elements is expressed in
decibels (dB) as
Pout
loss = 10 log ...(5.11.1)
Pin
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where, Pin and Pout are the optical powers entering and leaving the loss
element, respectively.
4. The link loss budget simply considers the total optical power loss PT that
is allowed between the light source and the photodetector, and allocates
this loss to cable attenuation, connector loss, splice loss, and system
margin.
5. Thus, if PS is the optical power emerging from the end of a fiber flylead
attached to the light source or from a source-coupled connector, and if
PR is the receiver sensitivity, then
PT = PS – PR = 2lc + L + system margin ...(5.11.2)
6. Here, lc is the connector loss,  is the fiber attenuation (dB/km), L is the
transmission distance, and the system margin is nominally taken as
6 dB.
ii. Rise-time budget :
1. A rise-time budget analysis is a convenient method for determining the
dispersion limitation of an optical fiber link. This particularly useful for
digital systems.
2. In this approach, the total rise time tsys of the link is the root sum square
of the rise times from each contributor ti to the pulse rise-time
degradation :
1/ 2
 N 2
tsys =   ti 
 i1 
3. The four basic elements that may significantly limit system speed are
the transmitter rise time ttx, the group-velocity dispersion (GVD) rise
time tGVD of the fiber, the modal dispersion rise time tmod of the fiber,
and the receiver rise time trx.
4. Single-mode fibers do not experience modal dispersion, so in these fibers
the rise time is related only to GVD. The rise times of transmitters and
receivers are generally known to the receiver.
5. To find the relation between the fiber rise time and the 3-dB bandwidth,
we assume that the optical power emerging from the fiber has a Gaussian
temporal response described by
1 2 2
g(t) = e t / 2 
2
where,  is the rms pulse width.
6. The 3-dB optical bandwidth B3 dB is defined as the modulation frequency
f3 dB at which the received optical power has fallen to 0.5 of the zero
frequency value.
7. Total system rise time is given as
tsys = [ ttx2  tmod
2 2
 tGVD  trx2 ]1/ 2
where, tmod = Rise time resulting from modal dispersion
ttx = Transmitter rise time
tGVD = Rise time due to group-velocity-dispersion
trx = Receiver rise time
Optical Communication 5–17 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Que 5.12. Write a short on OTDR and optical power meter.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5

Answer
A. OTDR :
1. A measurement technique which is far more refined and which finds
wide application in both the laboratory and the field is the use of optical
time domain reflectometer (OTDR).
2. This technique is often called the backscatter measurement method.
3. It provides measurement of the attenuation on an optical link down its
entire length giving information on the length dependence of the link
loss.
4. A block schematic of the backscatter measurement method is shown in
Fig. 5.12.1.
5. Here we observe that a light pulse is launched into the fiber in the
forward direction from an injection laser using either a directional coupler
or a system of external lenses with a beam splitter.

Coupler Fiber
Pulsed laser

Photodetector
APD

Box car Log Chart

integrator amplifier recorder

Fig. 5.12.1.
6. The backscattered light is detected using an avalanche photodiode
receiver which drives an integrator in order to improve the received
signal-to-noise ratio by giving an arithmetic average over a number of
the measurements taken at one point within the fiber.
7. The signal from the integrator is fed through a logarithmic amplifier
and averaged measurements for successive points within the fiber are
plotted on a chart recorder.
B. Optical power meter :
1. The principle of operation of optical power meter is based on continuous
optical emission conversion into electrical current using photodiodes.
2. Then the electrical current is amplified and an analog signal is converted
into digital one for its processing and display of the power of two measured
optical emission in dB and dBm.
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Fiber to be
Pigtail measured
fiber
Injection Reference
laser output Si-photodiode Amplifier

Pulse Fiber connector

generator Step
attentuator
Photodiode

Amplifier Continuous
attenuator

Rectifier AC
Rectifier
DC

Variable gain Log

amplifier amplifier

Digital
display

Receiver
Fig. 5.12.2.

Que 5.13. Discuss optical power penalties.

Answer
1. Optical receiver sensitivity is affected due to several factors combinedly
e.g. fiber dispersion, SNR.
2. Few major causes that degrade receiver sensitivity are modal noise,
dispersive pulse broadening, mode partition noise, frequency chirping,
reflection feedback noise.
i. Modal Noise :

2 3
5
4 m=1

3 10
Power penalty
(dB) 2

0
2 4 6 8 10
Mode selective loss (dB)
Fig. 5.13.1.
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1. In multimode fibers, there is interference among various propagating
modes which result in fluctuation in received power. These fluctuations
are called modal noise.
2. Fig. 5.13.1 shows power penalty at
BER = 10–12
 = 1.3 m
B = 140 Mb/sec
ii. Dispersive Pulse Broadening :
1. Receiver sensitivity is degraded by group velocity dispersion (GVD).It
limits the bit rate distance product (BL) by broadening optical pulse.
2. Intersymbol interference exists due to spreading of pulse energy.
5
Power penalty (dB)

4
3
2
1
0
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Dispersion parameter (BLD )
Fig. 5.13.2. Dispersion-induced power penalty.
3. In multimode fiber, various longitudinal modes fluctuate even though
intensity remains constant. This creates mode partition noise (MPN).
4. A power penalty is said to improve SNR for achieving desired BER.
5. Fig. 5.13.3 shows power penalty at BER of 109 as a function of normalized
dispersion parameter (BLD) for different value of mode partition
coefficient (K).

5
Power penalty (dB)

4
K=1 0.8 0.6
3

2 0.4
1
0
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Dispersion parameter (BLD )
Fig. 5.13.3. MPN induced power penalty.
iii. Frequency Chirping :
1. The change in carrier frequency due to change in refractive index is
called frequency chirping.
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2. Because of frequency chirp the spectrum of optical pulse gets broaden
and degrades system performance.

Power penalty (dB)

4

1
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Dispersion parameter (BLD )
Fig. 5.13.4. Chirp induced power penalty.
3. Fig. 5.13.4 shows power penalty as a function of dispersion parameter
BLD for several values of bit period.
iv. Reflection feedback and noise :
1. The light which reflects due to refractive index discontinuities at splices
and connectors are unintentional which may degrades receiver
performance.
2. Reflection in fiber link originate at glass air interface, its reflectivity is
given by

(nf  1)2
Rf =
(n f  1)2
where, nf is refractive index of fiber material
3. The noise that results from random intensity fluctuation is called relative
intensity noise (RIN). RIN is measured in dB/Hz.

PART-3
Multichannel & Multiplexing Transmission Techniques, Basic
Concept of Free Space Optics (FSO) Based Communication System.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Optical Communication 5–21 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Que 5.14. What are the different multichannel transmission

techniques used in optical communication ? Describe each in brief.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5 AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
The different multichannel transmission techniques are :
i. Multichannel Amplitude Modulation :
1. In some application the bit rate of each channel is relatively low but
the numbers of channels are quite large. Typical example of such
application is cable television (CATV).
2. Different channel information is amplitude modulated on different
carrier frequency.
3. The composite FDM signal is used to modulate the intensity of
semiconductor laser directly by adding it to the bias current.
4. At optical receiver, a bank of band pass filters separates the individual
carriers.
5. Optical modulation index m is given by
1/ 2
 N 
2
m= 

 i1
mi

where,N is number of channels and mi is per channel modulation index.
ii. Multichannel Frequency Modulation :
1. The carrier to noise ratio requirement can be relaxed by changing the
modulation format from AM to FM.
2. This results S/N ratio improvement over C/N ratio. S/N ratio at the
output of FM detector is :
 2 
 S C 3 B  f pp  
=    10 log  w
 N 
out
 
N in  
 2 fv  fv  
 
where, B = Required bandwidth,
fpp = Peak to peak frequency deviation of modulator,
fv = Highest video frequency, and
w = Weighting factor.
iii. Sub-carrier multiplexing (SCM) :
1. Sub-carrier multiplexing (SCM) is employed in microwave engineering
in which multiple microwave carriers for transmission of multiple
channels are used.
2. If the microwave signal is transmitted optically by using optical fibers,
the signal bandwidth can be exceeded upto 10 GHz for a single optical
carrier. Such a technique is referred as SCM.
3. The input can be analog or digital base band signal. The input signals are
modulated sub-carriers are then combined to give FDM signal.
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4. The FDM signals are then combined in microwave combiner. The
combined signal then modulates the intensity of semiconductor laser by
adding it to bias current.
5. The received optical signal is then passed through low noise pin photo
detector to convert it to original signal.

Que 5.15. Discuss OTDM in brief.

Answer
1. OTDM is a multiplexing technique that basically multiplexes a number
of low bit rate optical channels in time domain. Several low-speed optical
channels are multiplexed into a fixed electrical clock period, thus
increasing the transmission speed.
2. Each signal is transmitted over a single communication channel by
dividing the time frame into slots, one slot for each message signal.
3. Based on the time, each low-speed channel is allocated to a specific
position, where it works in synchronized mode. The multiplexer and
demultiplexer are timely synchronized and simultaneously switched to
the next channel.
4. Usually, the optical pulse width is shortened in order to multiplex more
channels within the fixed clock period. In addition, the shortened pulse
width can reduce the crosstalk between channels because of more room
left in bit rate.
5. However, short pulse width results in heavy dispersion as traveling
distance increases. Therefore, transform-limited pulse and dispersion
slope compensation technique need to be used to reduce the dispersion
effect on OTDM.
Multiplexer Demultiplexer

Data flow
Sender 1 Receiver 1

Sender 2 ... 3 2 1 ... 3 2 1 Receiver 2

Sender N Receiver N

Fig. 5.15.1.

Que 5.16. Write the methods of multiplexing techniques. Explain

any one.
OR
Write a short note on WDM and its components.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
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Answer
There are two methods of multiplexing techniques.
i. OTDM : Refer Q. 5.15, Page 5–22D, Unit-5.
ii. WDM :
1. Optical signals of different wavelength i.e., (1300-1600 nm) can propagate
without interfering with each other. The method of combining a number
of wavelengths over a single fiber is called wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM).
2. Fig. 5.16.1 shows a typical WDM link. At the transmitting end, there are
several independently light sources, each emitting signal at a unique
wavelength.
1 Optical fiber 1
Transmitter-1 Receiver-1
2 2
Transmitter-2 Receiver-2

Optical Optical
N N
Amplifier Amplifier
Transmitter-N Receiver-N

Wavelength multiplexer Wavelength demultiplexer

Fig. 5.16.1. Transfer characteristics.

3. Here a multiplexer is needed to combine these optical outputs into a
serial spectrum of closely spaced wavelength signals and couple them
onto a single fiber.
4. At the receiving end, a de-multiplexer is required to separate the optical
signal into appropriate detection channels for signal processing.
5. To prevent spurious signals to enter into receiving channel, the
de-multiplexer must have narrow spectral operation with sharp
wavelength cut-offs.
6. The acceptable limit of crosstalk is – 30 dB.
Components :
1. For implementing WDM various active and passive components are
required to combine, distribute, isolate and to amplify optical power at
different wavelength.
2. Passive components are mainly used to split or combine optical signals.
These types of components operate in optical domains.
3. These components don’t need external control for their operation.
4. Commonly required passive components are :
i. N × N couplers
ii. Power splitters
iii. Power taps
iv. Star couplers
5. Most of the passive components are derived from basic star couplers.
Star couplers can perform combining and splitting of optical power.
Digital Receiver Performance 5–24 D (EC-Sem-5)
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6. Therefore, star coupler is a multiple input and multiple output port
device.

Que 5.17. Explain the concept of free space optics (FSO)

communication system.

Answer
1. FSO co mmunication systems are where fre e space acts as a
communication channel between transceivers that are line-of-sight
(LOS) for successful transmission of optical signals.
2. The channel can be atmosphere, space, or vacuum, whose characteristics
determine the transmission and reception of optical signals for designing
reliable and efficient communication systems.
3. Using FSO technology data is transmitted by propagation of light through
atmospheric or space communication channels, allowing optical
connectivity.
4. FSO communication offers a high data rate to meet the tremendous
increasing demand of broadband traffic mostly driven by Internet access
and HDTV broadcasting services.
5. Compared to fiber optics technology, FSO offers much more flexibility
in designing optical network architectures at very high speeds, at tens
and hundreds of Gbit/s rates.
6. However, FSO communication is affected by atmospheric effects, which
limits sensitivity and achievable data rates with acceptable BER.
7. FSO communication is the most practical alternative to solve the
bottleneck broadband connectivity problem. The data rates provided by
FSO links continue to increase in both long and short-range applications.
8. FSO will be one of the most unique and powerful tools to address
connectivity bottlenecks that have been created in high-speed networks
during the past decade due to the tremendous success and continued
acceptance of the Internet.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Write a short note on probability of error sensitivity.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.1.

Q. 2. Define bit error rate (BER) of digital optical receiver. Obtain

its expres sion for binary receiver ass uming nois e
distribution to be Gaussian.
Optical Communication 5–25 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans. Refer Q. 5.3.
Q. 3. Draw a block diagram and explain the principle of coherent
detection method in optical fiber.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.7.

Q. 4. Derive an expression for the photo current in the case of a

homodyne and heterodyne optical receiver systems.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.9.

Q. 5. Write a short on OTDR and optical power meter.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.12.

Q. 6. What are the different multichannel trans miss ion

techniques used in optical communication ? Describe each
in brief.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.14.

Q. 7. Discuss OTDM in brief.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.16.


Optical Communication SQ–1 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1 Introduction to
Optical Communication
(2 Marks Questions)

1.1. Write down the wavelength region corresponding to first,

second and third window.
AKTU 2016-17, 2017-18; Marks 02
Ans.
Window Window range Operating wavelength
First window 800 nm – 900 nm 850 nm
Second window 1260 nm – 1360 nm 1310 nm
Third window 1500 nm – 1600 nm 1550 nm

1.2. Write down the advantages of optical fiber communication.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Advantages of optical fiber communication :
i. Enormous potential bandwidth.
ii. Small size and weight.
iii. Electrical isolation.
iv. Immunity to interference and crosstalk.
v. Signal security.

1.3. What is acceptance angle ? Discuss its importance.

AKTU 2015-16, 2017-18; Marks 02
Ans. Acceptance angle : The maximum angle to the axis at which light
may enter into the fiber in order to be propagate, and is referred as
the acceptance angle.
Importance : The acceptance angle gives some estimate concerning
how large an incidence angle may be for efficiently launching light.

1.4. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light

guides ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans. The optical fiber is a device which works on the principle of total
internal reflection (TIR) by which light signals can be transmitted
from one end to another with a negligible loss.

1.5. Define numerical aperture of a step index fiber.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
OR
Define numerical aperture for an optical fiber
mathematically and what does it signify.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
A. Numerical aperture :
The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is defined as the sine of the
largest angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflection
in the core.
Thus the NA is defined as,
1
NA = n0 sin a = (n12  n22 ) 2
B. Significance : NA has significance that it is a very useful measure
of the light-collecting ability of a fiber.

1.6. State Goos-Hanchen effect. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02

Ans.
1. The phase change incurred with the total internal reflection of a
light beam on a planar dielectric interface may be understood from
physical observation.
2. Careful examination shows that the reflected beam is shifted
laterally from the trajectory predicted by simple ray theory analysis,
as illustrated in Fig. 1.6.1.
3. This lateral displacement is known as the Goos-Hanchen shift,
after its first observer.
Virtual reflecting plane

Reflecting n2 Penetration
interface depth
n1 > n2
1 1

Lateral shift
Fig. 1.6.1. The lateral displacement of a light beam on reflection at a
dielectric interface (Goos-Haenchen shift).
Optical Communication SQ–3 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1.7. Define skew rays and meridional rays.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. Skew rays : The rays which greatly outnumber the meridional
rays, follow a helical path through the fiber are called skew rays.
Skew rays can’t passes through fiber axis.
Meridional rays : A meridional ray or tangential ray is a ray that
is confined to the plane containing the system’s optical axis and the
object point from which the ray originated.

1.8. What is difference between meridional rays and skew rays ?

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No Skew rays Meridional rays
1. This types o f rays is This type of rays enters the core
transmitted without passing and passes through its axis.
through fiber axis.
2. These types of rays are not These rays are co nfine d to
confined to single plane. meridian planes of the fiber.
3. These rays are difficult to These rays lies in a single plane,
locate as the y are no t hence it is easy to track its path.
confined to single plane.

1.9. Name the fiber materials and its fabrication techniques.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
A. Mainly two fiber materials are used for fabrication, and these are :
i. Glasses.
ii. Plastics.
B. Fabrication techniques are as follows :
i. Outside vapour phase oxidation (OVPO).
ii. Vapour axial deposition (VAD).
iii. Modified chemical vapour deposition (MCVO).
iv. Plasma-activated chemical vapour deposition (PCVD).

1.10. What are step index and graded index fibers ?

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Step index fibers : A step index fiber is one for which the refractive
index of core n1 is constant and is larger than the refractive index of
cladding n2.
2 Marks Questions SQ–4 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Graded index fibers : A graded index fiber is the one for which
the refractive index of core n1 is not constant but decreasing with
radial distance from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant
value n2 beyond the core radius, a in cladding.

1.11. What is the need of cladding ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02

Ans. The function of the cladding is to provide a lower refractive index at
the core interface in order to cause reflection within the core so
that light waves are transmitted through the fiber.

1.12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SM fiber

and MM fiber ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. Advantages of SM (Single Mode) fiber :
1. Increase bandwidth capacity.
2. Limited Data Dispersion & External Interference.
3. Fast Transmission Speed.
Disadvantages of SM fiber :
1. It is difficult to launch the light through the fiber.
2. It is more expensive.
Advantages of MM (Multimode) fiber :
1. High bandwidth and transfer rate.
2. It is less expensive.
Disadvantages of MM fiber :
1. More limited in both speed and distance.
2. As, the number of modes increases the effect of modal dispersion
increases.

1.13. What is the cut-off wavelength for single mode fiber ?

Ans. Cut-off wavelength is defined as the wavelength above which a
particular fiber becomes single mode. It is denoted by λc.
1
2an1
c = (2) 2
vc

1.14. Define Mode-Field Diameter (MFD).

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans.
1. The mode-field diameter (MFD) is an important parameter for
characterizing single mode fiber properties which takes into account
the wavelength dependent field penetration into the fiber cladding.
2. For step index and graded single mode fibers the MFD is generally
taken as the distance between the opposite 1/e = 0.37 field amplitude
points and the power 1/e2 = 0.135 point.
Optical Communication SQ–5 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1.15. A silica optical fiber with a core refractive index of 1.50 and
a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine the numerical
aperture for the fiber. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
Given : n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.47
To Find : NA.

2
NA = n12  n22  1.5  (1.47)2 = 0.298

1.16. An optical fiber with core refractive index of 1.50 and

cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine the critical angle
at core cladding interface.
Ans.
Given : n1 =1.50, n2 = 1.47
To Find : Critical angle.

1  n 
Critical angle, c = sin  2 
 n1 

 1.47 
= sin 1  = 78.5°
 1.50 

1.17. Determine the acceptance angle in air for fiber, if NA is 0.30.

Ans.
Given : NA = 0.30
To Find : Acceptance angle (a)
a = sin–1 (NA)
= sin–1 (0.30) = 17.4°


2 Marks Questions SQ–6 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2 Signal Loss in Optical

Fibers
(2 Marks Questions)

2.1. List the properties of optical fiber that results in signal

degradation. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. The types of losses that result in signal degradation in optical fiber
are :
1. Attenuation loss 2. Absorption
3. Scattering 4. Bending loss
5. Dispersion loss 6. Coupling loss.

2.2. Describe scattering losses.

Ans. Scattering losses in fiber arise from microscopic variations in the
material density, from compositional fluctuations and defect
occurring during fiber manufacture.

2.3. Define Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans.
A. Rayleigh scattering :
1. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant loss mechanism in the low
absorption window between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption
tails.
2. It results from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a
small scale compared with wavelength of light.
B. Mie scattering :
1. Linear scattering may also occur at inhomogeneities which are
comparable in size to the guided wavelength. When the scattering
inhomogeneity size is greater than /10, the scattered intensity
which has an angular dependence can be made very large.
2. Thus the scattering which is mainly created by such inhomogeneities
is mainly in the forward direction and is called mie scattering.

2.4. What is bending loss ?

Ans. Bending losses take place whenever an optical fiber undergoes a
bend of finite radius of curvature.
Optical Communication SQ–7 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2.5. What do you mean by Kerr effect ?
Ans. The non-linearity in the refractive index is known as Kerr
non-linearity and this produces a carrier–induce phase modulation
of the propagating signal, is called Kerr effect.

2.6. What is pulse broadening ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02

Ans. Pulse broadening is defined as the spreading of the light pulses as
they travel downs the fiber.

2.7. What is the reason for pulse broadening in the case of

material dispersion ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Pulse broadening in the material dispersion is due to the different
group velocities of the various spectral components launched into
the fiber from the optical source.

2.8. Define polarization. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. Polarization is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies
the geometrical orientation of the oscillations.

2.9. What do you mean by the term waveguide dispersion ?

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Waveguide dispersion is caused by the difference in the index of
refraction between the core and cladding, resulting in a ‘drag’ effect
between the core and cladding portions of the power.

2.10. Draw the diagram to show the effect of waveguide dispersion

in single mode fiber. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
8
6 Zero dispersion
Dispersion delay (ps)

4
2 Material dispersion
0
–2
–4
–6 Waveguide dispersion
–8
– 10 Total dispersion
– 12
1.20 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.40
Wavelength (m)
Fig. 2.10.1.

2.11. What is Intramodal dispersion ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02

2 Marks Questions SQ–8 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans. Intramodal or chromatic dispersion is a pulse spreading that occurs
within a single mode. This dispersion is due to the fact that group
velocity of guided mode is a function of the wavelength.

2.12. How the information capacity of an optical fiber specified ?

Give examples. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. A measure of information capacity of an optical fiber is usually
specified by the bandwidth distance product in MHz-km.
Example:-For a step index fiber, the various distortion effects tends
to limit the bandwidth distance product to about 20 MHz-km.

2.13. How does the source spectral width affect the information
carrying capacity of a fiber ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. The product of bandwidth and length (MHz. km) expresses the
information carrying capacity of a multimode optical fiber.
Bandwidth is measured in megahertz (MHz) and the length is
measured in kilometer (km).
2. The MHz.km figure expresses how much bandwidth the fiber can
carry per kilometer of its length. The fiber’s designation must always
be greater than or equal to the product of the bandwidth and length
of the fiber.

2.14. Multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening

of 0.1 s over a distance. Estimate the maximum possible
bandwidth on the link.
Ans. The maximum possible optical bandwidth which is equivalent to
the maximum possible bit rate,
1
Bopt =
2T
1
BT = = 5 MHz
0.2  106

2.15. When the mean optical power launched into an

8 km. length of fiber is 120 W, the mean optical power at the
fiber is 3 W. Determine the overall signal attenuation in
dB.
Pi
Ans. Signal attenuation = 10 log10
P0
120  106
= 10 log 10 = 16 dB
3  10 6

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3 Optical Fiber
(2 Marks Questions)

3.1. What is the mechanism by which light is emitted from LED ?

Ans. In LED, the normally empty conduction band of the semiconductor
is populated by electrons injected into it by the forward current
through the junction, and light is generated when these electrons
recombine with holes in the valence band to emit a photon.

3.2. Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of LED.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Advantages :
i. Simple fabrication.
ii. Reliability.
iii. Generally less temperature dependent.
iv. Simpler drive circuitry.
Disadvantages :
i. Usually lower modulation bandwidth.
ii. Harmonic distortion.

3.3. Name the major types of LED structure.

Ans.
i. Planar LEDs.
ii. Dome LEDs.
iii. Surface emitter LEDs.
iv. Edge emitter LEDs.
v. Super-luminescent LEDs.

3.4. Write the name of materials used for fabrication of LED.

Ans.
i. GaAS/AlGaAs : Operate in shorter wavelength region.
ii. InGaASP/InP : Operate in longer wavelength region.

3.5. What is threshold current density of laser ?

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Threshold current density is defined as the current per unit area
required to reach the lasing threshold.
2 Marks Questions SQ–10 D (EC-Sem-5)
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3.6. What is threshold condition for laser oscillation ?
Ans.
i. The gain in the amplifying medium exactly balances the total losses.
ii. The population inversion between the energy levels providing the
laser transition is necessary for oscillation to be established.
iii. A minimum or threshold gain within the amplifying medium must
be attained such that laser oscillations are initiated and sustained.

3.7. Compare the spectrum of a laser source and an LED source.

AKTU 2016-17, 2017-18; Marks 02
Ans. The spectral width of LED is wider i.e., 25 to 100 nm (10 to 50 THz)
and the spectral width of laser is narrower i.e., less than 10–5 to
5 nm (< 1 MHz to 2 MHz).

3.8. Comment on the reliability of laser (ILD).

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Device reliability has been a major problem with injection laser.
The degradation behaviour may be separated into two major
processes :
i. Catastrophic degradation is a result of mechanical damage of mirror
facets.
ii. Gradual degradation is normally characterized by an increase in
the threshold current.

3.9. Define mode hopping. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. Mode hopping is a phenomenon which occurs in all single-mode
injection laser. Under some external influence, such a laser may
operate in a single resonator mode for some time, but suddenly
switch to some other mode.

3.10. Define the term population inversion.

Ans. To achieve optical amplification, it is necessary to create a
non-equilibrium distributions of atoms such that population of upper
energy level is greater than that of lower energy level (N2 > N1).
This is called population inversion.

3.11. State chirping effect for laser diode.

Ans. The spectral width of a laser can increase significantly when direct
modulation is used to vary the light output level. This line broadening
is referred to as chirping effect.

3.12. Define external quantum efficiency.

Ans. The external quantum efficiency ext is defined as the number of
photon emitted per radiative electron hole pair recombination above
threshold.
Optical Communication SQ–11 D (EC-Sem-5)
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i  gth   
ext =
gth

3.13. The total efficiency of an injection laser with a GaAs active

region is 18 %. The voltage applied to the device is 2.5 V and
the band gap energy for GaAs is 3.43 eV. Calculate the
external power efficiency of the device.
Ans.
Given : efficiency = 18 %, Vi = 2.5 V
To Find : External power efficiency (ep)

 1.43 
ep = 0.18   100  10 %
 2.5 

3.14. A ruby laser contains a crystal length 4 cm with refractive

index of 1.78. The peak emission wavelength from the device
is 0.55 µm. Determine the number of longitudinal modes.
Ans.
Given : n =1.78, L = 4 cm = 0.04 m,  = 0.55 × 10–6 m
To Find : Number of longitudinal modes.
The number longitudinal modes supported within the structure
may be obtained by
2nL 2  1.78  0.04
q= 
 0.55  10 6
q = 2.6 × 105.


2 Marks Questions SQ–12 D (EC-Sem-5)
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4 Power Launching
in Fiber
(2 Marks Questions)

4.1. What is power launching ?

Ans. Optical power launched into the fiber is depends only on radiance
of source. It does not depend on the wavelength of the source.

4.2. List the techniques used for coupling the optical source
(LED/LASERs) to fiber. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. i. Round-end fiber coupling.
ii. Cylindrical lens.
iii. Spherical-surfaced LED and spherical-ended fiber coupling
iv. Taper-ended fiber coupling.

4.3. What are the two basic requirement of optical detector ?

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Sensitivity at the operating wavelengths should be very high.
2. The photodetector should produce a maximum electrical signal for
a given amount of optical power i.e., the quantum efficiency should
be high.

4.4. Give the name of any two optical communication detectors.

Ans. i. p-i-n photodiode.
ii. Avalanche photodiode.

4.5. Name the materials suitable for making photodiodes for

short distance links and long haul links.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
i. GaAs/AlGaAs : Operate in shorter wavelength region.
ii. InGaAsP/InP : Operate in longer wavelength region.

4.6. What are three main factors that limit the speed of response
of a photodiode ?
Optical Communication SQ–13 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans.
i. Drift time of carriers through the depletion region.
ii. Diffusion time of carriers generated outside the depletion region.
iii. Time constant incurred by the capacitance of photodiode with its
load.
4.7. Dis cuss the comparison between PIN and APD
photodetectors.
Ans.
S. No. PIN APD
1. Less sensitive (0-12 dB). More sensitive (5-15 dB).
2. Less reverse biased voltage (5 High reverse biased voltage (20
to 10 V). to 400 V).
3. Conversion efficiency is about Conversion efficiency is
0.5 to 1.0 Amps/watt. about 0.5 to 100 Amps/watt.

4.8. Define Avalanche effect. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02

Ans. Avalanche effect is the sudden rapid increase in the current in a
non-conducting material (insulator) or semiconducting material
(semiconductor) when a sufficient amount of electrical force is
applied to the material.

4.9. Describe the term noise.

Ans. The term noise is described as unwanted components of an electric
signal that tends to disturb the transmission and processing of
signal in physical system.
4.10. Mention the noise present in optical receiver.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
OR
What type of noise is present in optical receiver ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
i. Thermal noise.
ii. Dark current noise.
iii. Quantum noise.

4.11. How does quantum noise arise ?

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. It is not possible to predict how many electron-hole pairs are
generated by a known optical power incident on the detector, is the
origin of the type of shot noise called quantum noise.
2 Marks Questions SQ–14 D (EC-Sem-5)
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4.12. Define dark current noise. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Dark current arises from thermal energy within the silicon lattice
comprising the CCD (Charge-coupled device). Electrons are created
over time that are independent of the light falling on the detector.
2. Electrons are captured by the CCD’s potential wells and counted as
signal. Additionally, this increase in signal also carries a statistical
fluctuation known as dark current noise.

4.13. What is the effect of temperature on avalanche gain ?

Ans. If the operating temperature decreases and applied bias voltage
kept constant, the ionization rate of electron and holes will increase
and so increase the avalanche gain.

4.14. When 3 × 1011 photons are incident on a photo diode, on

average 1.2 × 1011 electrons are collected at the terminals of
the device. Determine quantum efficiency.
Number of electron collected
Ans.  = Number of incident photons

1.2  1011
=
3  1011
= 0.4

4.15. The carrier velocity in a silicon p-i-n photodiode with a

25 m depletion layer width is 3 × 104 m/sec. Determine the
maximum response time for the device.
Ans. The maximum bandwidth for photodiode
Vd
Bm =
2 W
3  104
= = 1.91 × 108 Hz
2  25  10 6
Maximum response time
1
= = 5.2 ns
Bm

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5 Digital Receiver
Performance
(2 Marks Questions)

5.1. Define bit error bit (BER).

Ans. Bit error rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of number of errors
occurring over a time interval to the number of pulses transmitted
during the interval.
5.2. What do you mean by receiver sensitivity ?
Ans. Receiver sensitivity is the minimum power level that must arrive at
the photodetector at a given data rate to get a desired BER.
5.3. What is meant by quantum limit ? Express it
mathematically. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. For an ideal photodetector quantum efficiency = 1 and has zero
dark current then the minimum received. Power for a specific
bit-error rate is known as quantum limit.
2. Then the probability of emitting zero electrons during the interval
is 
N
Pr(0) = e .
where, N is average number of electrons hole pair.
5.4. What is point-to-point link ?
Ans. The simplest transmission link is a point-to-point link that has a
transmitter on one end and a receiver on the other. This type of
link places the least demand on optical fiber technology.
5.5. What are the key system requirements needed to analyze
the link ?
Ans.
i. The desired transmission distance.
ii. The data rate and channel bandwidth.
iii. The bit-error rate.
5.6. What are the components required for point-to-point link ?
Ans.
i. Multimode or single mode optical fiber.
ii. LED or laser diode optical source.
iii. PIN and avalanche photodiode.
2 Marks Questions SQ–16 D (EC-Sem-5)
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5.7. Write a short note on power penalties.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. When any impairment effect is present in a link, there is a reduction
in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of system from ideal case, the reduction
in SNR is known as power penalty.
5.8. List the name of power penalties in link design.
Ans.
i. Chromatic dispersion penalty.
ii. Polarization-mode dispersion penalty.
iii. Extinction ratio penalty.
5.9. What are the methods used for error detection and
correction in an optical link design ?
AKTU 2015-16, 2018-19; Marks 02
Ans.
A. Error correction methods :
i. Automatic repeat request. ii. Forward error correction.
B. Error detection methods :
i. Linear-error detection code. ii. Polynomial codes.
5.10. Define isotype and anisotype heterojunctions.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Isotype heterojunctions are the one formed with materials of same
conductivity (p – P or N –n).
2. Anisotype heterojunctions are formed with materials of different
conductivities (N-p) etc.
5.11. Write any two eye pattern features.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. The eye pattern measurements are made in the time domain and
allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown immediately
on the display screen of standard BER test equipment.
5.12. Define multiplexing.
Ans. Multiplexing is a technique that is used to transmit multiple analog
signals over the same higher capacity fiber cable. Channel or signal
multiplexing can be done in the time or frequency domain through
time-division multiplexing (TDM) and frequency division
multiplexing (FDM).
5.13. Enlist the passive components of WDM.
Ans. Commonly required passive components are :
1. N × N couplers 2. Power splitters
3. Power taps 4. Star couplers

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B.Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2015-16
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

SECTION – A

1. Attempt all sections. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each section in short : (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What is acceptance angle ? Discuss its importance.

b. Define numerical aperture for an optical fiber

mathematically and what does it signify.

c. Name the fiber materials and its fabrication techniques.

d. What do you mean by the term waveguide dispersion ?

e. How the information capacity of an optical fiber specified ?

Give examples.

f. What is the reason for pulse broadening in the case of

material dispersion ?

g. Comment on the reliability of LASER (ILD).

h. Name the materials suitable for making photodiodes for

short distance links and long haul links.

i. List/name the techniques used for coupling the optical

sources (LEDs/LASERs) to the fiber.

j. What are the methods used for error detection and

correction in an optical link design ?

SECTION – B

Attempt any five parts of the following : (10 × 5 = 50)

2. i. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to
be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–2 D (EC-Sem-5)
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index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine : a. the critical angle at the core-cladding
interface ; b. The NA for the fiber ; c. The acceptance angle in
air for the fiber.

ii. Discuss skew rays. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4.

Compare the acceptance angle for meridional rays with
that for skew rays which change direction by 100° at each
reflection.

3. Explain absorption loss mechanisms with their causes in

the silica glass fibers in detail.

4. Explain different types of optical fiber connectors : Joints,

Couplers and Isolators with suitable diagrams.

5. Draw and discuss the basic laser structure using optical

feedback for producing laser oscillations/laser modes at
resonant frequencies.

6. What is the function of an optical detector ? Draw an optical

receiver configuration with different possible structures
for front-end amplifier. Explain the different types of error/
noise sources in an optical receiver.

7. What are the different multichannel trans miss ion

techniques used in optical communication ? Describe each
in brief.

8. Name the materials used for fabrication of LEDs. Explain

the working principle of LED and how its efficiency can be
defined ? Discuss the double heterojunction LED.

9. a. Explain the structure of silicon reach through avalanche

photodiode (RAPD) with its gain mechanism.

b. A graded index fiber with a parabolic refractive index profile

core has a refractive index at the core axis of 1.5 and a
relative refractive index difference of 1 %. Estimate the
maximum possible core diameter which allows single mode
operation at a wavelength of 1.3 m.

SECTION – C

3. Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)

10. a. What is mode coupling ? Describe step index fiber with its
refractive index profile and ray transmission through it.
Optical Communication SP–3 D (EC-Sem-5)
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b. Define graded index fibers. A multimode graded index
exhibits the total pulse broadening of 0.1 s over a distance
of 15 km. Estimate : (a) Maximum possible BW without ISI.
(b) Pulse dispersion per unit length. (c) Information
carrying capacity.

11. a. Discuss the working principle of Laser. The total efficiency

of an injection Laser with a GaAs active region is 18 %. The
voltage applied to the device is 2.5 V and the band gap energy
for GaAs is 1.43 eV. Calculate the external power efficiency
of the device.

b. Describe the factors which limit the speed of response of a

photodiode and show the impact of change in temperature
over the avalanche multiplication factors/internal gain.

12. Write note on the following :

a. WDM and its components
b. OTDR and optical power meter.


Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–4 D (EC-Sem-5)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2015-16)

SECTION – A
1. Attempt all sections. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each section in short : (2 × 10 = 20)

a. What is acceptance angle ? Discuss its importance.

Ans.
A. Acceptance angle : The maximum angle to the axis at which light
may enter into the fiber in order to be propagate, and is referred as
the acceptance angle.
B. Importance : The importance of acceptance angle is that if the
rays will not enter with in acceptance angle then it will lost, means
it cannot travels into the fiber.

b. Define numerical aperture for an optical fiber

mathematically and what does it signify.
Ans. The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is defined as the sine of the
largest angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflection
in the core.
Thus the NA is defined as,
1
NA = n0 sin a = (n12  n22 ) 2
B. Significance : NA has significance that it is a very useful measure
of the light-collecting ability of a fiber.

c. Name the fiber materials and its fabrication techniques.

Ans.
A. Mainly two fiber materials are used for fabrication, and these are :
i. Glasses.
ii. Plastics.
B. Fabrication techniques are as follows :
i. Outside vapour phase oxidation (OVPO).
ii. Vapour axial deposition (VAD).
iii. Modified chemical vapour deposition (MCVO).
iv. Plasma-activated chemical vapour deposition (PCVD).

d. What do you mean by the term waveguide dispersion ?

Ans. Waveguide dispersion is caused by the difference in the index of
refraction between the core and cladding, resulting in a ‘drag’ effect
between the core and cladding portions of the power.

e. How the information capacity of an optical fiber specified ?

Give examples.
Optical Communication SP–5 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans. A measure of information capacity of an optical fiber is usually
specified by the bandwidth distance product in MHz-km.
Example:-For a step index fiber, the various distortion effects tends
to limit the bandwidth distance product to about 20 MHz-km.

f. What is the reason for pulse broadening in the case of

material dispersion ?
Ans. Pulse broadening in the material dispersion is due to the different
group velocities of the various spectral components launched into
the fiber from the optical source.

g. Comment on the reliability of LASER (ILD).

Ans. Device reliability has been a major problem with injection laser.
The degradation behaviour may be separated into two major
processes :
i. Catastrophic degradation is a result of mechanical damage of mirror
facets.
ii. Gradual degradation is normally characterized by an increase in
the threshold current.

h. Name the materials suitable for making photodiodes for

short distance links and long haul links.
Ans.
a. GaAs/AlGaAs : Operate in shorter wavelength region.
b. InGaAsP/InP : Operate in longer wavelength region.

i. List/name the techniques used for coupling the optical

sources (LEDs/LASERs) to the fiber.
Ans.
i. Round-end fiber coupling.
ii. Cylindrical lens.
iii. Spherical-surfaced LED and spherical-ended fiber coupling
iv. Taper-ended fiber coupling.

j. What are the methods used for error detection and

correction in an optical link design ?
Ans.
A. Error correction methods :
i. Automatic repeat request. ii. Forward error correction.
B. Error detection methods :
i. Linear-error detection code. ii. Polynomial codes.

SECTION – B

Attempt any five parts of the following : (10 × 5 = 50)

2. i. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to
be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–6 D (EC-Sem-5)
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index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine : a. the critical angle at the core-cladding
interface ; b. The NA for the fiber ; c. The acceptance angle in
air for the fiber.
Ans.
Given : n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.47
To Find : Critical angle, NA, Acceptance angle.
a. Critical angle to core cladding interface,
n 1.47 
c = sin – 1  2   sin 1   = 78.52°
 n   1.5 
1

2
b. NA = n12  n22  1.5  (1.47)2 = 0.298
c. Acceptance angle,
A = sin–1 (NA) = sin–1(0.298) = 17.36°

ii. Discuss skew rays. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4.

Compare the acceptance angle for meridional rays with
that for skew rays which change direction by 100° at each
reflection.
Ans.
A. Skew rays :
1. This type of ray is transmitted without passing through fiber axis.
2. The rays which outnumber the meridional rays and follow a helical
path through the fiber are called skew rays.
3. It is very difficult to visualize the skew ray paths in two dimension.
4. From Fig. 1, it is observed that the helical path traced through the
fiber gives a change in direction of 2 at each reflection where  is
the angle between the projection of the ray in two dimensions and
radius of fiber core at the point of reflection.

Core axis

n1 n2

(a)
( b)
Fig. 1. The helical path taken by a skew ray in an optical fiber:
(a) skew ray path down the fiber (b) cross-sectional view of the fiber.
5. The point of emergence of skew rays from the fiber in air will
depend upon the number of reflections they undergo rather than
the input condition to the fiber.
6. When the light input to the fiber is non-uniform, skew rays will
tend to have smoothing effect on the distribution of the light as it is
transmitted, giving a more uniform output.
Optical Communication SP–7 D (EC-Sem-5)
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7. The amount of smoothing is dependent on the number of reflections
encountered by the skew rays.
8. The acceptance conditions for skew rays are :
n0 sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA
9. When n0 = 1
sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA
B. Numerical :
1. Given, NA = 0.344
2. As NA = n0 sin a
Here n0 = 1
NA = sin a
 a = sin–1 NA
 a = sin–1 0.344
= 20.13°
3. The skew rays change direction by 100° at each reflection, therefore
 = 50°
4. Acceptance angle for skew rays is
1  NA  1  0.344 
as = sin   = sin  
 cos    cos 50 
= 32.3°
5. In this, the acceptance angle for the skew rays is about 12° greater
than meridional rays.

3. Explain absorption loss mechanisms with their causes in

the silica glass fibers in detail.
Ans. Absorption loss is related to the material composition and fabrication
process of fiber. The absorption of the light may be intrinsic or
extrinsic.
i. Intrinsic absorption :
1. This type of absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure
state, no density variation and inhomogeneities. This is the natural
property of the glass.
2. An absolutely pure silicate glass has little intrinsic absorption due
to its basic material structure in the near infrared region.
3. Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in UV
regions and from atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.
4. The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps
of the amorphous glass materials.
5. Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the
valence band and excites it to higher energy level.
6. Intrinsic losses are mostly insignificant in a wide region where
fiber systems can operate, but these losses inhibit the extension of
fiber systems towards the ultraviolet as well as toward longer
wavelengths.
ii. Extrinsic absorption :
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–8 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1. Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between
the energy levels and because of charge transitions from one ion to
another.
2. A major source of attenuation is from transition of metal impurity
ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper.
3. The presence of impurities in the fiber material is the major source
of loss in practical fibers.
4. Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption
due to water dissolved in the glass.
5. These hydroxyl groups are bonded into the glass structure and
have fundamental stretching vibrations which occur at wavelengths
between 2.7 and 4.2 m depending on group position in the glass
network.

4. Explain different types of optical fiber connectors : Joints,

Couplers and Isolators with suitable diagrams.
Ans.
A. Optical fiber connectors : There are mainly two types of
connectors.
a. Butt joint connectors :
Butt joints are used for single mode as well as for multimode fiber
systems. Two commonly used butt-joint alignment designs are:
i. In straight sleeve mechanism, the length of the sleeve and guided
ferrules determines the end separation of two fibers.
ii. In tapered sleeve or biconical connector mechanism, a tapered sleeve
is used to accommodate tapered ferrules. The fiber and separations
are determined by sleeve length and guide rings.
b. Expanded-beam connector :
1. In an expanded-beam connector, the lenses are employed in the
ends of the fibers. These lenses either collimate the light emerging
from the transmitting fiber, or focus the expanded beam onto the
core of the receiving fiber.
2. The fiber to fiber distance is equal to the focal length of the lens.
The advantage of this scheme is that, since the beam is collimated,
separation of the fiber ends may take place within the connector.
B. Couplers : Optical fiber couplers can be divided into the following
three main groups :
i. Three and four port couplers which are used for signal splitting,
distribution and combining.
ii. Star couplers which are generally used for distributing a single
input signal to multiple outputs.
iii. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices which are a
specialized form of couplers designed to permit a number of different
peak wavelength optical signals to be transmitted in parallel on a
single fiber.
Optical Communication SP–9 D (EC-Sem-5)
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C. Isolators :
1. One strategy to reduce back reflection places an optical isolator at
the laser output. In some cases, laser incorporates dual isolators
offering 50 dB or more reduction in back reflection reaching the
lasers.
2. The Faraday rotator based on Faraday effect, is an example of an
optical isolator. It consists of a polarizer, an analyzer and a 45°
Faraday rotator.
3. Before entering the Faraday rotator, which is usually an yttrium-
iron garnet Y3 Fe5 O12 (Y1G) material, the light beam passes through
a polarizer which is oriented parallel to the incoming state of
polarization.
4. The Faraday rotator then rotates the polarization by 45°. At the
output, the beam passes an analyzer which is oriented at an angle
of 45° relative to the first polarizer.
5. Of all possible reflected beams, only those with a 45° orientation of
the polarization are allowed to pass backward.
6. The polarization of the reflected beam is rotated by another 45°
which results in total rotation of 90°.
7. This way, the reflected beam is blocked by the polarizer, reducing
back reflections by 20 to 45 dB.
8. The proper function of the isolator is that all of its surfaces should
be antireflection coated.

5. Draw and discuss the basic Laser structure using optical

feedback for producing Laser oscillations/Laser modes at
resonant frequencies.
Ans.
1. Light amplification in a laser occurs when a photon colliding with
an atom in the excited state causes stimulated emission of a second
photon and then these photons release two more.
2. Continuation of this process causes avalanche multiplication and
when these photons are in phase, amplified coherent emission is
obtained.
3. To achieve laser action it is necessary to contain photons within the
laser medium and maintain the condition for coherence. This is
obtained by placing mirrors at either end of amplifying medium as
shown in Fig. 2.

L
Optical
Amplifying medium output

Mirror Mirror
Fig. 2. The basic Laser structure incorporating plane mirrors.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–10 D (EC-Sem-5)
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4. The optical cavity formed is more analogous to an oscillator than an
amplifier as it provides positive feedback of the photons by reflection
at the mirrors at either end of the cavity.
5. Hence the optical signal is fed back many times while receiving
amplification therefore this structure act as Fabry Perot resonator.
6. A stable output is obtained at saturation when the optical gain is
exactly matched by the losses experienced in the amplifying medium.
7. The major losses occur from the factors such as absorption and
scattering in the amplifying medium, absorption, scattering and
diffraction at the mirrors and non-useful transmissions.
Relative
amplification
Gain curve
or envelope

Frequency
Fig. 3. The relative amplification in the Laser amplifying medium
showing the broadened Laser transition line or gain curve.
8. Oscillations in the laser cavity occur over a small range of frequencies
where cavity gain is sufficient to overcome the losses. Thus the
device is not a perfectly monochromatic source but emits over a
narrow spectral band.
9. The central frequency of this spectral band is determined by the
mean energy level difference. Other oscillation frequencies within
the spectral band results from frequency variation due to thermal
motion of atoms within amplifying medium.
10. Hence the amplification within the laser medium results in a
broadened gain curve over a finite spectral width.
11. When the optical spacing between the mirrors is L the resonance
condition along the axis of cavity is given as,
q
L= ...(1)
2n
where = Emission wavelength
n = Refractive index of amplifying medium
q = Integer
This discrete emission frequency f is given as
qc
f= ...(2)
2nL
where, c is velocity of light.
12. Since eq. (1) and (2) apply only when L is along the longitudinal axis
of the structure, the frequency (f) given is known as longitudinal or
axial modes.
13. These modes are separated by f where
Optical Communication SP–11 D (EC-Sem-5)
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c
f = ...(3)
2nL
c
Assuming f << f and f =

2
f 
 = = f
f c
2
 =
2nL

6. What is the function of an optical detector ? Draw an optical

receiver configuration with different possible structures
for front-end amplifier. Explain the different types of error/
noise sources in an optical receiver.
Ans.
A. Function of optical detector :
1. The function of optical detector is to convert the received optical
signal into an electrical signal, which is then amplified before further
processing.
2. Therefore when considering signal attenuation along the link, the
system performance is determined at the detector.
B. Optical receiver structures for front-end amplifier :
1. This configuration mainly overcomes the drawbacks of the high
impedance front end by utilizing a low noise, a high input impedance
amplifier with negative feedback.
2. This device operates as a current mode amplifier where the high
input impedance is reduced by negative feedback.
3. In the above equivalent circuit, the parallel resistances and
capacitances are combined into RTL and CT.

it

Rr
–
~
+ –G
Va

idet RTL ia Vin

Cr Vout

Fig. 4. An equivalent circuit for the optical fiber receiver

incorporating a transimpedance (current mode) preamplifier.
C. Noise sources in optical fiber communication are :
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–12 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1. Quantum or shot noise : It arises from statistical nature of the
production or collection of photoelectrons when optical signal is
incident on a photodetector. The shot noise current has a mean
square value in a receiver bandwidth BC which is proportional to
average value of photocurrent Ip.
2
=  2shot = 2qIp Be M2F(M)
ishot
2. Dark current noise generated in bulk material of a photo
diode : The bulk dark current iDB arises from electrons or holes
which are thermally generated in the p-n junction photodiode. The
mean square value of this current is given by
2
iDB =  2DB = 2qIDM2F(M) Be
3. Surface dark current/surface leakage current : It depends on
surface defects, cleanliness, bias voltage, and surface area. An
effective way to reduce dark current is through guard ring structure
which shunts surface leakage current away from load resistor.
The mean square value of dark current is
2
iDS =  2DS = 2q IL Be

7. What are the different multichannel trans miss ion

techniques used in optical communication ? Describe each
in brief.
Ans. The different multichannel transmission technique :
i. Multichannel Amplitude Modulation :
1. In some application the bit rate of each channel is relatively low but
the numbers of channels are quite large. Typical example of such
application is cable television (CATV).
2. Different channel information is amplitude modulated on different
carrier frequency.
3. The composite FDM signal is used to modulate the intensity of
semiconductor laser directly by adding it to the bias current.
4. At optical receiver, a bank of band pass filters separates the individual
carriers.
5. Optical modulation index m is given by
1/ 2
 N 
m= 
 mi2 
 
i1
where, N is number of channels.
mi is per channel modulation index.
ii. Multichannel Frequency Modulation :
1. The carrier to noise ratio requirement can be relaxed by changing
the modulation format from AM to FM.
2. This results S/N ratio improvement over C/N ratio. S/N ratio at the
output of FM detector is :
Optical Communication SP–13 D (EC-Sem-5)
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 2
 S C 3 B  f pp  
 N  =    10 log    w
out
 N  in  2 fv  fv  
 
where, B = required bandwidth.
fpp = peak to peak frequency deviation of modulator.
fv = highest video frequency.
w = weighting factor.
iii. Sub-carrier multiplexing (SCM) :
1. Sub-carrier multiplexing (SCM) is employed in microwave
engineering in which multiple microwave carriers for transmission
of multiple channels are used.
2. If the microwave signal is transmitted optically by using optical
fibers, the signal bandwidth can be exceeded upto 10 GHz for a
single optical carrier. Such a technique is referred as SCM.
3. The input can be analog or digital base band signal. The input
signals are modulated sub-carriers are then combined to give FDM
signal.
4. The FDM signals are then combined in microwave combiner. The
combined signal then modulates the intensity of semiconductor
laser by adding it to bias current.
5. The received optical signal is then passed through low noise pin
photo detector to convert it to original signal.

8. Name the materials used for fabrication of LEDs. Explain

the working principle of LED and how its efficiency can be
defined ? Discuss the double heterojunction LED.
Ans.
A. Materials used for fabrication of LED are :
i. GaAs/AlGaAs : Operate in shorter wavelength region.
ii. InGaAsP/InP : Operate in longer wavelength region.
B. LED :
1. LEDs are special diodes that emit light when connected in a circuit.
2. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor p-n junction
operating under proper forward biased conditions and are capable
of emitting external spontaneous radiations in the visible range
(370 nm to 770 nm) or the nearly ultraviolet and infrared regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

+ –

Circuit symbol
Fig. 5.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–14 D (EC-Sem-5)
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3. The structure and circuit symbol of LED is shown in Fig. 5. The two
wires extending below the LED epoxy enclosure or the bulb indicate
how the LED should be connected into a circuit.
Working :
1. The negative side of an LED is indicated in two ways
i. by the flat side of the bulb and
ii. by the shorter of the two wires extending from the LED.
2. The negative lead should be connected to the negative terminal of
a battery. LED’s operate at relative low voltages between about 1
and 4 volts, and draw currents between about 10 and 40
milliamperes.
3. Voltages and current substantially above these values can melt a
LED chip.
4. The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the
semiconductor chip located in the centre of the bulb and is attached
to the top of the anvil.

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

p-type p-type n-type

n-type
(negative ions Depletion (negative ions + –
and mobile holes) region and mobile holes)
VD v
(a) (b )
Fig. 6. Light radiation by the p-n junction of a semiconductor
(a) Depletion region and Depletion voltage VD; (b) Light radiation
as the result of electron-hole recombinations.
5. The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p-region is
dominated by positive electric charges, and the n-region is
dominated by negative electric charges.
6. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the
p and n-regions.
7. Only when sufficient voltage is applied to the semiconductor chip,
can the current flow and the electrons cross the junction into the p-
region.
8. In the absence of a large enough electric potential difference
(voltage) across the LED, the junction presents an electric potential
barrier to the flow of electrons.
C. Efficiency of LED :
1. The internal quantum efficiency (int) is defined as the ratio of
radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
Rr
int =
Rr  Rnr
where, Rr = Radiative recombination rate.
Optical Communication SP–15 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Rnr = Non-radiative recombination rate.
n
2. If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, r = , and
Rr
non-radiative life time,
n
nr =
Rnr
3. The internal quantum efficiency is given as
1
int =
R
1  nr
Rr
1
int =

1 r
 nr
4. The recombination time of carriers in active region is t. It is also
known as bulk recombination life time.
1 1 1
= 
  r  nr
Therefore, internal quantum efficiency is given as :

int =
r
5. If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge,
then total number of recombination per second is :
I
Rr + Rnr =
q
Rr
int =
I/q
I
Rr = int 
q
6. Optical power generated internally in LED is given as :
Pint = Rr . h

 I
Pint =  int   h
 q

Pint =    I  h c
 int q  

hcI
Pint = int 
q
7. The external quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted
power.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–16 D (EC-Sem-5)
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8. The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons
emitted from LED to the number of photons generated internally.
It is given by equation :
1
ext =
n(n  1)2
D. Double heterojunction LED :
1. The principle of operation of the DH LED is shown in Fig. 7.
2. The device shown consists of a p-type GaAs layer sandwiched
between a p-type AlGaAs and an n-type AlGaAs layer.
Al Ga 1–x As GaAsAlx Ga1–x As

+ Optical
output

Hetero junctions
p p n
( a)

Injection
electrons
h

Holes
(b )
Fig. 7. (a) The double heterojunction LED, layer structure.
(b) The corresponding energy band diagram.
3. When a forward bias is applied, electrons from n-type layer are
injected through the p-n-junction into the p-type GaAs layer where
they become minority carriers.
4. These carriers diffuse away from the junction, recombining with
majority carriers. Photons are therefore produced with energy
corresponding to the bandgap energy of the p-type GaAs layers.
5. The injected electrons are inhibited from diffusing into the p-type
AlGaAs layer because of the potential barrier presented by the p–p
heterojunction.
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6. Hence electroluminescence only occurs in GaAs junction layer,
providing both good internal quantum efficiency and high radiance
emission.

9. a. Explain the structure of silicon reach through avalanche

photodiode (RAPD) with its gain mechanism.
Ans.
1. The silicon reach through APD consist of p+––p–n+ layers as shown
in a Fig. 8.
2. In the Fig. 8(b), the high field region where the avalanche
multiplication takes place is relatively narrow and centred on the
p-n+ junction.
h
n+ E field
p
Gain region
50  m 
Absorption region
p+
x
(a) ( b)
Fig. 8. (a) Structure of a silicon RAPD. (b) The field distribution
in the RAPD showing the gain region across the p-n+ junction.
3. When the reverse bias voltage is increased the depletion layer
widens across the p-region until it reach through to the nearly
intrinsic p-region.
4. Since the p-region is much wider than the p-region, the field in the
p-region is much lower than the p-n+ junction.
5. This has the effect of removing some of the excess applied voltage
from the multiplication region to p-region giving a relatively slow
increase in multiplication factor with applied voltage.

b. A graded index fiber with a parabolic refractive index profile

core has a refractive index at the core axis of 1.5 and a
relative refractive index difference of 1%. Estimate the
maximum possible core diameter which allows single mode
operation at a wavelength of 1.3 m.
Ans.
1. The maximum value of normalized frequency for single-mode
operation is
1 1
 22  2 2
V = 2.4  1   = 2.4  1   = 2.4 2
 2
2. The maximum core radius is given as
V
a= ,
2 n1 (2)1/ 2
2.4 2  1.3  10 6
a= , a = 3.3 m
2  1.5  (0.02)1/ 2
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–18 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Hence the maximum core diameter which allows single-mode
operation is 6.6 m.
SECTION – C
3. Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. What is mode coupling ? Describe step index fiber with its
refractive index profile and ray transmission through it.
Ans.
A. Mode coupling :
1. Waveguide perturbations such as deviations of the fiber axis from
straightness, variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the
core cladding interface and refractive index variations may change
the propagation characteristics of the fiber.
2. These will have the effect of coupling energy travelling in one
mode to another depending on the specific perturbation.
3. Ray theory aids the understanding of this phenomenon, as shown
in Fig. 9, which illustrates two types of perturbation. It may be
observed that in both cases the ray no longer maintains the same
angle with the axis.

Irregularity

2
1
C or e
ing
Clad d

(a)

 1 1
2 2

Cor
e
Cl a
d d in
(b) g

Fig. 9. (a) irregularity at the core-cladding interface;

(b) fiber bend.
4. In electromagnetic wave theory this corresponds to a change in the
propagating mode for the light. Thus individual modes do not
normally propagate throughout the length of the fiber without
large energy transfers to adjacent modes, even when the fiber is
exceptionally good quality and is not strained or bent by its
surroundings. This mode conversion is known as mode coupling or
mixing.
Optical Communication SP–19 D (EC-Sem-5)
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5. Mode coupling affects the transmission properties of fibers in several
important ways, a major one being in relation to the dispersive
properties of fibers over long distances.
B. Step index fiber :
1. A step index fiber is one for which the refractive index of core n1 is
constant and is larger than the refractive index of the cladding n2.
2. The refractive index profile for this type of fiber makes a step
change at the core-cladding interface that’s why it is named as step
index fiber.
3. The refractive index profile may be defined as :
n(r) = {n1, r < a (core)
= {n2, r  a (cladding)
4. There are two major types of step index fiber
a. Multimode step index fiber
b. Single mode step index fiber.
5. The Fig. 10 shows a multimode step index fiber and single mode
step fiber. In multimode step index fiber core diameter is around
50 m or greater, which is large enough to allow the propagation of
many modes within the fiber whereas single mode step index fiber
has a very fine thin core, so that only one mode can be propagated.

r r

Refractive
index n(r) a

Core
Cladding
n1
(a)
n2
r

n(r)
a Core
Cladding
n1
n2
(b)

Fig. 10. The refractive index profile and transmission in step

index fibers : (a) multimode step index fiber ; (b) single-mode
step index fiber.
6. Multimode step index fiber allows the propagation of finite number
of guided modes along the channel.
7. The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical
parameters of the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted
light which are included in the normalized frequency V of fiber.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–20 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2a
V= n12  n2 2 ...(1)

where a = radius of the core
 = free space wavelength.
8. The eq. (1) can also be written in form
2 a
V= NA

2a
or V= n1 2

9. Guided modes are important in optical fiber communications as
these are confined to fiber over its full length.
10. The total number of guided modes is also known as mode volume
(MS).
V2
11. For step index fiber, M S 
2
12. For single mode fiber V < 2.405 and for multimode fiber V > 2.405.

b. Define graded index fibers. A multimode graded index

exhibits the total pulse broadening of 0.1 s over a distance
of 15 km. Estimate : (a) Maximum possible BW without ISI.
(b) Pulse dispersion per unit length. (c) Information
carrying capacity.
Ans.
A. Graded index fibers :
A graded index fiber is the one for which the refractive index of
core n1 is not constant but decreasing with radial distance from a
maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the
core radius, a in cladding.
B. Numerical :
Given :  = 0.1 s, L = 15 km.
To Find : BT, pulse dispersion per unit length, Information capacity.
a. Maximum possible bandwidth without ISI
1 1
BT =  = 5 MHz
2 2  0.1  10 6

b. Pulse dispersion per unit length

 0.1  10 6
=  = 6.67 ns/km
L 15
c. Information capacity = BT · L
= 5 MHz × 15 km = 75 MHz km

11. a. Discuss the working principle of Laser. The total efficiency

of an injection Laser with a GaAs active region is 18 %. The
Optical Communication SP–21 D (EC-Sem-5)
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voltage applied to the device is 2.5 V and the band gap energy
for GaAs is 1.43 eV. Calculate the external power efficiency
of the device.
Ans.
A. Working principle of laser : The general operation of Laser are
as follows :
Absorption :
1. The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete energy
packets called quanta or photons.
2. The quantum theory suggests that atoms exist only in discrete
energy states such that absorption and emission of light causes
them to make a transition from one discrete energy state to another.
3. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related as
the difference in energy between the higher energy state E2 and
lower energy state E1 by the expression :
E = E2 – E1 = hf
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js
E2 Initial State Final State

Absorption
E1
Fig. 11.
4. Fig. 11 illustrates a two energy state where an atom is initially in
lower energy state E1.
5. When a photon with energy (E2 – E1) is incident on the atom it may
be excited into the higher energy state E2 through absorption of the
photon. This process is referred as stimulated absorption of photon.
6. When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2 it can make
a transition to the lower energy state E1 providing the emission of
a photon.
7. The emission process can occur in two ways :
a. spontaneous emission
b. stimulated emission
E2
Spontaneous
emission
E1 (a)
E2
Stimulated
emission
E1 (b )
Fig. 12.
8. From Fig. 12 it is observed that in spontaneous emission atom from
higher energy state returns to lower energy state in an entirely
random manner whereas in stimulated emission, a photon having
an energy equal to (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom in the higher
energy state causing it to return to the lower state with the creation
of a second photon.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–22 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Numerical :
Given : T = 18 % = 0.18, V = 2.5, Eg = 1.43 eV
To Find : External power efficiency.
The external power efficiency is given as :
E   1.43 
ep = T  g   100 % = 0.18   100  10 %
V   2.5 
This result indicates the possibility of achieving high overall power
efficiencies from semiconductor Laser which are much larger than
other Laser.

b. Describe the factors which limit the speed of response of a

photodiode and show the impact of change in temperature
over the avalanche multiplication factors/internal gain.
Ans.
A. Three main factors that limit the speed of response of a
photodiode are :
1. Drift time of carriers through the depletion region :
The speed of response of a photodiode is limited by the time it takes
photogenerated carriers to drift across the depletion region. When
the field in the depletion region exceeds the saturation value then
the carriers may assumed to travel at constant vd.
The transit time tdrift, for carriers which must traverse the full
depletion layer width w is given by
w
tdrift =
vd
2. Diffusion time of carriers generated outside the depletion
region :
Carrier diffusion is a slow process where the time taken tdiff, for
carriers to diffuse a distance d may be written as
d2
tdiff =
2 Dc
where = Dc is the minority carrier diffusion coefficient
3. Time constant incurred by the capacitance of the photodiode
with its load :
A reverse biased photodiode exhibits a voltage dependent
capacitance caused by the variation in the stored charge at the
junction. The junction capacitance Cj is given by
S A
Cj =
W
where s = Permittivity of semiconductor material
A = Junction area
w = Small depletion layer width
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The small depletion layer width w increases the junction
capacitance. The capacitance of the photodiode Cd is that of junction
together with the capacitance of the leads and packaging.
The maximum photodiode Bm is given by :
1 vd
Bm =
2 tdrift 2w
B. Effect of change in temperature over avalanche gain :
1. The gain mechanism of an avalanche photodiode is very temperature
sensitive because of temperature dependence of the electron and
hole ionization rates.
2. This temperature dependence is particularly critical at high bias
voltage, where small changes in temperature can cause large
variations in gain.
3. Let us consider an example for a silicon avalanche photodiode. If
the operating temperature decreases and applied bias voltage is
kept constant, the ionization rates for electrons and holes will
increase and so will be the avalanche gain.
4. To maintain a constant gain as the temperature changes, the
electric field in the multiplying region of the p-n junction must
also be changed.
5. This requires that the receiver incorporate a compensation circuit
which adjusts the applied bias voltage on the photo detector when
the temperature changes.
1
M=
1  (V / VB )n
1000 67
23 46
500 0
Temperature (°C)

200
Current gain

+
100 Silicon n + – p –  – p
avalanche
50 photodiode

20
10

1
0 200 300 400
Voltage (V)
Fig. 13.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–24 D (EC-Sem-5)
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12. Write note on the following :
a. WDM and its components
Ans.
A. WDM :
1. Optical signals of different wavelength i.e., (1300-1600 nm) can
propagate without interfering with each other. The method of
combining a number of wavelengths over a single fiber is called
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).

1 Optical fiber 1
Transmitter-1 Receiver-1
2 2
Transmitter-2 Receiver-2

Optical Optical
N Amplifier Amplifier N
Transmitter-N Receiver-N

Wavelength Wavelength
multiplexer demultiplexer
Fig. 14.
2. Fig. 14 shows a typical WDM link. At the transmitting end, there
are several independently light sources, each emitting signal at a
unique wavelength.
3. Here a multiplexer is needed to combine these optical outputs into
a serial spectrum of closely spaced wavelength signals and couple
them onto a single fiber.
4. At the receiving end, a de-multiplexer is required to separate the
optical signal into appropriate detection channels for signal
processing.
5. To prevent spurious signals to enter into receiving channel, the de-
multiplexer must have narrow spectral operation with sharp
wavelength cut-offs.
6. The acceptable limit of crosstalk is –30 dB.
B. Components :
1. For implementing WDM various active and passive components
are required to combine, distribute, isolate and to amplify optical
power at different wavelength.
2. Passive components are mainly used to split or combine optical
signals. These types of components operate in optical domains.
3. These components don’t need external control for their operation.
4. Commonly required passive components are :
i. N × N couplers
ii. Power splitters
iii. Power taps
iv. Star couplers
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5. Most of the passive components are derived from basic star couplers.
Star couplers can perform combining and splitting of optical power.
6. Therefore, star coupler is a multiple input and multiple output port
device.

b. OTDR and optical power meter.

Ans.
A. OTDR :
1. A measurement technique which is far more refined and which
finds wide application in both the laboratory and the field is the use
of optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR).
2. This technique is often called the backscatter measurement method.
3. It provides measurement of the attenuation on an optical link down
its entire length giving information on the length dependence of
the link loss.
4. A block schematic of the backscatter measurement method is shown
in Fig. 15.
5. Here we observe that a light pulse is launched into the fiber in the
forward direction from an injection laser using either a directional
coupler or a system of external lenses with a beam splitter.
Coupler Fiber
Pulsed laser

Photodetector
APD

Box car Log Chart

integrator amplifier recorder

Fig. 15.
6. The backscattered light is detected using an avalanche photodiode
receiver which drives an integrator in order to improve the received
signal-to-noise ratio by giving an arithmetic average over a number
of the measurements taken at one point within the fiber.
7. The signal from the integrator is fed through a logarithmic amplifier
and averaged measurements for successive points within the fiber
are plotted on a chart recorder.
B. Optical power meter :
1. The principle of operation of optical power meter is based on
continuous optical emission conversion into electrical current using
photodiodes.
2. Then the electrical current is amplified and an analog signal is
converted into digital one for its processing and display of the power
of two measured optical emission in dB and dBm.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–26 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Fiber to be
Pigtail measured
fiber
Injection Reference
laser output Si-photodiode Amplifier

Pulse Fiber connector

generator Step
attentuator
Photodiode

Amplifier Continuous
attenuator

Rectifier AC
Rectifier
DC

Variable gain Log

amplifier amplifier

Digital
display

Receiver
Fig. 16.


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B.Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2016-17
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

SECTION – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Write down the wavelength regions corresponding to first,

second and third windows.

b. A silica optical fiber with a core refractive index of 1.50 and

a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine the numerical
aperture for the fiber.

c. List the properties of optical fiber that results in signal

degradation.

d. How does the source spectral width affect the information

carrying capacity of a fiber ?

e. Compare the spectrum of a laser source and an LED source.

f. Define polarization.

g. Draw the diagram to show the effect of waveguide dispersion

in single mode fiber.

h. How does quantum noise arise ?

i. Mention the noise present in optical receiver.

j. What is meant by quantum limit ? Express it

mathematically.
SECTION – B
2. Attempt any five questions from this section : (10 × 5 = 50)
a. i. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. In that fiber, skew
rays which change direction by 100° at each reflection. Find
out the acceptance angle of skew rays.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–2 D (EC-Sem-5)
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ii. Two polarization maintaining fibers operating at a
wavelength of 1.3 m have beat lengths of 0.7 mm and 80 m.
Determine the model birefringence in each case.

b. Compare the step index fiber and graded index fiber on

their performance parameters.

c. Enumerate the principle of operation of APD.

d. Analyze the light propagation in dielectric slab waveguide.

e. Describe the scheme for realizing the dispersion shifted

fiber.

f. How to measure the BER and Q factor in digital transmission ?

g. Dis cuss the waveguide dis pers ion with relevant

mathematical treatment.

h. Derive an expression for the photo current in the case of a

homodyne and heterodyne optical receiver systems.
SECTION-C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
3. a. Explain in detail with relevant circuit diagrams the different
types of optical pre-amplifiers. (7)

b. Discuss the digital link design using the rise time budget.
(8)

4. a. With a neat diagram, enumerate the different mechanisms

that contribute to attenuation in optical fibers. (12)

b. A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse

broadening of 0.1 s over a distance of 15 km and dispersion
is 6.67 ns. km–1. Estimate
i. The maximum possible bandwidth on the link
ii. The bandwidth length product for the fiber. (3)

5. Elucidate the principle of operation of a laser diode and

derive an expression for the lasing threshold current
density. Find the external quantum efficiency for a
Ga1–xAlx As laser diode (with x = 0.03) which has an optical
power versus drive current relationship of 0.5 mW/mA.


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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2016-17)

SECTION – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Write down the wavelength regions corresponding to first,
second and third windows.
Ans.
Window Window range Operating wavelength
First window 800 nm – 900 nm 850 nm
Second window 1260 nm – 1360 nm 1310 nm
Third window 1500 nm – 1600 nm 1550 nm

b. A silica optical fiber with a core refractive index of 1.50 and

a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine the numerical
aperture for the fiber.
Ans.
Given : n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.47
To Find : NA.

2
NA = n12  n22  1.5  (1.47)2 = 0.298

c. List the properties of optical fiber that results in signal

degradation.
Ans. The types of losses that result in signal degradation in optical fiber
are :
1. Attenuation loss 2. Absorption
3. Scattering 4. Bending loss
5. Dispersion loss 6. Coupling loss.

d. How does the source spectral width affect the information

carrying capacity of a fiber ?
Ans.
1. The product of bandwidth and length (MHz. km) expresses the
information carrying capacity of a multimode optical fiber.
Bandwidth is measured in megahertz (MHz) and the length is
measured in kilometer (km).
2. The MHz.km figure expresses how much bandwidth the fiber can
carry per kilometer of its length. The fiber’s designation must always
be greater than or equal to the product of the bandwidth and length
of the fiber.
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e. Compare the spectrum of a laser source and an LED source.
Ans. The spectral width of LED is wider i.e., 25 to 100 nm (10 to 50 THz)
and the spectral width of laser is narrower i.e., less than 10–5 to
5 nm (< 1 MHz to 2 MHz).

f. Define polarization.
Ans. Polarization is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies
the geometrical orientation of the oscillations.
g. Draw the diagram to show the effect of waveguide dispersion
in single mode fiber.
Ans.
8
6 Zero dispersion
Dispersion delay (ps)

4
2 Material dispersion
0
–2
–4
–6 Waveguide dispersion
–8
– 10 Total dispersion
– 12
1.20 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.40
Wavelength ( m)
Fig. 1.

h. How does quantum noise arise ?

Ans. It is not possible to predict how many electron-hole pairs are
generated by a known optical power incident on the detector, is the
origin of the type of shot noise called quantum noise.

i. Mention the noise present in optical receiver.

Ans. Noises present in optical receivers are :
1. Shot noise
2. Thermal noise.

j. What is meant by quantum limit ? Express it

mathematically.
Ans.
1. For an ideal photo detector quantum efficiency = 1 and has zero
dark current then the minimum received. Power for a specific bit-
error rate is known as quantum limit.
2. Then the probability of emitting zero electrons during the interval
is 
N
Pr(0) = e .
where, N is average number of electrons hole pair.
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SECTION – B

2. Attempt any five questions from this section : (10 × 5 = 50)

a. i. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. In that fiber, skew
rays which change direction by 100° at each reflection. Find
out the acceptance angle of skew rays.
Ans.
Given : NA = 0.4
To Find : Acceptance angle.
1. As NA = n0 sin a
Here n0 = 1
NA = sin a
 a = sin–1 NA
 a = sin–1 0.4 = 23.58°
2. The skew rays change direction by 100° at each reflection, therefore
 = 50°
3. Acceptance angle for skew rays is

1  NA  1  0.4 
as = sin   = sin  
 cos    cos 50 
= 38.32°

ii. Two polarization maintaining fibers operating at a

wavelength of 1.3 m have beat lengths of 0.7 mm and 80 m.
Determine the model birefringence in each case.
Ans. Numerical :
Given : Wavelength,  = 1.3 m, Beat length of fiber 1,
LB1 = 0.7 mm, Beat length of fiber 2, LB2 = 80 m
To Find : Modal birefringence
1. Modal birefringence of fiber 1,
 1.3  106
BF1 =  = 1.857 × 10– 3
LB1 0.7  103
2. Modal birefringence of fiber 2,
 1.3  10 6
BF2 =  = 1.625 × 10– 8
LB 2 80

b. Compare the step index fiber and graded index fiber on

their performance parameters.
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Ans.
S. No. Step index fiber Grade index fiber
1. A step index fiber has a central In graded index fiber, there is no
core with uniform refractive cladding and the refractive index
index. The core is surrounded of the core is non-uniform. It is
by an outside cladding with a highest at the cente r and
uniform refractive index less decreases gradually towards the
than that of central core. outer edge.
2. Data rate is slow. Data rate is higher.
3. Coupling efficiency is Coupling efficiency is lower.
higher.

n1  n2 n12  n2 2
4. = =
n1 2n12
5. Pulse spreading by fiber Pulse spreading is less.
length is more.

c. Enumerate the principle of operation of APD.

Ans.
1. The second major type of optical communication detector is
avalanche photodiode.
2. The depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and
the primary carrier pairs generated there is a high field region in
which holes and electrons can acquire sufficient energy to excite
new electrons hole pairs.
3. This process is known as impact ionization and is the phenomenon
that leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse biased diodes.
hf
E field

n
p Gain region
Absorption
i region
Electron
p+ Ionizing collision
Hole
Load
( a) X (b )
Fig. 2. (a) Avalanche photodiode showing high electric field (gain)
region. (b) Carrier pair multiplication in the gain region.
4. Carrier multiplication factors as great as 104 may be obtained using
defect free materials to ensure uniformity of carrier multiplication
over the entire area.
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5. Operation of these devices at high speed requires full depletion in
the absorption region.
6. When carriers are generated in undepleted material, they are
collected somewhat slowly by the diffusion process.
hf
n+
Metal contact
SiO2 Guard ring
Depletion region
p
p+
Fig. 3. Structure of a silicon avalanche photodiode with guard ring.

d. Analyze the light propagation in dielectric slab waveguide.

Ans.
1. The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide. We may
assume it consists of a slab of dielectric with refractive index n1
sandwiched between two regions of lower refractive index n2.
2. In order to obtain an improved model for optical propagation it is
useful to consider the interference of plane wave components within
this dielectric waveguide.
3. A plane monochromatic wave propagating in the direction of the
ray path within the guide (Fig. 4(a)).
4. As the refractive index within the guide is n1, the optical wavelength
in this region is reduced to /n1, while the vacuum propagation
constant is increased to n1k.
5. When  is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the
equivalent ray and the guide axis, the plane wave can be resolved
into two component plane waves propagating in the z and x directions,
as shown in Fig. 4.
6. The component of the phase propagation constant in the z direction
 z is given by :
 z = n1k cos  ...(1)
7. The component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction
 x is
 x = n1k sin  ...(2)
8. The component of the plane wave in the x-direction is reflected at
the interface between the higher and lower refractive index media.
9. When the total phase change after two successive reflections at the
upper and lower interfaces (between the points P and Q) is equal to
2 m radians, where m is an integer, then constructive interference
occurs and a standing wave is obtained in the x direction.
10. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 4(b), the optical wave is effectively
confined within the guide and the electric field distribution in the x
direction does not change as the wave propagates in the z direction.
11. The sinusoidally varying electric field in the z direction is also shown
in Fig. 4(b).
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n2 Wave vector n 1k
 x = n 1k cos  x
P Q z direction

n1 > n2  1 = n 1k sin  Guide axis
Guide
n2 Cladding
(a) x direction
(transverse)
n2 Wave vector Equiphase plane

 P Q
 Electric
Guide field
Wave vector Cladding

Electric field
z direction
(b)
Fig. 4. The formation of a mode in a planar dielectric guide.
12. The stable field distribution in the x direction with only periodic z
dependence is known as a mode.
13. A specific mode is obtained only when the angle between the
propagation vectors or the rays and the interface have a particular
value, as indicated in Fig. 4(b).
14. In effect, eq. (1) and eq. (2) define a group or congruence of rays
which in the case described represents the lowest order mode.
15. Hence the light propagating within the guide is formed into discrete
modes, each specified by a distinct value of .
16. These modes have a periodic z dependence of the form exp (– j zz)
where  z becomes the propagation constant for the mode as the
modal field pattern is invariant except for a periodic z dependence.

e. Describe the scheme for realizing the dispersion shifted

fiber.
Ans.
1. Single mode fiber refractive index profiles are capable of modification
in order to tune the zero dispersion wavelength point 0 to a specific
wavelength within a region adjacent to the zero material dispersion
(ZMD) point.
2. The step index profile gives a shift to longer wavelength by reducing
the core diameter and increasing the fractional index difference.
Typical values for the two parameters are 4.4 µm and 0.012
respectively.
3. 0 could be shifted to longer wavelength by altering the material
composition of the single mode fiber.
4. For suitable power confinement of the fundamental mode, the
normalized frequency V should be maintained in the range 1.5 to
2.4 µm and the fractional index difference must be increased as a
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square function while the core diameter is linearly reduced to keep
V constant.
n1

n

n2

0 Radius
Fig. 5. Refractive index profile of a step index dispersion shifted
fiber (solid) with a conventional nonshifted profile design (dashed).

n1

(a)

n 1

n2

( b)

n1

(c )
Fig. 6. Refractive index profiles for graded index dispersion
shifted fibers; (a) triangular profile; (b) depressed-cladding trianglar
profile, (c) Gaussian profile.

f. How to meas ure the BER and Q factor in digital

transmission ?
Ans.
A. BER :
1. BER is a statistical parameter, its value depends on the
measurement time and on the factors that cause the errors.
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2. If the errors are due to Gaussian noise in a relatively stable
transmission link, then a measurement time in which about 100
errors occur may be needed to ensure a statistically valid BER
determination.
3. BER means that one bit error occurs every 100 seconds. Such a
level may be unacceptable, so even lower bit error rates.
4. For example, to detect 100 errors for measuring a 10–12 BER in a
10 Gb/s link will require 2.8 hours. Thus test times on installed
links could run anywhere from 8 to 72 hours. To reduce such costly
and time consuming test periods, a Q-factor technique can be used.
B. Q-factor measurement :
1. In this method the receiver threshold is decreased, which increases
the probability of errors and thus decreases test time.
2. Q-factor based measurements are more complex equipment also
measure performance by using a degraded signal that more closely
represents what is seen in fielded links.
3. This method is described in the IEEE 802.3 specification for testing
10-Gigabit Ethernet (10-GbE) devices.

g. Dis cuss the waveguide dis pers ion with relevant

mathematical treatment.
Ans.
1. The waveguiding of the fiber may also create intramodal dispersion.
This results from the variation in group velocity with wavelength
for a particular mode.
2. Considering the ray theory approach it is equivalent to the angle
between the ray and the fiber axis varying with wavelength which
subsequently leads to a variation in the transmission times for the
rays, and hence dispersion.
3. For a single mode whose propagation constant is , the fiber exhibits

( d 2)
waveguide dispersion when  0.
( d 2 )
4. Multimode fibers, where the majority of modes propagate far from
cut-off, are almost free of waveguide dispersion and it is generally
negligible compared with material dispersion ( 0.1 to 0.2 ns km–1).
5. However, with single mode fibers where the effects of the different
dispersion mechanisms are not easy to separate, waveguide
dispersion may be significant.

h. Derive an expression for the photo current in the case of a

homodyne and heterodyne optical receiver systems.
Ans.
1. A coherent field is generated locally at the receiver using a narrow-
linewidth laser, called the local oscillator (LO).
2. It is combined with the incoming optical field using a beam splitter,
typically a fiber coupler in practice.
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3. Assuming the optical signal using complex notation as
Es = As exp[– i(0t + s)], ...(1)
where 0 is the carrier frequency, As is the amplitude, and s is the
phase.
4. The optical field associated with the local oscillator is given by a
similar expression,
ELO = ALO exp[– i(LOt + LO)], ...(2)
where ALO, LO, and LO represent the amplitude, frequency, and
phase of the local oscillator, respectively.
5. The scalar notation is used for both Es and ELO after assuming that
the two fields are identically polarized.
6. The optical power incident at the photodetector is given by
P = |Es + ELO|2.
7. Using eq. (1) and eq. (2), then we get
P(t) = Ps  PLO  2 Ps PLO cos ( IF t   s   LO ) ...(3)
2 2
where, P(t) = A , PLO  A
s LO, IF = 0 = LO
8. The frequency vIF = IF/2 is known as the intermediate frequency
(IF). When 0  LO, the optical signal is demoluated in two stages.
Its carrier frequency is first converted to an intermediate frequency
vIF (typically 0.1-5 GHz).
9. The resulting radio-frequency (RF) signal is then processed
electronically to recover the bit stream. It is not always necessary
to use an intermediate frequency.
10. In fact, there are two different coherent detection techniques to
choose from, depending on whether or not IF equals zero. They
are known as homodyne and heterodyne detection techniques.
i. Homodyne detction :
1. In this coherent-detection technique, the local-oscillator frequency
LO is selected to coincide with the signal-carrier frequency 0 so
that IF = 0.
2. From eq. (3), the photocurrent (I = RdP, where Rd is the detector
responsivity) is given by
I(t) = Rd ( Ps  PLO )  2 Rd Ps (t) PLO cos ( s   LO ) ...(5)
3. Typically, PLO >> Ps, + PLO  PLO. The last term in eq. (5) contains
the information transmitted and is used by decision circuit.
4. Consider the case in which the local-oscillator phase is locked to the
signal phase so that s = LO.
5. The homodyne signal is given by
Ip(t) = 2 Rd Ps (t) PLO ...(6)
ii. Heterodyne detction :
1. In the case of heterodyne detection the local-oscillator frequency
LO is chosen to differ from the signal-carrier frequency 0 such
that the intermediate frequency  IF is in the microwave
region (vIF ~ 1 GHz).
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2. Using eq. (3) together with I = RdP, the photocurrent is now given
by
I(t) = Rd ( Ps  PLO )  2 Rd Ps PLO cos ( IF t   s   LO )
...(7)
3. Since PLO >> Ps in practice, the direct-current (dc) term is nearly
constant and can be removed easily using bandpass filters.
4. The heterodyne signal is then given by the alternating-current (ac)
term in eq. (7) or by
Iac(t) = 2 Rd Ps PLO cos ( IF t   s   LO )

SECTION-C

Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)

3. a. Explain in detail with relevant circuit diagrams the different

types of optical pre-amplifiers. (7)
Ans. Types of optical pre-amplifier : There are three types of optical
pre-amplifier.
i. Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) :
1. It consists of a length of silica fiber whose core is doped with
ionized atoms (ions), Er 3+, of the rare earth element erbium as
shown in Fig. 7.
Erbium fiber
Isolator
Signal in Signal out
1550 nm

Pump Wavelength-selective Residual pump

980 nm coupler
Fig. 7. An erbium-doped fiber amplifier.
2. This fiber is pumped using a pump signal from a laser, typically at
a wavelength of 980 nm or 1480 nm.
3. In order to combine the output of the pump laser with the input
signal, the doped fiber is preceded by a wavelength-selective coupler.
4. At the output, another wavelength-selective coupler may be used
if needed to separate the amplified signal from any remaining
pump signal power.
5. An isolator is used at the input and/or output of any amplifier to
prevent reflections into the amplifier.
ii. Raman amplifier :
1. Raman amplification relies on simply pumping the same silica
fiber used for transmitting the data signals, so that it can be used
to produce a lumped or discrete amplifier, as well as a distributed
amplifier.
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2. In the lumped case, the Raman amplifier consists of a sufficiently
long spool of fiber along with the appropriate pump lasers in a
package.
3. In the distributed case, the fiber can simply be the fiber span of
interest, with the pump attached to one end of the span, as shown
in Fig. 8.
4. These amplifiers require high-power pump sources of the order
of 1 W or more, at the right wavelength.
5. Major concern with Raman amplifiers is crosstalk between the
WDM signals due to Raman amplification.
6. Another source of noise is due to the back-reflections of the
pump signal caused by Rayleigh scattering in the fiber.
Signal
EDFA EDFA

Pump

Amplifier site Amplifier site

Fig. 8. Distributed Raman amplifier.
iii. Semiconductor optical amplifier :
1. Fig. 9 shows the block diagram of a semiconductor optical amplifier.
The SOA is essentially a p-n junction. The depletion layer is
formed at the junction acts as the active region.
Light out
AR coated

p-type n-type

Light Active
in region
Fig. 9. Block diagram of a semiconductor optical amplifier.
2. Light is amplified through stimulated emission when it propagates
through the active region.
3. For an amplifier, the two ends of the active region are given an
antireflection (AR) coating to eliminate ripples in the amplifier
gain as a function of wavelength.
4. The facets may also be angled slightly to reduce the reflection. In
the case of a semiconductor laser, there would be no AR coating.
5. SOAs differ from EDFAs in the manner in which population
inversion is achieved. Population inversion in an SOA is achieved
by forward-biasing a p-n junction.
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6. When the forward-bias voltage is sufficiently high, the increased
minority carrier concentrations result in population inversion,
and the p-n junction acts as an optical amplifier.

b. Discuss the digital link design using the rise time budget.
(8)
Ans.
1. A rise-time budget analysis is a convenient method for determining
the dispersion limitation of an optical fiber link. This particularly
useful for digital systems.
2. In this approach, the total rise time tsys of the link is the root sum
square of the rise times from each contributor ti to the pulse rise-
time degradation :
1/ 2
 N 2
tsys =   ti  ...(1)
 i1 
3. The four basic elements that may significantly limit system speed
are the transmitter rise time ttx, the group-velocity dispersion (GVD)
rise time tGVD of the fiber, the modal dispersion rise time tmod of the
fiber, and the receiver rise time trx.
4. Single-mode fibers do not experience modal dispersion, so in these
fibers the rise time is related only to GVD. The rise times of
transmitters and receivers are generally known to the receiver.
5. To find the relation between the fiber rise time and the 3-dB
bandwidth, we assume that the optical power emerging from the
fiber has a Gaussian temporal response described by
1 2 2
g(t) = e t / 2  ...(2)
2
where,  is the rms pulse width.
6. The 3-dB optical bandwidth B3 dB is defined as the modulation
frequency f3 dB at which the received optical power has fallen to 0.5
of the zero frequency value.
7. Total system rise time is given as
tsys = [ ttx2  tmod
2 2
 tGVD  trx2 ]1/ 2
where, tmod = rise time resulting from modal dispersion
ttx = transmitter rise time
tGVD = rise time due to group-velocity-dispersion
trx = receiver rise time

4. a. With a neat diagram, enumerate the different mechanisms

that contribute to attenuation in optical fibers. (12)
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Ans. The attenuation of the optical fiber is a result of the two factors,
absorption and scattering :
A. Absorption :
a. Intrinsic absorption :
1. This type of absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure
state, no density variation and inhomogeneities. This is the natural
property of the glass.
2. An absolutely pure silicate glass has little intrinsic absorption due
to its basic material structure in the near infrared region.
3. Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in UV
regions and from atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.
4. The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps
of the amorphous glass materials.
5. Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the
valence band and excites it to higher energy level.
6. Intrinsic losses are mostly insignificant in a wide region where
fiber systems can operate, but these losses inhibit the extension of
fiber systems towards the ultraviolet as well as toward longer
wavelengths.
b. Extrinsic absorption :
1. Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between
the energy levels and because of charge transitions from one ion to
another.
2. A major source of attenuation is from transition of metal impurity
ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper.
3. The presence of impurities in the fiber material is the major source
of loss in practical fibers.
4. Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption
due to water dissolved in the glass.
5. These hydroxyl groups are bonded into the glass structure and
have fundamental stretching vibrations which occur at wavelengths
between 2.7 and 4.2 m depending on group position in the glass
network.
B. Scattering :
1. Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variations in the
material density, from compositional fluctuations, and defects
occurring during fiber manufacture.
2. The scattering losses can be classified as :
a. Linear Scattering losses :
1. Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of
the optical power contained within one propagating mode to be
transferred linearly into a different mode.
2. There are two types of linear scattering losses.
i. Rayleigh scattering
ii. Mie scattering
b. Non-Linear Scattering loss :
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1. The non linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode
to be transferred in either the forward or backward direction to the
same or other modes at a different frequency.
2. This type of scattering are of two types :
i. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering :
ii. Stimulated Raman Scattering :

b. A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse

broadening of 0.1 s over a distance of 15 km and dispersion
is 6.67 ns. km–1. Estimate
i. The maximum possible bandwidth on the link
ii. The bandwidth length product for the fiber. (3)
Ans.
Given :  = 0.1 s, L = 15 km
To Find : Maximum possible bandwidth, bandwidth length product.
i. Maximum possible bandwidth,
1 1
Bopt = BT =  = 5 MHz
2 2  0.1  10 6
ii. The bandwidth length product is
Bopt L = 5 MHz × 15 km = 75 MHz.km

5. Elucidate the principle of operation of a laser diode and

derive an expression for the lasing threshold current
density. Find the external quantum efficiency for a
Ga1–xAlx As laser diode (with x = 0.03) which has an optical
power versus drive current relationship of 0.5 mW/mA.
Ans.
A. Principle of operation of laser diode : The general operation of
Laser are as follows :
Absorption :
1. The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete energy
packets called quanta or photons.
2. The quantum theory suggests that atoms exist only in discrete
energy states such that absorption and emission of light causes
them to make a transition from one discrete energy state to another.
3. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related as
the difference in energy between the higher energy state E2 and
lower energy state E1 by the expression :
E = E2 – E1 = hf
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js
E2 Initial State Final State

Absorption
E1
Fig. 10.
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4. Fig. 10 illustrates a two energy state where an atom is initially in
lower energy state E1.
5. When a photon with energy (E2 – E1) is incident on the atom it may
be excited into the higher energy state E2 through absorption of the
photon. This process is referred as stimulated absorption of photon.
6. When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2 it can make
a transition to the lower energy state E1 providing the emission of
a photon.
7. The emission process can occur in two ways :
a. spontaneous emission
b. stimulated emission
E2
Spontaneous
emission
E1 (a)
E2
Stimulated
emission
E1 (b )
Fig. 11.
8. From Fig. 11 it is observed that in spontaneous emission atom from
higher energy state returns to lower energy state in an entirely
random manner whereas in stimulated emission, a photon having
an energy equal to (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom in the higher
energy state causing it to return to the lower state with the creation
of a second photon.
B. Threshold current density :
1. The relationship between optical output power and the diode drive
current can be determined by examining the rate equations that
govern the interaction of photons and electrons in the active region.
2. For a p-n junction with a carrier–confinement region of depth d,
the rate equations are given by
d 
= Cn  Rsp  ...(1)
dt  ph
= Stimulated emission + Spontaneous emission
+ Photon loss which governs the number of
photons ,
dn J n
and =   Cn ...(2)
dt qd  sp
= inje ctio n + spontane ous re co mbinatio n
+ stimulated emission
which governs the number of electrons n.
3. Here, C is a coefficient describing the strength of the optical
absorption and emission interactions, Rsp is the rate of spontaneous
emission into the lasing mode (which is much smaller than the total
spontaneous emission rate), ph is the photon lifetime, s is the
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–18 D (EC-Sem-5)
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spontaneous recombination lifetime, and J is the injection current
density.
4. The first term in eq. (1) is a source of photons resulting from
stimulated emission.
5. The second term, describing the number of photons produced by
spontaneous emission, is relatively small compared with the first
term.
6. The third term indicates the decay in the number of photons caused
by loss mechanisms in the lasing cavity.
7. In eq. (2), the first term represents the increase in the electron
concentration in the conduction band as current flows into the
device.
8. The second and third terms give the number of electrons lost from
the conduction band owing to spontaneous and stimulated
transitions, respectively.
9. The steady state is characterized by :
1
Cn  >0 ...(3)
 ph
This shows that n must exceed a threshold value nth in order for 
to increase.
nth J
10. = th ...(4)
 sp qd
This expression defines the current required to sustain an excess
electron density in the Laser when spontaneous emission is the
only decay mechanism.
11. Consider the photon and electron rate equations in the steady
state condition at the lasing threshold. Respectively, eq. (1) and
eq. (2) become

0 = Cnth s  Rsp  s ...(5)
 ph
J n
and 0=  th  Cnth s ...(6)
qd  sp
where s is the steady state photon density.
nth
12. Adding eq. (5) and eq. (6), using eq. (4) for the term and solving
 sp
for s yields the number of photons per unit volume.
 ph
s =  J  Jth    ph Rsp ...(7)
qd
13. The first term in eq. (7) is the number of photons resulting from
stimulated emission. The power from these photons is generally
concentrated in one or a few modes.
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14. The second term gives the spontaneously generated photons. The
power resulting from these photons is not mode selective, but is
spread over all the possible modes of the volume, which are on the
order of 108 modes.
C. Numerical :
Given : x = 0.03
To Find : Extrernal quantum efficiency
dP (mW)
1. We have, ext = 0.8065  (m) ...(8)
dI (mA)
2. The band gap of Ga1 – x AlxAs is given by
Eg(x) = 1.424 + 1.247x
= 1.424 + 1.247 (0.03)
= 1.46141 eV
1.24 1.24
(m) =  = 0.848 m
E g (eV) 1.46141
3. Substituting these values in eq. (8)
ext = 0.8065 × 0.848 × 0.5
= 0.34215  34.22%


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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2017-18
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

Notes : Attempt all sections. Assume any missing data.

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Write down the wavelength region corresponding to first,
second and third window.

b. Write down the advantages of optical fiber communication.

c. What is acceptance angle ? Discuss its importance.

d. Compare the spectrum of laser source and led source.

e. What is difference between meridional rays and skew

rays ?

f. Define isotype and anisotype heterojunctions.

g. Define mode hopping.

h. What are the two basic requirement of optical detector ?

i. Define dark current noise.

j. Write any two eye pattern features.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. What are the various advantages of optical fiber
communication system ?

b. A 8 micrometer core diameter single mode fiber with a core

refractive index of 2, and relative refractive index difference
of 0.3% and operating wavelength of 1.55 micrometer.
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Determine critical radius of curvature. Explain bending
losses.

c. What is the different multichannel transmission techniques

used in optical fiber ? Describe each in brief.

d. Derive expression of acceptance angle for skew rays. An

optical fiber has numerical aperture of 0.344. What is the
acceptance angle for meridional rays ? Calculate the
acceptance angle for skew rays which change direction by
1000 at each reflection.

e. Explain the working of PIN photodiode. A p-i-n photodiode

has a quantum efficiency of 55 % at a wavelength of 0.9
micrometer. Calculate :
i. Its responsivity at 0.9 micrometer.
ii. The received optical power if the mean photocurrent is
10 – 8 A.
iii. The corresponding number of received photons at this
wavelength.

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain absorption losses.

b. A multimode graded index fiber exhibit total pulse

broadening of 0.1 microsecond over a distance of 10 km.
Determine maximum possible bandwidth on the link
assuming no inter symbol interference. Pulse dispersion
per unit length and bandwidth length product for the fiber.

4. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Name the material used for the fabrication of LED. What
are basic requirement of optical sources to be used for
optical fiber ?

b. Explain various requirement of optical detector. Explain

the working principle of PIN diode.

5. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain the analysis which carried out to measure overall
performance of optical fiber. Explain link budget analysis.

b. Explain the necessity of preamplifier in optical receiver.

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Mention the types of preamplifier and explain the working
of any one of them.

6. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain avalanche photodiode and also explain effect of
temperature on avalanche gain.

b. Explain the working of semiconductor laser. What is

threshold condition for lasing action ?

7. Write a note on any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Front end amplifier.
b. Homodyne detection.


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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2017-18)

Notes : Attempt all sections. Assume any missing data.

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Write down the wavelength region corresponding to first,
second and third window.
Ans.
Window Window range Operating wavelength
First window 800 nm – 900 nm 850 nm
Second window 1260 nm – 1360 nm 1310 nm
Third window 1500 nm – 1600 nm 1550 nm

b. Write down the advantages of optical fiber communication.

Ans. Advantages of optical fiber communication :
i. Enormous potential bandwidth.
ii. Small size and weight.
iii. Electrical isolation.
iv. Immunity to interference and crosstalk.
v. Signal security.

c. What is acceptance angle ? Discuss its importance.

Ans. Acceptance angle : The maximum angle to the axis at which light
may enter into the fiber in order to be propagate, and is referred as
the acceptance angle.
Importance : The acceptance angle gives some estimate concerning
how large an incidence angle may be for efficiently launching light.

d. Compare the spectrum of laser source and led source.

Ans. The spectral width of LED is wider i.e., 25 to 100 nm (10 to 50 THz)
and the spectral width of laser is narrower i.e., less than 10–5 to
5 nm (< 1 MHz to 2 MHz).

e. What is difference between meridional rays and skew rays ?

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Ans.
S. No. Skew rays Meridional rays
1. This types o f rays is This type of rays enters the core
transmitted without passing and passes through its axis.
through fiber axis.
2. These types of rays are not These rays are co nfine d to
confined to single plane. meridian planes of the fiber.
3. These rays are difficult to These rays lies in a single plane,
locate as the y are no t hence it is easy to track its path.
confined to single plane.

f. Define isotype and anisotype heterojunctions.

Ans.
1. Isotype heterojunctions are the one formed with materials of same
conductivity (p – P or N –n).
2. Anisotype heterojunctions are formed with materials of different
conductivities (N-p) etc.

g. Define mode hopping.

Ans. Mode hopping is a phenomenon which occurs in all single-mode
injection laser. Under some external influence, such a laser may
operate in a single resonator mode for some time, but suddenly
switch to some other mode.

h. What are the two basic requirement of optical detector ?

Ans.
1. Sensitivity at the operating wavelengths should be very high.
2. The photodetector should produce a maximum electrical signal for
a given amount of optical power i.e., the quantum efficiency should
be high.

i. Define dark current noise.

Ans.
1. Dark current arises from thermal energy within the silicon lattice
comprising the CCD (Charge-coupled device). Electrons are created
over time that are independent of the light falling on the detector.
2. Electrons are captured by the CCD’s potential wells and counted as
signal. Additionally, this increase in signal also carries a statistical
fluctuation known as dark current noise.

j. Write any two eye pattern features.

Ans. The eye pattern measurements are made in the time domain and
allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown immediately
on the display screen of standard BER test equipment.
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SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. What are the various advantages of optical fiber
communication system ?
Ans. Advantages of optical fiber communication system :
1. Enormous potential bandwidth : The optical carrier frequency
in the range 1013 Hz to 1016 Hz yields a far greater potential
transmission bandwidth than metallic cable system. Thus, the
information-carrying capacity of optical fiber systems has proved
far superior to the best copper cable systems.
2. Small size and weight : The optical fiber have very small diameter
which are often no greater than the diameter of human hair. Even
when such fibers are covered with protective coatings, they are far
smaller and much lighter than corresponding copper cable.
3. Electrical isolation : Optical fibers which are fabricated from
glass or polymer are electrical insulators and therefore do not exhibit
earth loop and interface problems.
4. Signal security : The light from optical fibers does not radiate
significantly and thus provide a high degree of signal security.
5. Low transmission loss : Optical fibers have been developed in
which losses are as low as 0.2 dB km–1. Therefore, repeater links
will be required after hundreds of km.
6. Ruggedness and flexibility : Although protective coatings are
essential, optical fibers may be manufactured with very high tensile
strength.
7. System reliability and ease of maintenance : As less number
of repeaters or line amplifiers are required, therefore reliability is
high and is easy to maintain.
8. Potential low cost : The glass which generally provides the optical
fiber transmission medium is made from sand, not a scarce resource.
So, in comparison with copper conductors, optical fibers offer the
potential for low cost line communication.

b. A 8 micrometer core diameter single mode fiber with a core

refractive index of 2, and relative refractive index difference
of 0.3% and operating wavelength of 1.55 micrometer.
Determine critical radius of curvature. Explain bending
losses.
Ans.
A. Numerical :
Given : Diameter = 8m, n1 = 2, = 0.003,  = 1.55 × 10–6 m
To Find : Critical radius of curvature
1. Given n22 = n12 – 2n12
n22 = 4 – (0.006 × 4) = 3.976
Optical Communication SP–7 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2. The cut-off wavelength for single mode fiber is given as :
2an1 (2)1/ 2
C =
2.405
2  4  10 6  (2  0.003)1/ 2  2
C =
2.405
= 1.62 m
3. The critical radius of curvature for the single mode fiber gives.
3
20  1.55  106  0.996  1.55  106 
RC  3/2  2.748   = 60 mm
(0.043)  1.62  10 6 
B. Bending loss :
1. Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their
paths. This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at the bend
exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and hence the guidance
mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated
from the fiber.
2. The part of the mode which is on the outside of the bend is required
to travel faster than that on the inside so that a wavefront
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is maintained. Hence,
part of the mode in the cladding needs to travel faster than the
velocity of light in that medium.
3. The loss can generally be represented by the radiation attenuation
coefficient which is given as :
r = C1 exp (– C2R) ...(1)
where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend.
Cladding

Radiation
Core

Fig. 1. An illustration of the radiation loss at a fiber bend.

C1 C2 are constants and are independent of R.
4. Large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a critical
radius of curvature RC, which is given by

RC  3n12  ...(2)
4  ( n12  n22 )3/ 2
From above equation it is observed that potential macro bending
losses may be reduced by :
a. designing fibers with large relative refractive index difference.
b. operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
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5. The critical radius of curvature for a single mode fiber RCS is given
by :
3
RCS  20    ...(3)
3/ 2 
2.748  0.996 
(n1  n2 )   C
where C is the cut off wavelength for the single mode fiber.
6. Thus, for single mode fiber, the critical wavelength of the radiated
light becomes progressively shorter as the bend radius is decreased.
The critical radius is called critical bending radius.

c. What is the different multichannel transmission techniques

used in optical fiber ? Describe each in brief.
Ans. The different multichannel transmission technique :
i. Multichannel Amplitude Modulation :
1. In some application the bit rate of each channel is relatively low but
the numbers of channels are quite large. Typical example of such
application is cable television (CATV).
2. Different channel information is amplitude modulated on different
carrier frequency.
3. The composite FDM signal is used to modulate the intensity of
semiconductor laser directly by adding it to the bias current.
4. At optical receiver, a bank of band pass filters separates the indi-
vidual carriers.
5. Optical modulation index m is given by
1/ 2
 N 
m= 
 mi2 
 
i1
where, N is number of channels.
mi is per channel modulation index.
ii. Multichannel Frequency Modulation :
1. The carrier to noise ratio requirement can be relaxed by changing
the modulation format from AM to FM.
2. This results S/N ratio improvement over C/N ratio. S/N ratio at the
output of FM detector is :
 2
 S C 3 B  f pp  
=    10 log  w
 N 
out
 N  in  2 fv  fv  
 
where, B = required bandwidth.
fpp = peak to peak frequency deviation of modulator.
fv = highest video frequency.
w = weighting factor.
iii. Sub-carrier multiplexing (SCM) :
1. Sub-carrier multiplexing (SCM) is employed in microwave engi-
neering in which multiple microwave carriers for transmission of
multiple channels are used.
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2. If the microwave signal is transmitted optically by using optical
fibers, the signal bandwidth can be exceeded upto 10 GHz for a
single optical carrier. Such a technique is referred as SCM.
3. The input can be analog or digital base band signal. The input
signals are modulated sub-carriers are then combined to give FDM
signal.
4. The FDM signals are then combined in microwave combiner. The
combined signal then modulates the intensity of semiconductor
laser by adding it to bias current.
5. The received optical signal is then passed through low noise pin
photo detector to convert it to original signal.

d. Derive expression of acceptance angle for skew rays. An

optical fiber has numerical aperture of 0.344. What is the
acceptance angle for meridional rays ? Calculate the
acceptance angle for skew rays which change direction by
1000 at each reflection.
Ans.
A. Acceptance angle for skew rays :
1. In the Fig. 2, it is observed that a light ray incident on the fiber core
at an angle 1 is less than the acceptance angle a .
Air (n0)
n2

n1
A C

B n2
Fig. 2. The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in
air at an input angle less than the acceptance angle for the fiber.
2. The ray enters into the fiber from a medium of air having refractive
index n0, and the fiber core has refractive index n1.
3. The refractive index n1 is greater than the cladding refractive index
n2.
4. By considering the refraction at the air-core interface and using
Snell’s law, we get
n0 sin 1 = n1 sin 2 ...(1)
5. Considering the right-angled triangle ABC, the

=  2 ...(2)
2
Here  is greater than the critical angle at core-cladding interface.
6. Eq. (1) can be written as
n0 sin  = n1 cos  ...(3)
7. By using relationship sin2 + cos2 = 1, above equation can be written
as
n0 sin 1 = n1 (1 – sin2)1/2 ...(4)
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8. When the limiting case of total internal reflection is consider, 
becomes equal to critical angle for core cladding interface. In this
case 1 becomes the acceptance angle a. Therefore
2
n 
n0 sin a = n1 1   2  ...(5)
 n1 
n0 sin a = (n12 – n22)1/2 ...(6)
9. The acceptance conditions for skew rays are :
n0 sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA
10. When n0 = 1
sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA
B. Numerical :

Given : NA = 0.344
To Find : Acceptance angle.
1. As NA= n0 sin a
Here n0
=1
NA= sin a
= sin–1 NA
a
= sin–1 0.344
a
= 20.13°
2. The skew rays change direction by 100° at each reflection, therefore
 = 50°
3. Acceptance angle for skew rays is
1  NA  1  0.344 
as = sin   = sin  
 cos    cos 50 
= 32.3°
4. In this, the acceptance angle for the skew rays is about 12° greater
than meridional rays.

e. Explain the working of PIN photodiode. A p-i-n photodiode

has a quantum efficiency of 55 % at a wavelength of 0.9
micrometer. Calculate :
i. Its responsivity at 0.9 micrometer.
ii. The received optical power if the mean photocurrent is
10 – 8 A.
iii. The corresponding number of received photons at this
wavelength.
Ans.
A. Working of p-i-n photodiode :
1. To allow the operation at longer wavelengths where the light
penetrates more deeply into the semiconductor material, a wider
depletion region is necessary.
2. For this purpose n-type material is doped so lightly that it can be
considered intrinsic and to make a low resistance contact highly
Optical Communication SP–11 D (EC-Sem-5)
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doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p-i-n structure
where all the absorption takes place in the depletion region.
hf
E field

p Depletion region
Absorption region
n
Load x
Fig. 3. p-i-n photodiode showing combined absorption and
depletion region.
Antireflection
p coating Metal contact
hf
Metal p+
contact hf
SiO2 i
Depletion
i n+
layer
n+
(a) Antireflection Reflection coating
coating ( b)
Fig. 4. (a) Structure of a front illuminated silicon p-i-n photodiode
(b) Structure of a side illuminated (parallel to junction) p-i-n photodiode.
3. Fig. 4 shows the structure of two types of silicon p-i-n photodiode
for operation in the shorter wavelength band below 1.09 m.
4. The front illuminated photodiode when operating in the 0.8 to 0.9
m band requires a depletion region of between 20 and 50 m to
attain high quantum efficiency together with fast response and low
dark current.
B. Numerical :
Given :  = 55 % = 0.55,  = 0.9 m
To Find : Responsivity, received optical power, corresponding
number of received photons.

q   
i. Responsivity, R =   (nm)
h  1248 
0.55
R=  900 = 0.396 A/W
1248
I
ii. R= P
Pop
IP 10 8
 Pop=  = 2.52 × 10–8 W
R 0.396
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hc 6.62  1034  3.0  108
iii. Pop = n =n
 0.9  10 6
= n × 22.067 × 10 = 1.1443 × 1011
–20

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain absorption losses.
Ans. The absorption of the light may be intrinsic or extrinsic.
i. Intrinsic absorption :
1. This type of absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure
state, no density variation and inhomogeneities. This is the natural
property of the glass.
2. An absolutely pure silicate glass has little intrinsic absorption due
to its basic material structure in the near infrared region.
3. Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in UV
regions and from atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.
4. The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps
of the amorphous glass materials.
5. Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the
valence band and excites it to higher energy level.
6. Intrinsic losses are mostly insignificant in a wide region where
fiber systems can operate, but these losses inhibit the extension of
fiber systems towards the ultraviolet as well as toward longer
wavelengths.
ii. Extrinsic absorption :
1. Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between
the energy levels and because of charge transitions from one ion to
another.
2. A major source of attenuation is from transition of metal impurity
ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper.
3. The presence of impurities in the fiber material is the major source
of loss in practical fibers.
4. Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption
due to water dissolved in the glass.
5. These hydroxyl groups are bonded into the glass structure and
have fundamental stretching vibrations which occur at wavelengths
between 2.7 and 4.2 m depending on group position in the glass
network.

b. A multimode graded index fiber exhibit total pulse

broadening of 0.1 microsecond over a distance of 10 km.
Determine maximum possible bandwidth on the link
assuming no inter symbol interference. Pulse dispersion
per unit length and bandwidth length product for the fiber.
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Ans.
Given :  = 0.1 s, L = 10 km
To Find : BT, Pulse dispersion per unit length, bandwidth length
product.
Maximum possible bandwidth without ISI :
1 1
BT =  = 5 MHz
2 2  0.1  10 6
Pulse dispersion per unit length :
 0.1  10  6
= = 1 × 10 – 8 s/km
L 10
= 5 MHz
Bandwidth length product :
BT × L = 5 × 10 = 50 MHz-km.

4. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Name the material used for the fabrication of LED. What
are basic requirement of optical sources to be used for
optical fiber ?
Ans.
A. Material for fabrication :
i. GaAS/AlGaAs : Operate in shorter wavelength region.
ii. InGaASP/InP : Operate in longer wavelength region.
B. Requirement of optical sources :
1. Physical dimensions to suit the optical fiber geometry.
2. Narrow radiation pattern.
3. Ability to be directly modulated by varying driving current.
4. Fast response time.
5. Adequate output power to couple into the optical fiber.
6. Narrow spectral width.
7. Driving circuit issue.
8. Stability, efficiency, reliability and cost.

b. Explain various requirement of optical detector. Explain

the working principle of PIN diode.
Ans.
A. Various requirement of optical detector : Photodetectors used
for optical fibre communication must fulfill the following
requirements for good performance :
1. Sensitivity at the operating wavelengths should be very high.
2. To reproduce the received signal waveform with fidelity, for analogy
transmission the response of the photodetector must be linear with
regard to the optical signal over a wide range.
3. The photodetector should produce a maximum electrical signal for
a given amount of optical power i.e., the quantum efficiency should
be high.
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4. In order to obtain a suitable bandwidth, response time should be as
small as possible.
5. Dark currents, leakage currents and shunt conductance should be
low. Noises in the circuitry must be low.
6. In an ideal detector, the performance characteristics should be
independent of changes in ambient conditions.
7. The detector to be used must be of small size in order to have
efficient coupling with fiber.
8. The detector should be reliable i.e., it must be capable of continuous
stable operation at room temperature for many years.
9. It must be of low cost.
B. Working principle of PIN diode :
1. To allow the operation at longer wavelengths where the light
penetrates more deeply into the semiconductor material, a wider
depletion region is necessary.
2. For this purpose n-type material is doped so lightly that it can be
considered intrinsic and to make a low resistance contact highly
doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p-i-n structure
where all the absorption takes place in the depletion region.
hf
E field

p Depletion region
Absorption region
n
Load x
Fig. 5. p-i-n photodiode showing combined absorption and
depletion region.
Antireflection
p coating Metal contact
hf
Metal p+
contact hf
SiO2 i
Depletion
i n+
layer
n+
(a) Antireflection Reflection coating
coating ( b)
Fig. 6. (a) Structure of a front illuminated silicon p-i-n photodiode
(b) Structure of a side illuminated (parallel to junction) p-i-n photodiode.
3. Fig. 6 shows the structure of two types of silicon p-i-n photodiode
for operation in the shorter wavelength band below 1.09 m.
4. The front illuminated photodiode when operating in the 0.8 to 0.9
m band requires a depletion region of between 20 and 50 m to
attain high quantum efficiency together with fast response and low
dark current.
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5. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Explain the analysis which carried out to measure overall
performance of optical fiber. Explain link budget analysis.
Ans.
1. Two analyses usually are carried out to ensure that the desired
system performance can be met : these are the link power budget
and the system rise-time budget analyses.
2. In the link power budget analysis, one first determines the power
margin between the optical transmitter output and the minimum
receiver sensitivity needed to establish a specified BER.
3. This margin can then be allocated to connector, splice and other
components.
Link power budget :
1. An optical power loss model for a point-to-point link is shown in
Fig. 7.
2. The optical power received at the photodetector depends on the
amount of light coupled into the fiber and the losses occurring in
the fiber and at the connectors and splices.
3. The link loss budget is derived from the sequential loss contributions
of each element in the link. Each of these loss elements is expressed
in decibels (dB) as
Pout
loss = 10 log ...(1)
Pin
where, Pin and Pout are the optical powers entering and leaving the
loss element, respectively.
4. The link loss budget simply considers the total optical power loss PT
that is allowed between the light source and the photodetector, and
allocates this loss to cable attenuation, connector loss, splice loss,
and system margin.
5. Thus, if PS is the optical power emerging from the end of a fiber
flylead attached to the light source or from a source-coupled
connector, and if PR is the receiver sensitivity, then
PT = PS – PR = 2lc + L + system margin ...(2)
Transmitter Receiver
Splices Optical fibers
Connector Connector

Optical Photon
source     detector
lc lsp lsp lc lsp lc
Fiber Fiber
flylead flylead
Connector (optional)

Fig. 7. Optical power loss model for a point-to-point link.

The losses occur at connectors (lc), at splices (lsp),
and in the fiber ().
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7. Here, lc is the connector loss,  is the fiber attenuation (dB/km), L
is the transmission distance, and the system margin is nominally
taken as 6 dB.
Rise-time budget :
1. A rise-time budget analysis is a convenient method for determining
the dispersion limitation of an optical fiber link.
2. In this approach, the total rise time tsys of the link is the root sum
square of the rise times from each contributor ti to the pulse rise-
time degradation :
1/ 2
 N 
tsys =   ti 2  ...(3)
i1 
3. The four basic elements that may significantly limit system speed
are the transmitter rise time tt , the group-velocity dispersion (GVD)
x
rise time tGVD of the fiber, the modal dispersion rise time tmod of the
fiber, and the receiver rise time trx.
4. Single mode fibers do not experience modal dispersion, so in these
fibers the rise time is related only to GVD.
5. To find the relation between the fiber rise time and the 3-dB
bandwidth, we assume that the optical power emerging from the
fiber has a Gaussian temporal response described by
1 2 2
g(t) = e t / 2  ...(4)
2
where,  is the rms pulse width.
6. The 3-dB optical bandwidth B3 dB is defined as the modulation
frequency f3 dB at which the received optical power has fallen to 0.5
of the zero frequency value.
7. Total system rise time is given as
tsys = [ ttx2  tmod
2 2
 tGVD  trx2 ]1/ 2
where, tmod = rise time resulting from modal dispersion
ttx = transmitter rise time
tGVD = rise time due to group-velocity-dispersion
trx = receiver rise time

b. Explain the necessity of preamplifier in optical receiver.

Mention the types of preamplifier and explain the working
of any one of them.
Ans.
A. Necessity :
Initial amplification is performed in the preamplifier circuit where
it is essential that additional noise is kept to a minimum in order to
avoid corruption of the received signal.
B. Types : There are three basic preamplifier structures :
i. Low impedance.
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ii. High impedance.
iii. Trans impedance front end.
Low input impedance preamplifier :
1. The simplest preamplifier structure is the low input impedance
voltage amplifier.
2. This design is usually implemented using a bipolar transistor
configuration because of the high input impedance of FETs.
3. The common emitter and the grounded emitter (without an emitter
resistor) amplifier shown in Fig. 2 are favoured connections, as
they may be designed with reasonably low input impedance and
therefore give operation over a moderate bandwidth without the
need for equalization.
4. However, this is achieved at the expense of increased thermal
noise due to the low effective load resistance presented to the
detector.
5. Nevertheless, it is possible to reduce the thermal noise contribution
of this preamplifier by choosing a transistor with characteristics
which give a high current gain as a low emitter current in order to
maintain the bandwidth of the stage.
6. Also, an inductance may be inserted at the collector to provide
partial equalization for any integration performed by the stage.
7. The alternative connection giving very low input impedance is the
common base circuit.
8. Unfortunately, this configuration has input impedance which gives
insufficient power gain when connected to the high impedance of
the optical detector.
9. The preferred preamplifier configurations for low noise operation
use either a high impedance integrating front end or a trans
impedance amplifier.
+ V CC

V out
p-i-n photodiode

Fig. 8. A p-i-n photodiode with a grounded emitter,

low input impedance voltage preamplifier.
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6. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Explain avalanche photodiode and also explain effect of
temperature on avalanche gain.
Ans.
A. Principle of APD :
1. The second major type of optical communication detector is
avalanche photodiode.
hf
E field

n
p Gain region
Absorption
i region
Electron
p+ Ionizing collision
Hole
Load
( a) X (b )
Fig. 9. (a) Avalanche photodiode showing high electric field (gain)
region. (b) Carrier pair multiplication in the gain region.
2. The depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and
the primary carrier pairs generated there is a high field region in
which holes and electrons can acquire sufficient energy to excite
new electrons hole pairs.
3. This process is known as impact ionization and is the phenomenon
that leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse biased diodes.
hf
n+
Metal contact
SiO2 Guard ring
Depletion region
p
p+
Fig. 10. Structure of a silicon avalanche photodiode with guard ring.
4. Carrier multiplication factors as great as 104 may be obtained using
defect free materials to ensure uniformity of carrier multiplication
over the entire area.
5. Operation of these devices at high speed requires full depletion in
the absorption region.
6. When carriers are generated in undepleted material, they are
collected somewhat slowly by the diffusion process.
B. Temperature effect on avalanche gain :
1. The gain mechanism of an avalanche photodiode is very temperature
sensitive because of temperature dependence of the electron and
hole ionization rates.
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2. This temperature dependence is particularly critical at high bias
voltage, where small changes in temperature can cause large
variations in gain.
3. Let us consider an example for a silicon avalanche photodiode. If
the operating temperature decreases and applied bias voltage is
kept constant, the ionization rates for electrons and holes will
increase and so will be the avalanche gain.
4. To maintain a constant gain as the temperature changes, the
electric field in the multiplying region of the p-n junction must
also be changed.
5. This requires that the receiver incorporate a compensation circuit
which adjusts the applied bias voltage on the photo detector when
the temperature changes.
1
M=
1  (V / VB )n
1000 67
23 46
500 0
Temperature (°C)

200
Current gain

+
100 Silicon n + – p –  – p
avalanche
50 photodiode

20
10

1
0 200 300 400
Voltage (V)
Fig. 11.

b. Explain the working of semiconductor laser. What is

threshold condition for lasing action ?
Ans. Semiconductor laser : The general operation of Laser are as
follows :
Absorption :
1. The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete energy
packets called quanta or photons.
2. The quantum theory suggests that atoms exist only in discrete
energy states such that absorption and emission of light causes
them to make a transition from one discrete energy state to another.
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3. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related as
the difference in energy between the higher energy state E2 and
lower energy state E1 by the expression :
E = E2 – E1 = hf
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js

E2 Initial State Final State

Absorption
E1
Fig. 12.
4. Fig. 12 illustrates a two energy state where an atom is initially in
lower energy state E1.
5. When a photon with energy (E2 – E1) is incident on the atom it may
be excited into the higher energy state E2 through absorption of the
photon. This process is referred as stimulated absorption of photon.
6. When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2 it can make
a transition to the lower energy state E1 providing the emission of
a photon.
7. The emission process can occur in two ways :
a. spontaneous emission
b. stimulated emission
E2
Spontaneous
emission
E1 (a)
E2
Stimulated
emission
E1 (b )
Fig. 13.
8. From Fig. 13 it is observed that in spontaneous emission atom from
higher energy state returns to lower energy state in an entirely
random manner whereas in stimulated emission, a photon having
an energy equal to (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom in the higher
energy state causing it to return to the lower state with the creation
of a second photon.
B. Threshold condition for lasing action :
1. Steady state condition is reached when the gain in the amplifying
medium exactly balances the losses.
2. Though population inversion is necessary for oscillation to be
established, in addition a minimum or threshold gain is also required.
3. All losses due to transmission through the mirror may be included
in a single loss coefficient  per cm.
4. Let assume the amplifying medium occupies a length L completely
filling the region between the two mirrors which have reflectivities
r1 and r2.
Optical Communication SP–21 D (EC-Sem-5)
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5. On each round trip beam passes through the medium twice. Hence
the fractional loss experienced by the light beam is
Fractional loss = r1r2 exp (– 2L) ...(1)
6. If the gain coefficient per cm is g, the fractional gain in the round
trip is
Fractional gain = exp (2gL) ...(2)
7. Hence exp (2gL) × r1r2 exp (– 2L) = 1
and r1r2 exp [2L(g – )] = 1 ...(3)
Threshold gain gth per cm may be obtained by rearranging the
expression
1 1
gth =  +ln
2L r1r2
The second term on RHS represents transmission loss through
mirrors.

7. Write a note on any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Front end amplifier.
Ans.
1. This configuration mainly overcomes the drawbacks of the high
impedance front end by utilizing a low noise, a high input impedance
amplifier with negative feedback.
2. This device operates as a current mode amplifier where the high
input impedance is reduced by negative feedback.

it

Rr
–
~ –G
Va +

idet RTL Cr ia Vin Vout

Fig. 14. An equivalent circuit for the optical fiber receiver

incorporating a transimpedance (current mode) preamplifier.
3. In the above equivalent circuit, the parallel resistances and
capacitances are combined into RTL and CT.

b. Homodyne detection.
Ans. Homodyne detection :
1. When the signal carrier and local oscillator frequencies are equal,
that is, when IF = 0, we have the special case of homodyne detection.
P(t) = Ps + PLO + 2 Ps PLO cos (t) cos ( t)
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–22 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2. Thus one can use either OOK [varying the signal level Ps while
keeping (t) constant] or PSK [varying the phase s(t) of the signal
and keeping Ps constant] modulation schemes to transmit
information.
3. Since PLO >> Ps and PLO is constant, the last term on the right hand
side of contains the transmitted information.
4. Homodyne detection brings the signal directly to the baseband
frequency, so that no further electrical demodulation is required.
5. Homodyne receivers yield the most sensitive coherent systems.
6. However, they are also the most difficult to build, since the local
oscillator must be controlled by an optical phase locked loop.


Optical Communication SP–1 D (EC-Sem-5)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2018-19
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

Notes : Attempt all sections. Assume any missing data.

SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. State Goos-Hanchen effect.

b. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light

guides ?

c. What are step index and graded index fibers ?

d. What is pulse broadening ?

e. Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of LED.

f. What is threshold current density of LASER ?

g. What type of noise is present in optical receiver ?

h. Define Avalanche effect.

i. What are the methods used for error detection and

correction in an optical link design ?

j. Write a short note on power penalties.

SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)
a. What do you mean by acceptance angle of an optical fiber ?
Derive an expression for numerical aperture of optical fiber.
A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to
be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive
index of 1.5 and cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine
critical angle at core cladding interface, NA (Numerical
aperture) for the fiber and Acceptance angle.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–2 D (EC-Sem-5)
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b. Describe the mechanism of intermodal dispersion in a
multimode step index fiber. Show that the total broadening
of light pulse T S due to intermodal dispersion in a
L( NA)2
multimode step index fiber may be given by TS =
2 cn1
where L is the fiber length, NA is numerical aperture, n1 is
the core refractive index and c is the velocity of light.

c. Discuss heterojunction in light emitting diode (LED).

Explain the efficiency and modulation capability of LED.

d. Explain the physical principle of APD. What is the

temperature effect on Avalanche gain ? Describe Automatic
gain control using Op-Amp.

e. Draw and explain avalanche photodiode receiver and derive

expression for SNR.

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Sketch the block diagram of optical fiber communication
system. With the suitable ray diagram, explain the
propagation of skew rays in the optical waveguide and
compare it with meridional rays.

b. What is phase velocity and group velocity ? Derive the

relation between group velocity and group index of the
guide.

4. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Describe with the aid of simple ray diagrams :
i. The multimode step index fiber,
ii. The single mode step index fiber.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these two
types of fiber for use as an optical channel.

b. What is Modal Birefringence ? The beat length in a single-

mode optical fiber is 9 cm when light from an injection
laser with a spectral line width of 1 m and a peak
wavelength of 0.9 µm is launched into it. Determine the
modal birefringence and estimate the coherence length in
this situation. In addition calculate the difference between
the propagation constants for the two orthogonal modes
and check the result.
Optical Communication SP–3 D (EC-Sem-5)
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5. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Explain the working principle of LED. How the quantum
efficiency of LED is defined ? List out various parameters
which are needed to be optimized for getting maximum
output power from the LED.

b. Explain the principle of semiconductor lasers and, draw

the emission characteristic. A ruby laser contains a crystal
length 4 cm with refractive index of 1.78. The peak emission
wavelength from the device is 0.55 m. Determine the
number of longitudinal modes and their frequency
separation.

6. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Discuss the various factors which effect the launching of
optical signal into fiber. Determine the power coupled into
step index fiber whose n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46, if surface emitting
LED radiates 150 W of power.

b. Explain the working of PIN photodiode. A PIN photodiode

has a quantum efficiency of 55 % at a wavelength of
0.9 m. Calculate :
i. Its responsivity at 0.9 m.
ii. The received optical power if the mean photocurrent is
10 – 8 A.
iii. The corresponding number of received photons at this
wavelength.

7. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Define bit error rate (BER) of digital optical receiver. Obtain
its expres sion for binary receiver ass uming nois e
distribution to be Gaussian.

b. Draw a block diagram and explain the principle of coherent

detection method in optical fiber.


Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–4 D (EC-Sem-5)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2018-19)

Notes : Attempt all sections. Assume any missing data.

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)

a. State Goos-Hanchen effect.
Ans.
1. The phase change incurred with the total internal reflection of a
light beam on a planar dielectric interface may be understood from
physical observation.
2. Careful examination shows that the reflected beam is shifted
laterally from the trajectory predicted by simple ray theory analysis,
as illustrated in Fig. 1.
3. This lateral displacement is known as the Goos-Hanchen shift,
after its first observer.
Virtual reflecting plane

Reflecting n2 Penetration
interface depth
n1 > n2
1 1

Lateral shift
Fig. 1. The lateral displacement of a light beam on reflection at a
dielectric interface (Goos-Haenchen shift).

b. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light

guides ?
Ans. The optical fiber is a device which works on the principle of total
internal reflection (TIR) by which light signals can be transmitted
from one end to another with a negligible loss.

c. What are step index and graded index fibers ?

Ans. Step index fibers : A step index fiber is one for which the refractive
index of core n1 is constant and is larger than the refractive index of
cladding n2.
Graded index fibers : A graded index fiber is the one for which
the refractive index of core n1 is not constant but decreasing with
radial distance from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant
value n2 beyond the core radius, a in cladding.

d. What is pulse broadening ?

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Ans. Pulse broadening is defined as the spreading of the light pulses as
they travel downs the fiber.

e. Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of LED.

Ans. Advantages :
i. Simple fabrication.
ii. Reliability.
iii. Generally less temperature dependent.
iv. Simpler drive circuitry.
Disadvantages :
i. Generally lower optical power coupled into a fiber.
ii. Usually lower modulation bandwidth.
iii. Harmonic distortion.

f. What is threshold current density of LASER ?

Ans. Threshold current density is defined as the current per unit area
required to reach the lasing threshold.

g. What type of noise is present in optical receiver ?

Ans.
i. Thermal noise.
ii. Dark current noise.
iii. Quantum noise.

h. Define Avalanche effect.

Ans. Avalanche effect is the sudden rapid increase in the current in a
non-conducting material (insulator) or semiconducting material
(semiconductor) when a sufficient amount of electrical force is
applied to the material.

i. What are the methods used for error detection and

correction in an optical link design ?
Ans.
A. Error correction methods :
i. Automatic repeat request.
ii. Forward error correction.
B. Error detection methods :
i. Linear-error detection code.
ii. Polynomial codes.

j. Write a short note on power penalties.

Ans. When any impairment effect is present in a link, there is a reduction
in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of system from ideal case, the reduction
in SNR is known as power penalty.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–6 D (EC-Sem-5)
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SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. What do you mean by acceptance angle of an optical fiber ?
Derive an expression for numerical aperture of optical fiber.
A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to
be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive
index of 1.5 and cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine
critical angle at core cladding interface, NA (Numerical
aperture) for the fiber and Acceptance angle.
Ans.
A. Acceptance Angle : The maximum angle to the axis at which light
may enter into the fiber in order to be propagate, and is referred as
the acceptance angle.
B. Derivation of Numerical Aperture :
1. In the Fig. 2, it is observed that a light ray incident on the fiber core
at an angle 1 is less than the acceptance angle a .
Air (n0)
n2

n1
A C

B n2

Fig. 2. The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical
fiber in air at an input angle less than the acceptance angle for the fiber.
2. The ray enters into the fiber from a medium of air having refractive
index n0, and the fiber core has refractive index n1.
3. The refractive index n1 is greater than the cladding refractive index
n2.
4. By considering the refraction at the air-core interface and using
Snell’s law, we get
n0 sin 1 = n1 sin 2 ...(1)
5. Considering the right-angled triangle ABC, the

=  2 ...(2)
2
Here  is greater than the critical angle at core-cladding interface.
6. Eq. (1) can be written as
n0 sin  = n1 cos  ...(3)
7. By using relationship sin2 + cos2 = 1, above equation can be written
as
n0 sin 1 = n1 (1 – sin2)1/2 ...(4)
8. When the limiting case of total internal reflection is consider, 
becomes equal to critical angle for core cladding interface. In this
case 1 becomes the acceptance angle a. Therefore
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2
n 
n0 sin a = n1 1   2  ...(5)
 n1 
n0 sin a = (n12 – n22)1/2 ...(6)
9. Thus the NA is defined as the light capturing capability that can be
accepted by a fiber.
NA = n0 sin a = (n12 – n22)1/2 ...(7)
10. The numerical aperture may also be given in terms of relative
refractive index difference  between the core and cladding i.e.,
n1 2  n2 2
= ...(8)
2 n12
n n
 1 2 for  << 1 ...(9)
n1
11. Hence combining eq. (7) with eq. (9), we get
NA = n1 (2 )1/2
Numerical :
Given : n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.47
To Find : Critical angle, NA, acceptance angle.
i. Critical angle to core cladding interface,
n 1.47 
c = sin – 1  2   sin 1  = 78.52°
 n1   1.5 
2
ii. NA =n12  n22  1.5  (1.47)2 = 0.298
iii. Acceptance angle,A = sin–1 (NA) = sin–1(0.298) = 17.36°

b. Describe the mechanism of intermodal dispersion in a

multimode step index fiber. Show that the total broadening
of light pulse T S due to intermodal dispersion in a

L( NA)2
multimode step index fiber may be given by TS =
2 cn1
where L is the fiber length, NA is numerical aperture, n1 is
the core refractive index and c is the velocity of light.
Ans.
Cladding (n 2)
Air (n 0 = 1)
 c Axial ray Core (n 1)
a Extreme meridional ray

Fig. 3. The paths taken by the axial and an extreme meridional ray
in a perfect multimode step index fiber.
1. Let us consider a ray diagram showing the axial and an extreme
meridional ray in a perfect multimode step index fiber.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–8 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2. The delay difference between these two rays when travelling in
the fiber core allows estimation of the pulse broadening resulting
from intermodal dispersion within the fiber.
3. As both rays are travelling at the same velocity within the constant
refractive index fiber core, then the delay difference is directly
related to their respective path lengths within the fiber.
4. The time taken for the axial ray to travel along a fiber of length L
gives the minimum delay time Tmin as
L Ln1
T min = = ...(1)
(c / n1 ) c
where n1 is the refractive index of the core and c is the velocity of
light in vacuum.
5. The extreme meridional ray exhibits the maximum delay time Tmax
where
L / cos  Ln1
Tmax = = ...(2)
c / n1 c cos 
6. Using Snell’s law of refraction at core-cladding interface
n2
sin c = = cos  ...(3)
n1
where n2 = refractive index of cladding
Putting the value of eq. (3) in eq. (2)
Ln1 Ln1 2
Tmax = = ...(4)
c ( n2 / n1 ) cn2
7. The delay difference TS between the extreme meridional ray and
axial ray may be obtained
as :
TS = Tmax – Tmin
Ln12 Ln1 Ln12  n1 n2 
=  = ...(5)
cn2 c cn2  n1 
Ln12 
 when  << 1
cn2
where  is the relative refractive index difference
8. When  << 1, the relative refractive index difference may be given as :
n1  n2
=
n2
Ln1  n1  n2  Ln1 
Thus TS = 
c  n2  c
2
L  NA 
Thus TS =
2n1 c
where NA is the numerical aperture for the fiber.
Optical Communication SP–9 D (EC-Sem-5)
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9. The expression of delay difference is usually employed to estimate
the maximum pulse broadening in time due to intermodal dispersion
in multimode step index fibers.
10. The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion is given as :
Ln1 
S = .
2 3c

c. Discuss heterojunction in light emitting diode (LED).

Explain the efficiency and modulation capability of LED.
Ans.
A. Heterojunction LED :
1. The principle of operation of the DH LED is shown in Fig. 4.
2. The device shown consists of a p-type GaAs layer sandwiched
between a p-type AlGaAs and an n-type AlGaAs layer.
3. When a forward bias is applied, electrons from n-type layer are
injected through the p-n-junction into the p-type GaAs layer where
they become minority carriers.
4. These carriers diffuse away from the junction, recombining with
majority carriers. Photons are therefore produced with energy
corresponding to the bandgap energy of the p-type GaAs layers.
5. The injected electrons are inhibited from diffusing into the p-type
AlGaAs layer because of the potential barrier presented by the p–p
heterojunction.
6. Hence electroluminescence only occurs in GaAs junction layer,
providing both good internal quantum efficiency and high radiance
emission.
Al Ga 1–x As GaAsAlx Ga1–x As

+ Optical
output

Hetero junctions
p p n
(a )
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–10 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Injection
electrons
h

Holes

(b )
Fig. 4. (a) The double heterojunction LED, layer structure.
(b) The corresponding energy band diagram.
B. Efficiency :
1. The internal quantum efficiency (int) is defined as the ratio of
radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
Rr
int =
Rr  Rnr
where,
Rr = radiative recombination rate.
Rnr = non-radiative recombination rate.
n
2. If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, r = , and
Rr
non-radiative life time,
n
nr = .
Rnr
3. The internal quantum efficiency is given as
1
int =
R
1  nr
Rr
1
int =

1 r
 nr
4. The recombination time of carriers in active region is t. It is also
known as bulk recombination life time.
1 1 1
= 
  r  nr
Therefore, internal quantum efficiency is given as :

int =
r
5. If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge,
then total number of recombination per second is :
I
Rr + Rnr =
q
Optical Communication SP–11 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Rr
int =
I/q
I
Rr = int 
q
6. Optical power generated internally in LED is given as :
Pint = Rr . h
 I
Pint =  int   h
 q
 I c
Pint =  int   h
 q 
hcI
Pint = int 
q
7. The external quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted
power.
The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons
emitted from LED to the number of photons generated internally.
It is given by equation :
1
ext =
n(n  1)2
8. The optical output power emitted from LED is given as:
P = hext . Pint
1
P= Pint
n(n  1)2
C. Modulation Capability : The various characteristics of LED are
as follows :
i. Optical output power :
1. The ideal light output power against current characteristics for an
LED is shown in Fig. 5. It is linear corresponding to the linear part
of injection laser optical power output characteristics before lasing
occurs.
Light output
(power)

Current
Fig. 5. An ideal light output against current characteristics for and LED.
2. The LED is a very linear device in comparison with the majority of
injection Lasers and hence it tends to be more suitable for analog
transmission where several constraints are put on the linearity of
the optical source.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–12 D (EC-Sem-5)
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ii. Modulation bandwidth :
1. The modulation bandwidth in optical communication may be defined
in either electrical or optical terms. It is more convenient to find the
electrical signal power with the variation of modulated portion of
the optical signal.
2. As the optical sources operate on dc, we consider the high frequency
3 dB point. The modulation bandwidth being the frequency range
between zero and this high frequency 3 dB point.
3. If 3 dB bandwidth of modulated optical carrier is considered, an
increased value for the modulation bandwidth is obtained.
Current ratio
1.0 Electrical 3 dB point
Iout Optical 3 dB point
0.707
Iin
0.500

Electrical bandwidth Frequency

Optical bandwdith
Fig. 6. The frequency response for an optical fiber system showing
the electrical and optical bandwidths.
4. The modulation bandwidth of LEDs is generally determined by
three mechanisms.
a. The doping level in the active layer.
b. The reduction in radiative lifetime due to the injection carrier.
c. The parasitic capacitance of device.
iii. Reliability :
1. LEDs are not affected by catastrophic degradation mechanisms
which can severely affect injection Lasers.
2. Maximum LED operational time is expressed as
failure
RF = BF TF EF QF 
1  106 hr
where RF = reliability factor
BF = base failure rate
EF = environment factor
QF = quality factor

d. Explain the physical principle of APD. What is the

temperature effect on Avalanche gain ? Describe Automatic
gain control using Op-Amp.
Ans.
A. Principle of APD :
1. The second major type of optical communication detector is
avalanche photodiode.
2. The depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and
the primary carrier pairs generated there is a high field region in
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which holes and electrons can acquire sufficient energy to excite
new electrons hole pairs.
3. This process is known as impact ionization and is the phenomenon
that leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse biased diodes.
B. Temperature effect on avalanche gain :
1. The gain mechanism of an avalanche photodiode is very temperature
sensitive because of temperature dependence of the electron and
hole ionization rates.
2. This temperature dependence is particularly critical at high bias
voltage, where small changes in temperature can cause large
variations in gain.
3. Let us consider an example for a silicon avalanche photodiode. If
the operating temperature decreases and applied bias voltage is
kept constant, the ionization rates for electrons and holes will
increase and so will be the avalanche gain.
4. To maintain a constant gain as the temperature changes, the
electric field in the multiplying region of the p-n junction must
also be changed.
5. This requires that the receiver incorporate a compensation circuit
which adjusts the applied bias voltage on the photo detector when
the temperature changes.
1
M=
1  (V / VB )n
1000 67
23 46
500 0
Temperature (°C)

200
Current gain

+
100 Silicon n+ – p –  – p
avalanche
50 photodiode

20
10

1
0 200 300 400
Voltage (V)
Fig. 7.
C. Automatic gain control using Op-Amp :
1. An AGC is a form by which multiplication factor can be held
constant. The advantage of using AGC is that it reduces the dynamic
range at the receiver input.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–14 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2. One simple method of providing AGC is to bias Avalanche photodiode
(APD) with a constant d.c. current source bias, as shown in Fig. 8.
APD bias supply.

R1

C APD

Amp

Fig. 8.
3. In this constant current source is decoupled with capacitor C at all
frequencies to prevent gain modulation.
4. When the mean optical input power is known, the mean current to
the APD is defined by the bias which gives a constant multiplication
factor at all temperatures.
5. Any variation in the multiplication factor will produce a variation in
charge on C.
6. The output current from the photodetector is defined by input
current from the constant current source giving full automatic
gain control, thus this simple AGC technique is dependent on a
constant, mean optical input power level and takes no account of
dark current generated within detector.
+HV
Comparator
high voltage
regulator

Output
Amp

Fig. 9. Bias of an APD by peak detection and

feedback to provide AGC.

e. Draw and explain avalanche photodiode receiver and derive

expression for SNR.
Ans.
A. Avalanche photodiode receiver :
1. The second major type of optical communication detector is
avalanche photodiode.
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hf
E field

n
p Gain region
Absorption
i region
Electron
p+ Ionizing collision
Hole
Load
( a) X (b )
Fig. 10. Avalanche photodiode showing high electric field (gain)
region. (b) Carrier pair multiplication in the gain region.
2. The depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and
the primary carrier pairs generated there is a high field region in
which holes and electrons can acquire sufficient energy to excite
new electrons hole pairs.
3. This process is known as impact ionization and is the phenomenon
that leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse biased diodes.
hf
n+
Metal contact
SiO2 Guard ring
Depletion region
p
p+
Fig. 11. Structure of a silicon avalanche photodiode with guard ring.
4. Carrier multiplication factors as great as 104 may be obtained using
defect free materials to ensure uniformity of carrier multiplication
over the entire area.
5. Operation of these devices at high speed requires full depletion in
the absorption region.
6. When carriers are generated in undepleted material, they are
collected somewhat slowly by the diffusion process.
B. Expression for SNR :
1. The origin of avalanche excess noise in APD is the difference in
ionization of electrons and holes.
2. The ratio of the actual noise generated in an avalanche photodiode
to the noise that would exist if all carrier pairs were multiplied by
exactly M is called the excess noise factor F, which is determined by
the following formula :
 1
F = kAM + (1 – kA)  2  
 M
where kA is the ratio of the electron and hole ionization rates.
3. The shot noise in an APD is
is2 ( APD) = M2 [2eF (I*P) (BW)]
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4. For dark-current noise the value of F is very small. Thermal noise,
on the other hand, does not depend on current and, therefore, is
not changed by the ionization process. This is because thermal
noise is created on resistors.
5. As a result, then, for the formula for the RMS value of an APD’s
thermal-noise current is :
 4 K BT 
it(APD) =  R  ( BW )
L

6. Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio for an APD can be written as :

* 2

SNR (APD) =
I *2
p

M I  p
2
Inoise i
2
s  it2 
M 2 I *2
p
SNR =
 2 * 4 K BT 
 2eM I p  R  BW
 L 
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Sketch the block diagram of optical fiber communication
system. With the suitable ray diagram, explain the
propagation of skew rays in the optical waveguide and
compare it with meridional rays.
Ans.
A. Block diagram of optical fiber communication system :

Information Electrical Optical Optical fiber

source transmit source cable

Optical Electrical Destination

detector receive

Optical fiber communication system

Fig. 12. The optical fiber communication system.
B. Screw rays :
1. This type of ray is transmitted without passing through fiber axis.
2. The rays which outnumber the meridional rays and follow a helical
path through the fiber are called skew rays.
3. It is very difficult to visualize the skew ray paths in two dimension.
4. From Fig. 13, it is observed that the helical path traced through the
fiber gives a change in direction of 2 at each reflection where  is
the angle between the projection of the ray in two dimensions and
radius of fiber core at the point of reflection.
Optical Communication SP–17 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Core axis

n1 n2

(a)
( b)
Fig. 13. The helical path taken by a skew ray in an optical fiber:
(a) skew ray path down the fiber (b) cross-sectional view of the fiber.
5. The point of emergence of skew rays from the fiber in air will
depend upon the number of reflections they undergo rather than
the input condition to the fiber.
6. When the light input to the fiber is non-uniform, skew rays will
tend to have smoothing effect on the distribution of the light as it is
transmitted, giving a more uniform output.
7. The amount of smoothing is dependent on the number of reflections
encountered by the skew rays.
8. The acceptance conditions for skew rays are :
n0 sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA
9. When n0 = 1
sin as cos  = (n12 – n22)1/2 = NA
C. Comparison between meridional rays and skew rays :
S. No. Skew rays Meridional rays
1. This type of ray transmitted This type of ray enters the core
without passing through and passes through its axis.
fiber axis.
2. These types of rays are not The se rays are co nfined to
confined to single plane, but meridian planes of the fiber which
instead tend to follow a helical are the planes that contain the
type path alone the fiber. axis of symmetry of the fiber.
3. These rays are difficult to As these rays lies in a single plane
locate as they are confined to its path is easy to track as it travels
single plane. along the fiber.

b. What is phase velocity and group velocity ? Derive the

relation between group velocity and group index of the
guide.
Ans.
1. A monochromatic light wave propagates along a waveguide in the
z direction these points of constant phase travel at a phase velocity
vp given by :
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–18 D (EC-Sem-5)
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
vp = ...(1)

where  is the angular frequency of the wave.
2. A group of waves with closely similar frequencies propagate so that
their resultant forms a packet of waves.
3. This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the
individual waves but is observed to move at a group velocity vg
given by

vg = ...(2)

4. The group velocity is of greatest importance in the study of the
transmission characteristics of optical fibers as it relates to the
propagation characteristics of observable wave groups or packets
of light.

Envelope

Fig. 14. Combination of two waves with nearly equal frequencies.

The envelope travels at a group velocity vg.
5. If propagation in an infinite medium of refractive index n1 is
considered, then the propagation constant :
2 n1
 = n1  ...(3)
 c
where c is the velocity of light in free space.
6. We assume propagation in the z direction only and hence cos  is
equal to unity. Using eq. (3) we obtain the following relationship for
the phase velocity.
c
vp = ...(4)
n1
 d
7. Similarly, employing eq. (4), where in the limit becomes ,
 d
the group velocity :
d d
vg = .
d d
Optical Communication SP–19 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1
d  2    
=  n1   
d      
1
   1 dn1 n1 
=   
2   d 2 
c c
= =
 dn1  Ng
 n1   
 d 
The parameter Ng is known as the group index of the guide.

4. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Describe with the aid of simple ray diagrams :
i. The multimode step index fiber,
ii. The single mode step index fiber.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these two
types of fiber for use as an optical channel.
Ans.
A. Simple ray diagram :
1. A step index fiber is one for which the refractive index of core n1 is
constant and is larger than the refractive index of the cladding n2.
2. The refractive index profile for this type of fiber makes a step
change at the core-cladding interface that’s why it is named as step
index fiber.
3. The refractive index profile may be defined as :
n(r) = {n1, r < a (core)
= {n2, r  a (cladding)
4. There are two major types of step index fiber
a. Multimode step index fiber
b. Single mode step index fiber.
5. The Fig. 15 shows a multimode step index fiber and single mode
step fiber. In multimode step index fiber core diameter is around 50
m or greater, which is large enough to allow the propagation of
many modes within the fiber whereas single mode step index fiber
has a very fine thin core, so that only one mode can be propagated.
6. Multimode step index fiber allows the propagation of finite number
of guided modes along the channel.
7. The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical
parameters of the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted
light which are included in the normalized frequency V of fiber.

2a
V= n12  n2 2 ...(1)

where a = radius of the core
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–20 D (EC-Sem-5)
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r r

Refractive
index n(r) a

Core
Cladding
n1
(a)
n2
r

n(r)
a Core
Cladding
n1
n2
(b)
Fig. 15. The refractive index profile and transmission in step index
fibers : (a) multimode step index fiber ; (b) single-mode step index fiber.
 = free space wavelength.
8. The eq. (1) can also be written in form
2 a 2a
or V= NA = n1 2
 
9. Guided modes are important in optical fiber communications as
these are confined to fiber over its full length.
10. The total number of guided modes is also known as mode volume
(MS).
V2
11. For step index fiber, M S 
2
12. For single mode fiber V < 2.405 and for multimode fiber V > 2.405.
B. Comparison :
S. No. Step index fiber Grade index fiber
1. A step index fiber has a central In graded index fiber, there is no
core with uniform refractive cladding and the refractive index
index. The core is surrounded of the core is non-uniform. It is
by an outside cladding with a highest at the cente r and
uniform refractive index less decreases gradually towards the
than that of central core. outer edge.
2. Data rate is slow. Data rate is higher.
3. Coupling efficiency is Coupling efficiency is lower.
higher.
n1  n2 n12  n2 2
4. = =
n1 2n12
5. Pulse spreading by fiber Pulse spreading is less.
length is more.
Optical Communication SP–21 D (EC-Sem-5)
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b. What is Modal Birefringence ? The beat length in a single-
mode optical fiber is 9 cm when light from an injection
laser with a spectral line width of 1 m and a peak
wavelength of 0.9 µm is launched into it. Determine the
modal birefringence and estimate the coherence length in
this situation. In addition calculate the difference between
the propagation constants for the two orthogonal modes
and check the result.
Ans.
A. Modal birefringence :
1. When the light propagates through cylindrical optical fibers, the
state of polarization of the light input do not remain same.
2. There are some applications for which the state of polarization of
input light should be maintained over significant distance.
3. Thus the phenomenon of maintaining the state of polarization is
known as modal birefringence.
4. When the fibre cross-section is independent of the fibre length L in
the z direction the modal birefringence BF for fiber is given as :
( x   y )
BF = ...(1)
(2 / )
y

Linear x

Circular x
(anticlockwise)

Linear x

Circular
x
(clockwise)
y

Fig. 16. An illustration of te beat lengt in a single mode optical fibre.

where  x and y – are propagation constants for two modes along x
and y direction.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–22 D (EC-Sem-5)
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5. The difference in phase velocities causes the fiber to exhibit a linear
retardation (z) assuming that the phase coherence of two modes
components maintained is given by :
(z) = ( x –  y) L ...(2)
6. The condition for the birefringent coherence to be maintained over
a length of fiber LC is known as coherence length
c 
LC = = ...(3)
BF f BF 
where f = source frequency width
= source line width
7. When phase coherence is maintained, then
= k n1 [1 – 2(1 – b)1/2] ...(4)
leads to polarization state which is generally elliptical which varies
periodically along the fiber. This situation is shown in Fig. 16.
8. The incident linear polarization which is at 45° with respect to the
x-axis circular polarization at  = /2 and linear at  = . This
process continues through another circular polarization at  = 3/2
before returning to initial linear polarization at  = 2.
9. The characteristic length LB corresponding to this process known
as beat length.

LB =
BF
  2
LB =
( x   y ) 
2
LB =
x  y
B. Numerical :
Given : LB = 9 cm = 0.09 m,  = 1 nm,  = 0.9 m
To Find : Modal birefringence, and coherence length.
1. Modal birefringence is given by,
 0.9  10  6
BF =   10 5
LB 0.09
2. Coherence length,
2 (0.9  10  6 )2
LC =  = 81 × 102 = 8.1 km
BF  10  5  10  9

5. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain the working principle of LED. How the quantum
efficiency of LED is defined ? List out various parameters
which are needed to be optimized for getting maximum
output power from the LED.
Optical Communication SP–23 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans.
A. LED :
1. LEDs are special diodes that emit light when connected in a circuit.
2. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor p-n junction
operating under proper forward biased conditions and are capable
of emitting external spontaneous radiations in the visible range
(370 nm to 770 nm) or the nearly ultraviolet and infrared regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
3. The structure and circuit symbol of LED is shown in Fig. 17. The
two wires extending below the LED epoxy enclosure or the bulb
indicate how the LED should be connected into a circuit.

+ –

Circuit symbol
Fig. 17.
Working :
1. The negative side of an LED is indicated in two ways
i.by the flat side of the bulb and
ii.by the shorter of the two wires extending from the LED.
2. The negative lead should be connected to the negative terminal of
a battery. LED’s operate at relative low voltages between about 1
and 4 volts, and draw currents between about 10 and 40
milliamperes.
3. Voltages and current substantially above these values can melt a
LED chip.
4. The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the
semiconductor chip located in the centre of the bulb and is attached
to the top of the anvil.
5. The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p-region is
dominated by positive electric charges, and the n-region is dominated
by negative electric charges.

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

p-type p-type n-type

n-type
(negative ions Depletion (negative ions + –
and mobile holes) region and mobile holes)
VD v
(a) (b )
Fig. 18. Light radiation by the p-n junction of a semiconductor
(a) Depletion region and Depletion voltage VD; (b) Light radiation
as the result of electron-hole recombinations.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–24 D (EC-Sem-5)
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6. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the
p and n-regions.
7. Only when sufficient voltage is applied to the semiconductor chip,
can the current flow and the electrons cross the junction into the
p-region.
8. In the absence of a large enough electric potential difference
(voltage) across the LED, the junction presents an electric potential
barrier to the flow of electrons.
B. Quantum efficiency :
1. The internal quantum efficiency (int) is defined as the ratio of
radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
Rr
int =
Rr  Rnr
where,
Rr = radiative recombination rate.
Rnr= non-radiative recombination rate.
n
2. If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, r = , and
Rr
non-radiative life time,
n
nr = .
Rnr
3. The internal quantum efficiency is given as
1
int =
R
1  nr
Rr
1
int =

1 r
 nr
4. The recombination time of carriers in active region is t. It is also
known as bulk recombination life time.
1 1 1
= 
  r  nr
Therefore, internal quantum efficiency is given as :

int =
r
5. If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge,
then total number of recombination per second is :
I
Rr + Rnr =
q
Rr
int =
I/q
Optical Communication SP–25 D (EC-Sem-5)
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I
Rr = int 
q
6. Optical power generated internally in LED is given as :
Pint = Rr . h
 I
Pint =  int   h
 q
 I c
Pint =  int   h
 q 
hcI
Pint = int 
q
7. The external quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted
power.
The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons
emitted from LED to the number of photons generated internally.
It is given by equation :
1
ext =
n(n  1)2
8. The optical output power emitted from LED is given as:
P = hext . Pint
P= 1
Pint
n(n  1)2

b. Explain the principle of semiconductor lasers and, draw

the emission characteristic. A ruby laser contains a crystal
length 4 cm with refractive index of 1.78. The peak emission
wavelength from the device is 0.55 m. Determine the
number of longitudinal modes and their frequency
separation.
Ans. Principle of s emiconductor las er and emiss ion
characteristics : The general operation of Laser are as follows :
A. Absorption :
1. The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete energy
packets called quanta or photons.
2. The quantum theory suggests that atoms exist only in discrete
energy states such that absorption and emission of light causes
them to make a transition from one discrete energy state to another.
3. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related as
the difference in energy between the higher energy state E2 and
lower energy state E1 by the expression :
E = E2 – E1 = hf
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–26 D (EC-Sem-5)
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E2 Initial State Final State

Absorption
E1
Fig. 19.
4. Fig. 19 illustrates a two energy state where an atom is initially in
lower energy state E1.
5. When a photon with energy (E2 – E1) is incident on the atom it may
be excited into the higher energy state E2 through absorption of the
photon. This process is referred as stimulated absorption of photon.
6. When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2 it can make
a transition to the lower energy state E1 providing the emission of
a photon.
7. The emission process can occur in two ways :
a. spontaneous emission
b. stimulated emission
E2
Spontaneous
emission
E1 (a)
E2
Stimulated
emission
E1 (b )
Fig. 20.
8. From Fig. 20 it is observed that in spontaneous emission atom from
higher energy state returns to lower energy state in an entirely
random manner whereas in stimulated emission, a photon having
an energy equal to (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom in the higher
energy state causing it to return to the lower state with the creation
of a second photon.
B. Emission characteristics :

Output
power (P),
mW

Forward current I(mA)

ith
LED Laser action
Fig. 21. Emission characteristics.
C. Numerical :
Given : L = 0.04 m, n = 1.78,  = 0.55 m
To Find : Number of longitudinal modes, frequency.
1. The number of longitudinal modes supported within the structure
is given by
Optical Communication SP–27 D (EC-Sem-5)
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q
L=
2n
2nL 2  1.78  0.04
q=  = 0.258 × 106
 0.55  10  6
3. The frequency separation of modes is
c 3  108
f = = = 2.106 GHz
2nL 2  1.78  0.04

6. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Discuss the various factors which effect the launching of
optical signal into fiber. Determine the power coupled into
step index fiber whose n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46, if surface emitting
LED radiates 150 W of power.
Ans.
A. Various factors :
1. The launching of optical signal or optical power into a fiber depends
on various factors like numerical aperture and size of core diameter,
refractive index profile, radiance and angular power distribution of
optical source.
i. Optical power launched into fiber does not depend on the
wavelength of optical source, but only depends on its brightness
that is, its radiance. The radiated power per mode, Ps /M from a
source at a particular wavelength is given by radiance multiplied by
the square of nominal source wavelength,
Ps
= Bo2
M
Thus, twice as much power is launched into a given mode at
1300 nm than at 900 nm. Hence two identically sized sources
operating at different wavelengths but having identical radiances
will launch equal amounts of optical power into same fiber.
ii. A certain amount of optical power is lost during coupling of optical
power from source to fiber. To achieve a low coupling loss, the light
sources should be connected to a system fiber that has a nominally
identical NA and core diameter. The fiber end face should be
centered over the emitting surface of the source and is positioned
as close to it as possible.
iii. For proper launching of optical power, there should be perfect
coupling conditions between source and fiber. This can be achieved
only if refractive index of medium separating the source and fiber
end matches the refractive index n1 of the fiber core. But if the
refractive index n of this medium is different from n1 then power
coupled into fiber reduces by the factor
2
 n  n2 
R=  1
 n1  n2 
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–28 D (EC-Sem-5)
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where R is Fresnel reflection.
B. Numerical :
Given : n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46
To Find : Power coupled.
1. Emitted power by LED, Pemitted = 150 m
n1= 1.48
n2 = 1.46
2
 n  n2 
2. The Fresnel reflection, R=  1
 n1  n2 
2
 1.48  1.46 
=  = 4.63 × 10–5
 1.48  1.46 
3. Coupled power, Pcoupled = (1 – R) Pemitted
= 1.499 × 10–4 = 149.9 W

b. Explain the working of PIN photodiode. A PIN photodiode

has a quantum efficiency of 55 % at a wavelength of
0.9 m. Calculate :
i. Its responsivity at 0.9 m.
ii. The received optical power if the mean photocurrent is
10 – 8 A.
iii. The corresponding number of received photons at this
wavelength.
Ans.
A. Working of p-i-n photodiode :
1. To allow the operation at longer wavelengths where the light
penetrates more deeply into the semiconductor material, a wider
depletion region is necessary.
2. For this purpose n-type material is doped so lightly that it can be
considered intrinsic and to make a low resistance contact highly
doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p-i-n structure
where all the absorption takes place in the depletion region.
hf
E field

p Depletion region
Absorption region
n
Load x
Fig. 22. p-i-n photodiode showing combined absorption
and depletion region.
3. Fig. 23 shows the structure of two types of silicon p-i-n photodiode
for operation in the shorter wavelength band below 1.09 m.
Optical Communication SP–29 D (EC-Sem-5)
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4. The front illuminated photodiode when operating in the 0.8 to
0.9 m band requires a depletion region of between 20 and 50 m to
attain high quantum efficiency together with fast response and low
dark current.
Antireflection
p coating Metal contact
hf
Metal p+
contact hf
SiO2 i
Depletion
i n+
layer
n+
(a) Antireflection Reflection coating
coating ( b)
Fig. 23. (a) Structure of a front illuminated silicon p-i-n photodiode
(b) Structure of a side illuminated (parallel to junction) p-i-n photodiode.
B. Numerical :
Given :  = 55 % = 0.55,  = 0.9 m
To Find : Responsivity, received optical power, number of received
photons.

q   
i. Responsivity, R =   (nm)
h  1248 
0.55
R=  900 = 0.396 A/W
1248
I
ii. R= P
Pop
IP 10 8
 Pop=  = 2.52 × 10–8 W
R 0.396
hc 6.62  1034  3.0  108
iii. Pop = n =n
 0.9  10 6
– 8
2.52 × 10 = n × 22.067 × 10 –20

n = 1.1443 × 1011

7. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Define bit error rate (BER) of digital optical receiver. Obtain
its expres sion for binary receiver ass uming nois e
distribution to be Gaussian.
Ans.
1. We assume that the average received power is equal to P1 when
the symbol 1 is transmitted and to P0 when the symbol 0 is
transmitted. Since some noise contributions depend on the received
optical power, the photocurrent fluctuations are also functions of
the transmitted symbol.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–30 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2. The output photocurrent i fluctuates from one bit to another,
around an average value 1 with the variance 1 when the symbol
1 is transmitted and 0 with the variance 0 when the symbol 0 is
transmitted.
3. At the decision time tD determined by the clock recovery circuit,
the decision circuit compares the observed current value i with a
threshold value iD.
4. When i is found to be above the threshold value in the firm decision
that a 1 is transmitted can be made.
5. When i is found to be below the threshold value iD the firm decision
can be made that a 0 is transmitted.
6. Fig. 24 shows the probability distributions of the photocurrent for
the two transmitted symbols.
7. When, due to the signal and receiver noises, i is found above the
threshold value iD whereas the symbol 0 has been transmitted, an
error occurs. In the same way, when i is found below the threshold
value iD whereas the symbol 1 has been transmitted, an error also
occurs.
8. Both of these two error sources degrade the performance of the
communication system.
9. The performance of a digital communication system is expressed
in terms of bit error probability, also called the bit error ratio
(BER), defined as the ratio of the number of wrong decisions to
the number of transmitted bits :
BER = p(1)p(0/1) + p(0)p( 1 /0) ...(1)
P 0(i)

Symbol ‘0’
transmitted

P(1/0)

i
<i0> ID

P 1(i)
Symbol ‘1’
transmitted

P(1/0)

i
iD <i >
1
Fig. 24. Probability distributions of the photocurrent for the two
transmitted symbols and selection of the decision thresholds.
Optical Communication SP–31 D (EC-Sem-5)
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10. In which P(1) and P(0) are the probabilities of transmitting 1 and
0 respectively and P(0/1) is the probability of deciding that 0 is
received when 1 is transmitted, and P(1/0) is the probability of
deciding 1 when 0 is transmitted.
11. The two products express the two joint probabilities to make a
wrong decision. The bit error ratio is also frequently referred to as
the bit error rate.
12. A binary message is more informative when the symbols 1 and 0
have the same probability to occur so that P(1) = P(0) = {1/2}. The
BER is thus given by :
1
BER = [P(0/1) + P(1/0)] ...(2)
2
13. Both the average and the variance of the photocurrent are different
for bit 1 and bit 0. Using a Gaussian model, the probabilities P(0/1)
and P(1/0) are written as :
iD
1  (i   1 )2  1  1  iD 
p(0/1) =
1 2
 exp  
 212 
 di  erfc 
2  1 2 
...(3)
iD
1  (i   0 )2  1  iD   0 
p(1/0) =  exp   di  erfc 
1 2  202  2  0 2 
...(4)
14. In which erfc(x) = 1 – erf(x) is the complementary error function
defined as :

2 2
erfc(x) =  exp [  u ] du ...(5)
 x
15. Putting the value of P(0/1) and P(1/0) in eq. (2), we get
1  iD  0   1  iD  
BER =  erfc    erfc  
4   0 2   1 2  

b. Draw a block diagram and explain the principle of coherent

detection method in optical fiber.
Ans.
1. In coherent detection techniques the light is treated as a carrier
medium which can be amplitude, frequency or phase modulated
similar to the methods used in microwave radio systems.
2. The key principle of the coherent detection technique is to provide
gain to the incoming optical signal by combining or mixing it with a
locally generated continuous wave (CW) optical field.
3. The term mixing means that when two waves which have
frequencies 1 and 2 are combined, the result will be other waves
with frequencies equal to 21, 22 and 1 ± 2.
4. For coherent light wave systems, all frequency components except
1 – 2 are filtered out at the receiver. The device used for creating
the CW signal is a narrow linewidth Laser called a local oscillator
(LO).
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–32 D (EC-Sem-5)
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5. The electric field of the transmitted optical signal to be a plane wave
having the form
Es = As cos [st + s(t)]
where As is the amplitude of the optical signal field, s is the optical
signal carrier frequency, and s(t) is the phase of the optical signal.
Transmitter
Coherent receiver
Optical fiber
Photodiode
Signal (ASK, PSK) Optical
laser coupler
(1) Modulator Amplifier Data
Filter and out
(FSK) demodulator
IF signal
Data in Local-oscillator (1– 2)
Laser (z)
Fig. 25. Fundamental concept of coherent lightwave system. The
three basic detection methods can have various modulation formates.
6. In a direct detection system the electrical signal coming into the
transmitter amplitude modulates the optical power level of the
light source. Thus output directly detected current is proportional
to the intensity IDD optical signal.
1 2
IDD = Es Es*  As [1  cos (2 s t  2 s )]
2
1 2
IDD = Es Es* As
2
7. At the receiving end in coherent lightwave systems, the receiver
first adds a locally generated optical wave to the incoming information
bearing signal and then detects the combination.
8. The mixing of the information bearing and local oscillator signals is
done on the surface of the photodetector (before photodetection
takes place). If the local oscillator (LO) field has the form
ELO = ALO cos [  LO t   LO ( t)]
where ALO is the amplitude of the local oscillator field, and LO and
LO(t) are the local oscillator frequency and phase, respectively,
then the detected current is proportional to the square of the total
electric field of the signal falling on the photodetector.
9. That is, the intensity Icoh(t) is
Icoh(t) = (Es + ELO)2
1 2 1 2
= As  ALO  As ALO cos [( s   LO ) t  (t)] cos (t)
2 2
where (t) = s(t) – LO(t) is the relative phase difference between
the incoming information bearing signal and the local oscillator
signal, and
Optical Communication SP–33 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Es . ELO
cos(t) =
Es ELO
represents the polarization misalignment between the signal wave
and the local oscillator wave.
10. The optical power P(t) is proportional to the intensity, at the
photodetector we then have
P(t) = Ps + PLO + 2 Ps PLO cos [( s _  LO ) t  (t)] cos (t)
where Ps and PLO are the signal and local oscillator optical powers,
respectively, with PLO >> Ps.


Optical Communication SP–1 D (EC-Sem-5)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70

Notes : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)

a. Define numerical aperture of a step index fiber.

b. What is Intramodal dispersion ?

c. What is the need of cladding ?

d. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SM fiber

and MM fiber ?

e. Define Mode-Field Diameter (MFD).

f. Define skew rays and meridional rays.

g. Define Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)

a. Draw a block diagram of fiber optic communication system
and describe the function of each component.

b. With the help of a neat block diagram, explain the principle

of working of point to point digital link.

c. What do you understand by the term external quantum

efficiency and internal quantum efficiency of a LED ?

d. Explain the working principle of PIN photodetector in detail.

e. Draw the structures of single and multimode step index

fibers and graded index fiber with their typical dimensions.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–2 D (EC-Sem-5)
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SECTION-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain Snell’s law. What is total internal reflection?
Explain with suitable diagram.

b. What do you understand by Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) ?

A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse
broadening of 0.1 s over a distance of 15 km.
Estimate :
i. The maximum possible bandwidth without ISI.
ii. Pulse dispersion per unit length.

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. What are the losses on signal attenuation mechanisms in a
fiber ? Explain in detail.

b. Explain material dispersion and waveguide dispersion in

detail.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain the working principle of LED. How the quantum
efficiency of a LED is defined ? List out various parameters
which are needed to be optimized for getting maximum
output power from the LED.

b. What types of materials are used for optical sources? What

are the advantages of double Hetrostructure ? Compare
surface emitting and edge emitting LED structures.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain avalanche photodiode and also explain effect of
temperature on avalanche gain.

b. A silicon PIN photodiode incorporated into an optical

receiver has a quantum efficiency of 60 % when operating
at a wavelength of 0.9 mm. The dark current is 3 nA and the
load resistance is 4 k. The incident optical power is 200 nW
and the post detection bandwidth of the receiver is 5 MHZ.
Calculate the root mean square (rms) shot noise and
thermal noise currents generated.

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Write a note on any one of the following :
i. Front end amplifier.
Optical Communication SP–3 D (EC-Sem-5)
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ii. Probability of error receiver sensitivity

b. Draw and explain the operation of optical receiver.


Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–4 D (EC-Sem-5)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2019-20)

Notes : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)

a. Define numerical aperture of a step index fiber.
Ans. The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is defined as the sine of the
largest angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflection
in the core.
Thus the NA is defined as,
1
NA = n0 sin a = (n12  n22 ) 2

b. What is Intramodal dispersion ?

Ans. Intramodal or chromatic dispersion is a pulse spreading that occurs
within a single mode. This dispersion is due to the fact that group
velocity of guided mode is a function of the wavelength.

c. What is the need of cladding ?

Ans. The function of the cladding is to provide a lower refractive index at
the core interface in order to cause reflection within the core so
that light waves are transmitted through the fiber.

d. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SM fiber

and MM fiber ?
Ans. Advantages of SM (Single Mode) fiber :
1. Increase bandwidth capacity.
2. Limited Data Dispersion & External Interference.
3. Fast Transmission Speed.
Disadvantages of SM fiber :
1. It is difficult to launch the light through the fiber.
2. It is more expensive.
Advantages of MM (Multimode) fiber :
1. High bandwidth and transfer rate.
2. It is less expensive.
Disadvantages of MM fiber :
1. More limited in both speed and distance.
2. As, the number of modes increases the effect of modal dispersion
increases.

e. Define Mode-Field Diameter (MFD).

Optical Communication SP–5 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans.
1. The mode-field diameter (MFD) is an important parameter for
characterizing single mode fiber properties which takes into account
the wavelength dependent field penetration into the fiber cladding.
2. For step index and graded single mode fibers the MFD is generally
taken as the distance between the opposite 1/e = 0.37 field amplitude
points and the power 1/e2 = 0.135 point.

f. Define skew rays and meridional rays.

Ans. Skew rays : The rays which greatly outnumber the meridional
rays, follow a helical path through the fiber are called skew rays.
Skew rays can’t passes through fiber axis.
Meridional rays : A meridional ray or tangential ray is a ray that
is confined to the plane containing the system’s optical axis and the
object point from which the ray originated.

g. Define Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.

Ans.
A. Rayleigh scattering :
1. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant loss mechanism in the low
absorption window between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption
tails.
2. It results from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a
small scale compared with wavelength of light.
B. Mie scattering :
1. Linear scattering may also occur at inhomogeneities which are
comparable in size to the guided wavelength. When the scattering
inhomogeneity size is greater than /10, the scattered intensity
which has an angular dependence can be made very large.
2. Thus the scattering which is mainly created by such inhomogeneities
is mainly in the forward direction and is called mie scattering.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)

a. Draw a block diagram of fiber optic communication system
and describe the function of each component.
Ans.
1. Fig.1 shows the block diagram of optical fiber communication.
2. The information source provides an electrical signal to the
transmitter, comprising of an electrical stage which drives an optical
source to give modulation of the light wave carrier.
3. The optical source is used to provide an electrical optical conversion.
It may be either a semiconductor Laser or LED.
4. The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the
receiver is an optical detector which drives the further electrical
stage and hence provides the demodulation of the optical carrier.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–6 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Information Electrical Optical Optical fiber
source transmit source cable

Optical Electrical Destination

detector receive

Optical fiber communication system

Fig. 1. The optical fiber communication system.
5. Photodiodes and in some instances photo transistors and
photoconductors may be utilized for the detection of the optical
signal and its conversion to electrical signal.
6. Thus, electrical interfacing at either end of the optical link is needed.

b. With the help of a neat block diagram, explain the principle

of working of point to point digital link.
Ans.
1. Point-to-point link is the simplest form of optical communication
link that comprises of one transmitter and a receiver system.
2. For analyzing the performance of any link following important
aspects are to be considered :
i. Distance of transmission.
ii. Channel data rate.
iii. Bit-error rate.
3. To fulfill these requirements, the designer has a choice of the
following components and their associated characteristics :
1. Multimode or single mode optical fiber :
a. Core size
b. Core refractive index profile
c. Bandwidth or dispersion
d. Attenuation
e. Numerical aperture or mode-field diameter
2. LED or Laser diode optical source :
a. Emission wavelength
b. Spectral line width
c. Output power
d. Effective radiating area
e. Emission pattern
f. Number of emitting modes
3. Pin or avalanche photodiode (Optical detector) :
a. Responsivity
b. Operating wavelength
c. Speed
d. Sensitivity
Optical Communication SP–7 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Transmitter Regenerator Regenerator Receiver

Fig. 2. Point to point fiber links.

4. When the link length extends between 20 to 100 km, losses
associated with fiber cable increases.
5. In order to compensate the losses optical amplifier and regenerators
are used over the span of fiber cable.
6. A regenerator is a receiver and transmitter pair which detects
incoming optical signal, recovers the bit stream electrically and
again convert back into optical form by modulating an optical source.
7. An optical amplifier amplifies the optical bit stream without
converting it into electrical form.

c. What do you understand by the term external quantum

efficiency and internal quantum efficiency of a LED ?
Ans.
A. External quantum efficiency :
1. The external differential quantum efficiency ext is defined as the
number of photons emitted per radiative electron hole pair
recombination above threshold.
2. Under the assumption that above threshold the gain coefficient
remains fixed at gth, hext is given by
i ( gth  )
ext = ...(1)
gth
3. Here, i is the internal quantum efficiency. This is not a well defined
quantity in Laser diodes, but most measurements show that
i  0.6 – 0.7 at room temperature.
4. Experimentally, ext is calculated from the straight line portion of
the curve for the emitted optical power P versus drive current I,
which gives
q dP dP (mW )
ext =  0.8065 ( m) ...(2)
E g dI dI (mA)
where Eg is the band–gap energy in electron–volts, dP is the
incremental change in the emitted optical power in milliwatts for
an incremental change dI in the drive current (in milliamperes),
and  is the emission wavelength in micrometers.
5. For standard semiconductor Lasers, external differential quantum
efficiencies of 15–20 percent per facet are typical. High quality
devices have differential quantum efficiencies of 30–40 percent.
B. Internal quantum efficiency :
1. The internal quantum efficiency (int) is defined as the ratio of
radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
Rr
int =
Rr  Rnr
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–8 D (EC-Sem-5)
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where,
Rr = radiative recombination rate.
Rnr = non-radiative recombination rate.
n
2. If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, r = , and
Rr
non-radiative life time,
n
nr = .
Rnr
3. The internal quantum efficiency is given as
1 1
int = =
Rnr 
1 1 r
Rr  nr
4. The recombination time of carriers in active region is t. It is also
known as bulk recombination life time.
1 1 1
= 
  r  nr
Therefore, internal quantum efficiency is given as :

int =
r

d. Explain the working principle of PIN photo detector in

detail.
Ans.
1. To allow the operation at longer wavelengths where the light
penetrates more deeply into the semiconductor material, a wider
depletion region is necessary.
2. For this purpose n-type material is doped so lightly that it can be
considered intrinsic and to make a low resistance contact highly
doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p-i-n structure
where all the absorption takes place in the depletion region.

hf
E field

p Depletion region
Absorption region
n
Load x
Fig. 3. p-i-n photodiode showing combined absorption
and depletion region.
3. Fig. 4 shows the structure of two types of silicon p-i-n photodiode
for operation in the shorter wavelength band below 1.09 m.
Optical Communication SP–9 D (EC-Sem-5)
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4. The front illuminated photodiode when operating in the 0.8 to 0.9
m band requires a depletion region of between 20 and 50 m to
attain high quantum efficiency together with fast response and low
dark current.
Antireflection
p coating Metal contact
hf
Metal p+
contact hf
SiO2 i
Depletion
i n+
layer
n+
(a) Antireflection Reflection coating
coating ( b)
Fig. 4. (a) Structure of a front illuminated silicon p-i-n photodiode
(b) Structure of a side illuminated (parallel to junction) p-i-n photodiode.

e. Draw the structures of single and multimode step index

fibers and graded index fiber with their typical dimensions.
Ans.
A. Single and multimode step index fibers :
1. A step index fiber is one for which the refractive index of core n1 is
constant and is larger than the refractive index of the cladding n2.
2. The refractive index profile for this type of fiber makes a step
change at the core-cladding interface that’s why it is named as step
index fiber.
3. The refractive index profile may be defined as :
n(r) = {n1, r < a (core)
= {n2, r  a (cladding)
4. There are two major types of step index fiber
a. Multimode step index fiber
b. Single mode step index fiber.
5. The Fig. 5 shows a multimode step index fiber and single mode step
fiber. In multimode step index fiber core diameter is around 50 m
or greater, which is large enough to allow the propagation of many
modes within the fiber whereas single mode step index fiber has a
very fine thin core, so that only one mode can be propagated.
6. Multimode step index fiber allows the propagation of finite number
of guided modes along the channel.
7. The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical
parameters of the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted
light which are included in the normalized frequency V of fiber.
2a
V= n12  n2 2 ...(1)

where a = radius of the core
 = free space wavelength.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–10 D (EC-Sem-5)
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8. The eq. (1) can also be written in form
2 a
V= NA

2a
or V= n1 2

9. Guided modes are important in optical fiber communications as
these are confined to fiber over its full length.
10. The total number of guided modes is also known as mode volume
(MS).
V2
11. For step index fiber, M S 
2
12. For single mode fiber V < 2.405 and for multimode fiber V > 2.405.
r r

Refractive
index n(r) a

Core
Cladding
n1
(a)
n2
r

n(r)
a Core
Cladding
n1
n2
(b)
Fig. 5. The refractive index profile and transmission in step
index fibers : (a) multimode step index fiber ; (b) single-mode
step index fiber.
B. Graded index fiber :
1. Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the
core but a decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance from a
maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the
core radius ‘a’ in the cladding.
2. The index variation may be represented as
n(r) = {n1 (1 – 2  (r/a))1/2 r < a (core)
= {n1 (1 – 2 )1/2 = n2 r  a (cladding)
where  is relative refractive index difference and  is a profile
parameter which gives the refractive index profile of the fiber core.
3. The equations above is a convenient method of expressing the
refractive index profile of the fiber core as a variation of  allows
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representation of the step index profile when  = , a parabolic
profile when  = 2 and a triangular profile when = 1.
4. The graded index profiles which at present produce the best results
for multimode optical propagation have a near parabolic refractive
index profile core with  2.
Refractive index (n(r))
n1

10
2

=1
n2 n2

–a Radial distance (r)

Core axis a
Fig. 6. Possible fiber refractive index profiles for different values of .
r r

n2
Refractive
index n(r) a
n1

Core
Cladding

(a) (b)
Fig. 7. The refractive index profile and ray transmission in a
multimode graded index fiber.
5. A multimode graded index fiber with a parabolic index profile core
is shown in Fig. 7. It is observed that meridional rays appear to
follow a curved path through the fiber core.
6. Using the idea of geometric optics, the gradual decrease in refractive
index from the center of the core creates much refraction of the
rays as they are effectively incident on a large number of the high
to low index interface.
7. The rays travelling close to the fiber axis have shorter paths when
compared with rays which travel into outer regions.
8. The near axial rays are transmitted through a region of higher
refractive index and therefore travel with a lower velocity than the
more extreme rays.

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain Snell’s law. What is total internal reflection?
Explain with suitable diagram.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–12 D (EC-Sem-5)
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Ans.
1. The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the
velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a medium i.e.,
n = c/v.
2. When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectric of
different refractive indices (e.g., glass-air), refraction occurs as
shown in Fig. 8.
3. The angle of incidence 1 and refraction 2 are related to each other
and to the refractive indices of dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction.

Low index n2 Exit ray n1

(air)

High index n1 Partial internal

(glass) reflection
n2

Incident ray
(a) (b)

n1

n2
(c)
Fig. 8. Light rays incident on high to low refractive index interface
(e.g. glass-air): (a) refraction; (b) the limiting case of refraction showing
the critical ray at an angle c; (c) total internal reflection where  > c.
4. It states that
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
sin 1 n
or, = 2
sin 2 n1
5. From Fig. 8(a), it is observed that a small amount of light is reflected
back into the originating dielectric medium, this phenomenon is
partial internal reflection.
6. As n1 > n2, the angle of refraction is always greater than angle of
incidence.
7. From Fig. 8(b) it is observed that when angle of refraction 2 is 90°
and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the
dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than 90°.
8. Thus the angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of
refraction in rarer medium is 90° is called critical angle.
9. It is given as,
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n2
sin c =
n1
10. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then the
light is reflected back into the originating dielectric medium then
this process is known as total internal reflection as shown in Fig.
8(c) .
11. Fig. 9 explains the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via
a series of total internal reflection. The ray has an angle of incidence
 at the interface which is greater than the critical angle and is
reflected at the same angle to the normal. This light ray is known
as meridional ray.

Low index cladding

   

High index core Core axis

Fig. 9. The transmission of a light ray in a perfect optical fiber.

b. What do you understand by Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) ?

A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse
broadening of 0.1 s over a distance of 15 km.
Estimate :
i. The maximum possible bandwidth without ISI.
ii. Pulse dispersion per unit length.
Ans. ISI :
1. Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for
both digital and analog transmission along optical fiber.
2. The major implementation of optical fiber transmission involves
some form of digital modulation then dispersion mechanisms within
the fiber cause broadening of the transmitted light pulses as they
travel along the channel. This phenomenon is shown in the Fig. 10.
3. From Fig. 10 it may be observed that each pulse broadens and
overlaps with its neighbors, eventually becomes indistinguishable
at the receiver input the effect is known as intersymbol interference
(ISI).
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–14 D (EC-Sem-5)
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(a) 1 0 1 1
Amplitude

Time

Distinguishable Pulses
(b) 1 0 1 1
Amplitude

Time
Indistinguishable
Pulses Composite Pattern
(c) Non zero level
Amplitude

Time
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Fig. 10.
Numerical :
Given :  = 0.1 s, L = 1.5 km
To Find : Maximum possible bandwidth without ISI, Pulse dispersion
per unit.
i. Maximum possible bandwidth without ISI
1 1
BT =  = 5 MHz
2 2  0.1  10 6
ii. Pulse dispersion per unit length
 0.1  10 6
=  = 6.67 ns/km
L 15

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. What are the losses on signal attenuation mechanisms in a
fiber ? Explain in detail.
Ans. The losses on signal attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are :
A. Material absorption loss :
Absorption loss is related to the material composition and fabrication
process of fiber. The absorption of the light may be intrinsic or
extrinsic.
a. Intrinsic absorption :
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1. This type of absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure
state, no density variation and inhomogeneities. This is the natural
property of the glass.
2. An absolutely pure silicate glass has little intrinsic absorption due
to its basic material structure in the near infrared region.
3. Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in UV
regions and from atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.
4. The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps
of the amorphous glass materials.
5. Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the
valence band and excites it to higher energy level.
6. Intrinsic losses are mostly insignificant in a wide region where
fiber systems can operate, but these losses inhibit the extension of
fiber systems towards the ultraviolet as well as toward longer
wavelengths.
b. Extrinsic absorption :
1. Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between
the energy levels and because of charge transitions from one ion to
another.
2. A major source of attenuation is from transition of metal impurity
ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper.
3. The presence of impurities in the fiber material is the major source
of loss in practical fibers.
4. Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption
due to water dissolved in the glass.
5. These hydroxyl groups are bonded into the glass structure and
have fundamental stretching vibrations which occur at wavelengths
between 2.7 and 4.2 m depending on group position in the glass
network.
B. Material scattering loss :
1. Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variations in the
material density, from compositional fluctuations, and defects
occurring during fiber manufacture.
2. The scattering losses can be classified as :
a. Linear Scattering losses :
1. Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of
the optical power contained within one propagating mode to be
transferred linearly into a different mode.
2. There are two types of linear scattering losses.
i. Rayleigh scattering
ii. Mie scattering
b. Non-Linear Scattering loss :
1. The non linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode
to be transferred in either the forward or backward direction to the
same or other modes at a different frequency.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–16 D (EC-Sem-5)
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2. This type of scattering are of two types :
i.Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
ii.Stimulated Raman Scattering
c. Fiber bending loss :
1. Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their
paths. This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at the bend
exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and hence the guidance
mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated
from the fiber.
2. The part of the mode which is on the outside of the bend is required
to travel faster than that on the inside so that a wavefront
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is maintained. Hence,
part of the mode in the cladding needs to travel faster than the
velocity of light in that medium.
3. The loss can generally be represented by the radiation attenuation
coefficient which is given as :
r = C1 exp (– C2R) ...(1)
where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend.
Cladding

Radiation
Core

Fig. 11. An illustration of the radiation loss at a fiber bend.

C1 C2 are constants and are independent of R.
4. Large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a critical
radius of curvature RC, which is given by

RC  3n12  ...(2)
4  ( n12  n22 )3/ 2
From above equation it is observed that potential macro bending
losses may be reduced by :
a. designing fibers with large relative refractive index difference.
b. operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
5. The critical radius of curvature for a single mode fiber RCS is given
by :
3
RCS  20    ...(3)
2.748  0.996
(n1  n2 )3/ 2   C 
where C is the cut off wavelength for the single mode fiber.
6. Thus, for single mode fiber, the critical wavelength of the radiated
light becomes progressively shorter as the bend radius is decreased.
The critical radius is called critical bending radius.
D. Losses due to leaky modes.
Optical Communication SP–17 D (EC-Sem-5)
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b. Explain material dispersion and waveguide dispersion in
detail.
Ans.
A. Material dispersion :
1. Pulse broadening due to material dispersion results from the
different group velocities of the various spectral components
launched into the fiber from the optical source.
2. It occurs when the phase velocity of a plane wave propagating in
the dielectric medium varies nonlinearly with wavelength, and a
material is said to exhibit material dispersion when the second
differential of the refractive index with respect to wavelength is
 d2 n 
not zero  i.e.,  0 .
 d 2 
3. The pulse spread due to material dispersion may be obtained by
considering the group delay g in the optical fiber which is the
reciprocal of the group velocity vg. Hence the group delay is given
by :
d 1  dn 
g =   n1   1  ...(1)
d c  d 
when n1 is the refractive index of the core material.
4. The pulse delay m due to material dispersion in a fiber of length L
is therefore :
L dn1 
m =  n1    ...(2)
C d 
5. For a source with rms spectral width  and a mean wavelength ,
the rms pulse broadening due to material dispersion m may be
obtained from the expansion of equation in a Taylor series about 
where :
d m 2d 2  m
m =     .... ...(3)
d d 2
6. As the first term in eq. (3) usually dominates, especially for sources
operating over the 0.8 to 0.9 µm wavelength range, then :
d
m =  m ...(4)
d
7. Hence the pulse spread may be evaluated by considering the
dependence of m on , where from eq. (3).
d m L  dn1 d 2 n1 dn1 
=    
d c  d d 2 d 
 L d 2 n1
= ...(5)
c d 2
8. Therefore, substituting the expression obtained in the rms pulse
broadening due to material dispersion is given by :
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–18 D (EC-Sem-5)
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 L d2 n1
m =  ...(6)
c d 2
9. The material dispersion for optical fibers is sometimes quoted as a
 d 2 n1  d 2 n1
value for  2   or
 d  2 d 2
However, it may be given in terms of a material dispersion parameter
M with is defined as :
1 dm  d 2 n1
M=  ...(7)
L d c d 2
and which is often expressed in units of ps nm–1 km–1.
B. Waveguide dispersion :
1. The waveguiding of the fiber may also create intramodal dispersion.
This results from the variation in group velocity with wavelength
for a particular mode.
2. Considering the ray theory approach it is equivalent to the angle
between the ray and the fiber axis varying with wavelength which
subsequently leads to a variation in the transmission times for the
rays, and hence dispersion.
3. For a single mode whose propagation constant is , the fiber exhibits
( d 2)
waveguide dispersion when  0.
( d 2 )
4. Multimode fibers, where the majority of modes propagate far from
cut-off, are almost free of waveguide dispersion and it is generally
negligible compared with material dispersion ( 0.1 to 0.2 ns km–1).
5. However, with single mode fibers where the effects of the different
dispersion mechanisms are not easy to separate, waveguide
dispersion may be significant.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain the working principle of LED. How the quantum
efficiency of a LED is defined ? List out various parameters
which are needed to be optimized for getting maximum
output power from the LED.
Ans.
A. LED :
1. LEDs are special diodes that emit light when connected in a circuit.
2. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor p-n junction
operating under proper forward biased conditions and are capable
of emitting external spontaneous radiations in the visible range
(370 nm to 770 nm) or the nearly ultraviolet and infrared regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
3. The structure and circuit symbol of LED is shown in Fig. 12. The
two wires extending below the LED epoxy enclosure or the bulb
indicate how the LED should be connected into a circuit.
Optical Communication SP–19 D (EC-Sem-5)
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+ –

Circuit symbol
Fig. 12.
Working :
1. The negative side of an LED is indicated in two ways
i.by the flat side of the bulb and
ii.by the shorter of the two wires extending from the LED.
2. The negative lead should be connected to the negative terminal of
a battery. LED’s operate at relative low voltages between about 1
and 4 volts, and draw currents between about 10 and 40
milliamperes.
3. Voltages and current substantially above these values can melt a
LED chip.
4. The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the
semiconductor chip located in the centre of the bulb and is attached
to the top of the anvil.
5. The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p-region is
dominated by positive electric charges, and the n-region is
dominated by negative electric charges.

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

– – – + + + – – – + + +

p-type p-type n-type

n-type
(negative ions Depletion (negative ions + –
and mobile holes) region and mobile holes)
VD v
(a) (b )
Fig. 13. Light radiation by the p-n junction of a semiconductor
(a) Depletion region and Depletion voltage VD; (b) Light radiation
as the result of electron-hole recombinations.
6. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the
p and n-regions.
7. Only when sufficient voltage is applied to the semiconductor chip,
can the current flow and the electrons cross the junction into the
p-region.
8. In the absence of a large enough electric potential difference
(voltage) across the LED, the junction presents an electric potential
barrier to the flow of electrons.
B. Quantum efficiency :
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–20 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1. The internal quantum efficiency (int) is defined as the ratio of
radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
Rr
int =
Rr  Rnr
where,
Rr = radiative recombination rate.
Rnr = non-radiative recombination rate.
n
2. If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, r = , and
Rr
non-radiative life time,
n
nr = .
Rnr
3. The internal quantum efficiency is given as
1
int =
R
1  nr
Rr
1
int =

1 r
 nr
4. The recombination time of carriers in active region is t. It is also
known as bulk recombination life time.
1 1 1
= 
  r  nr
Therefore, internal quantum efficiency is given as :

int =
r
5. If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge,
then total number of recombination per second is :
I
Rr + Rnr =
q
Rr
int =
I/q
I
Rr = int 
q
6. Optical power generated internally in LED is given as :
Pint = Rr . h
 I
Pint =  int   h
 q
 I c
Pint =  int   h
 q 
Optical Communication SP–21 D (EC-Sem-5)
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hcI
Pint = int 
q
7. The external quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted
power.
The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons
emitted from LED to the number of photons generated internally.
It is given by equation :
1
ext =
n(n  1)2
8. The optical output power emitted from LED is given as:
P = hext . Pint
1
P= Pint
n(n  1)2
C. Parameters : The various parameters which are needed to be
optimized for getting maximum output power from the LED are :
1. center
2. 
3. d/dT
4. dPopt/dT
5. POF basic attenuation
6. change of Popt
7. effect of wavelength drift
8. effect of spectral width
9. effective loss for 50 m POF
10. change in received power

b. What types of materials are used for optical sources? What

are the advantages of double Hetro structure ? Compare
surface emitting and edge emitting LED structures.
Ans.
A. Types of materials are used for optical sources :
i. Types of materials used for LED (Optical source) are :
1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
2. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
ii. Types of materials used for edge emitting semiconductor laser diode
(Optical source) are :
1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
2. Indium Phosphide (InP)
3. Gallium Antimonide (GaSb)
4. Gallium Nitride (GaN)
B. Advantages :
1. It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance compare to
single homojunction (p – n +) LED type.
2. Emitting wavelength of GaAs/AlGaAs based DH LEDs range
approx. between 0.8 to 0.9 µm.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–22 D (EC-Sem-5)
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C. Comparison :
S. No. SLED ELED
1. Easy to fabricate. Difficult to fabricate.
2. Easy to mount and handle. Difficult to mount and handle.
3. Require less critical tolerances. N ee d critical tolerance o n
fabrication.
4. Less Reliable. Highly reliable.
5. Low system performance. High system performance.
6. Less modulation Bandwidth. Better Modulation, Bandwidth of
the order of hundreds of MHz.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain avalanche photodiode and also explain effect of
temperature on avalanche gain.
Ans.
A. Principle of APD :
1. The second major type of optical communication detector is
avalanche photodiode.
hf
E field

n
p Gain region
Absorption
i region
Electron
p+ Ionizing collision
Hole
Load
( a) X (b )
Fig. 14. (a) Avalanche photodiode showing high electric field (gain)
region. (b) Carrier pair multiplication in the gain region.
2. The depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and
the primary carrier pairs generated there is a high field region in
which holes and electrons can acquire sufficient energy to excite
new electrons hole pairs.
3. This process is known as impact ionization and is the phenomenon
that leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse biased diodes.
4. Carrier multiplication factors as great as 104 may be obtained using
defect free materials to ensure uniformity of carrier multiplication
over the entire area.
5. Operation of these devices at high speed requires full depletion in
the absorption region.
Optical Communication SP–23 D (EC-Sem-5)
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6. When carriers are generated in undepleted material, they are
collected somewhat slowly by the diffusion process.
hf
n+
Metal contact
SiO2 Guard ring
Depletion region
p
p+
Fig. 15. Structure of a silicon avalanche photodiode with guard ring.
B. Temperature effect on avalanche gain :
1. The gain mechanism of an avalanche photodiode is very temperature
sensitive because of temperature dependence of the electron and
hole ionization rates.
2. This temperature dependence is particularly critical at high bias
voltage, where small changes in temperature can cause large
variations in gain.
1000 67
23 46
500 0
Temperature (°C)

200
Current gain

+
100 Silicon n+ – p –  – p
avalanche
50 photodiode

20
10

1
0 200 300 400
Voltage (V)
Fig. 16.
3. Let us consider an example for a silicon avalanche photodiode. If
the operating temperature decreases and applied bias voltage is
kept constant, the ionization rates for electrons and holes will
increase and so will be the avalanche gain.
4. To maintain a constant gain as the temperature changes, the
electric field in the multiplying region of the p-n junction must
also be changed.
5. This requires that the receiver incorporate a compensation circuit
which adjusts the applied bias voltage on the photo detector when
the temperature changes.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–24 D (EC-Sem-5)
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1
M=
1  (V / VB )n

b. A silicon PIN photodiode incorporated into an optical

receiver has a quantum efficiency of 60 % when operating
at a wavelength of 0.9 mm. The dark current is 3 nA and the
load resistance is 4 k. The incident optical power is 200 nW
and the post detection bandwidth of the receiver is 5 MHZ.
Calculate the root mean square (rms) shot noise and
thermal noise currents generated.
Ans.
Given :  = 60 %,  = 0.9 mm, Id = 3 nA,
RL = 4 k, P0 = 200 nW, BW = 5 MHz
To Find : Root mean square (rms) shot noise current, RMS thermal
noise current.
1. The photocurrent is given by,
P0 e P0 e
Ip = 
hf hc

0.6  200  10 9  1.602  10  19  0.9  10 3

=
6.626  10 34  3  108
= 8.70 × 10 – 5 A
= 87 A = 0.087 nA
2. The total shot noise is,
2
iTS = 2eBW (Id + Ip)
= 2 × 1.602 × 10 – 19 × 5 × 106 [(3 + 0.087) × 10 – 9]
= 49.45 × 10 – 22 A2
And the root mean square (rms) shot noise current is
2 1/ 2
(iTS ) = 7.03 × 10 – 11 A
3. The thermal noise current is,

iT2 = 4 kTBW
RL
4  1.381  10 23  293  5  106
=
4  103
[Assume T = 20 °C = 293° K]
= 2.02 × 10 – 17 A2
4. Therefore, the rms thermal noise current is

(iT2 )1/ 2 = 4.49 × 10 – 9 A

Optical Communication SP–25 D (EC-Sem-5)
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7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Write a note on any one of the following :
i. Front end amplifier.
Ans.
1. This configuration mainly overcomes the drawbacks of the high
impedance front end by utilizing a low noise, a high input impedance
amplifier with negative feedback.
2. This device operates as a current mode amplifier where the high
input impedance is reduced by negative feedback.
3. In the above equivalent circuit, the parallel resistances and
capacitances are combined into RTL and CT.

it

Rr
–
~ –G
Va +

idet RTL Cr ia Vin Vout

Fig. 17. An equivalent circuit for the optical fiber receiver

incorporating a transimpedance (current mode) preamplifier.

ii. Probability of error receiver sensitivity

Ans. The performance criterion for receivers is governed by the
bit-error rate (BER), defined as the probability of incorrect
identification of a bit by the decision circuit of the receiver.
BER :
1. Bit error rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of number of errors
occurring over a time interval to the number of pulses transmitted
during the interval.
Ne
BER = ...(1)
Nt
Ne
BER = ...(2)
Bt
where,
Ne is the number of errors occurring during the interval.
Nt is the number of pulses transmitted during the interval.
B is the bit rate (1/Tb) or pulse transmission rate.
2. BER for optical fiber communication system is ranging between
10–9 to 10–12. BER of receiver depends on S/N ratio.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–26 D (EC-Sem-5)
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3. To compute the BER at receiver probability distribution of output
signal is considered.
1  V 
Pe = 1  erf  
2 2 2  
where, V is the pulse amplitude and is standard deviation.

b. Draw and explain the operation of optical receiver.

Ans.
1. A block schematic of an optical fiber receiver is shown in
Fig. 18.
2. The linear conversion of the received optical signal into an electrical
current at the detector is amplified to obtain a suitable signal level.
3. Initial amplification is performed in the pre-amplifier circuit where
it is necessary that additional noise is kept to minimum in order to
avoid corruption of the received signal.

Optical Optical Main

Pre-amplifier Equalizer Filter
signal detector amplifier
Fig. 18.
4. The main amplifier provides low noise amplification of the signal to
give an increased signal level.
5. The transfer function of pre-amplifier-main amplifier combination
may be such that the input signal becomes distorted.
6. Thus, to provide a suitable signal shape for the filter an equalizer is
used in the receiver.
7. The function of the final element in the receiver, the filter, is to
maximize the received signal to noise ratio.
8. In digital system, mainly the function of the filter is to reduce
intersymbol interference whereas in analog system it is generally
required to hold the amplitude and phase response of received
signal.
9. The filter is also designed to reduce the noise bandwidth as well as
inband noise levels.

