INSTITUTO SUPERIOR

DE CIÊNCIAS DE EDUCAÇÃO DO HUAMBO

ISCED-HUAMBO
DEPARTAMENTO DE ENSINO E INVESTIGAÇÃO DE LÍNGUAS
SECTOR DE INGLÊS

Research Methodology I

Designed by:
Ndjimi D. W. Malaka & Vasconcelos F. Tchitangueleca

 Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 3
UNIT ONE: Science and Research ................................................................................ 4
Descriptions of Science and Research ............................................................................ 4
Significance of Research .................................................................................................. 5
Norms of the scientific community .................................................................................. 10
UNIT TWO: Strategies of Discovery............................................................................ 14
The philosophical grounding of research ....................................................................... 14
Dominants Approaches to Social Science ..................................................................... 16
UNIT THREE: Reading.................................................................................................. 20
Developing critical approaches ...................................................................................... 22
Critical thinking ............................................................................................................... 24
UNIT FOUR: Types of Research
 ................................................................................ 27
Classification of research by purpose ............................................................................ 27
Basic versus applied research ....................................................................................... 27
Quantitative Approach .................................................................................................... 30
Characteristics of Quantitative approaches .................................................................... 31
Qualitative approaches ................................................................................................... 32
UNIT FIVE: Ethics in research ..................................................................................... 36
Ensuring privacy ............................................................................................................. 37
Bibliography.................................................................................................................. 41

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 INTRODUCTION
People have long been concerned to come to grips with their environment and to
understand the nature of the phenomena it presents to their senses. Each day we ask
questions, large and small, of ourselves and others. A zoologist may ask, “How does a
caterpillar evolve into a butterfly?” An educator may ask, “Why does this student behave
as he does?” An economist may ask, “What factors shape our society’s economic well-
being?” A voter may ask, “Who is best qualified to serve as our next president?” Although
the types and scope of our questions are limitless, the questions are united by one
characteristic — a desire to find an answer. As humans, we are driven to know why things
are as they are. When confronted with a novel or perplexing situation, our natural tendency
is to ask a question: Who? What? When? Where? Why?
In our endeavours to come to terms with the problems of day-to-day living and
understand how our world works, use to be the driven force beyond the tiredness search
for the answers to the questions we ask. The movement from the known to the unknown
is considered by some people as research. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all
possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we
wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of
the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which
man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as
research.

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than

overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to
invention” = Hudson Maxim =

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 UNIT ONE: Science and Research

Descriptions of Science and Research
Science is a process of inquiry – a way of learning and knowing things about the world
around us, using logic, observation and theory. Scientific thinking makes sense (is logical),
has reference (observed evidence) and gives an explanation (theory) for what we
observe. In short, science is logical, collects evidence and explains relationships between
variables.
Research, can be defined as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
In Clifford Woody’s view, research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggesting solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing of conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis. It is the persuit of truth with the
help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
Research involves finding something new. ‘New’ may simply mean ‘new to
everyone’, or it may simply mean ‘new to you’. That is a major distinction, and one, which
leads to a lot of misunderstandings. The first of these meanings, ‘new to everyone’, is
usually known as primary research. The second, ‘new to you but not to everyone’, is
usually known as secondary research. In short, the search for knowledge through
objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
The word research is composed of two syllables: re and research (re + search).
“re” is defined as a prefix, meaning again and search as a verb, meaning to look for
something. Together, the syllables form a noun, which means “another look at” social
events. In other words, making a careful and planned study of them.
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which
is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its
own specific purpose.
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Significance of Research
In nowadays, research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system. For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the
needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs.
The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where
research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative policies and we
can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates
the decisions of the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for
dealing with all facets of the country’s existence and most of these will be related directly
or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small
business and industry, working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of
distribution, even the size and nature of defence services are matters requiring research.
Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s resources.
Another area in government, where research is necessary, is, in collecting
information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates
what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such
statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of research
problems.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships
and in seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction
of knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the
social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more
efficient manner. Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its
own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns. This double
emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in the case of social science. On the one
hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that make possible
the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human interactions. On the other
hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to, for practical
guidance in solving immediate educational, health and environmental problems.

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Sources of knowledge
There are several sources of knowledge that guide our thinking. It is agreed that there are
two realities in the world we live, i.e. part of what we know is experiential or agreement
reality.

• Experiential reality – what is known as a result of direct personal experience. For

example, attending a conference or a lecture would be part of your experiential
reality; you have been present when the event took place.
• Agreement reality – what we accept as real because we have been told it is real
and everyone else seems to agree that it is real. Taking our example further,
suppose that you missed the lecture but you were told about it by one colleague and given
notes taken by someone else.
It is advisable to consider both sets of knowledges as real, the one that you
experienced and the one that heard about. Science has standards that help us to accept
the reality of things we do not personally experienced (e.g.: how atoms behave) and most
of our knowledge comes from this type of indirect reality based on agreement supported
by information. There are also scientific standards of logic observation and theory. It
makes sense that planet Earth is round, because this roundness has been confirmed by
precise mathematical measurement. Likewise, there are various different sources of
agreed knowledge or second hand-knowledge as presented below.

Sources of agreed knowledge/agreement reality 


• Tradition – inherited culture which contains accepted knowledge of the world. We

accept what other people know and tell us. We can learn from previous generation.
In this way, knowledge is cumulative (it builds on itself) and an inherited body of
information, therefore, it helps us to obtain further information.
• Authority – when we accept something as true because of the status of the person
who discovered it. A person in a position of authority is likely to have earned that
authority by his/her experience and may therefore, be able to offer us reliable
knowledge. This person has spent some time and effort learning something and
others can benefit from this. For example, the Director of a school can be expected
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 to know how students react to discipline because he/she has had a great deal of
experience managing students in a structured context.
• Mysticism – this entails the belief that knowledge is found in a supernatural source.
People with this knowledge, claim to have power to receive and decode
supernatural messages, which are not accessible to ordinary people. They demand
that we have faith in their power to give us special, supernatural knowledge. This
type of authority, appeals to our irrational feelings by using rituals, ceremonies,
emotionally loaded situations and strange-sounding language.
• Common sense – this is a form of ordinary reasoning related to what people know
intuitively (through instinct), such as when we trust someone. We know something
intuitively, when we recognise a truth or a falsehood without analysing why we
recognise it. The intuitive knowledge is valuable in everyday life for decision making
and solving daily problems and communication, but it contains illogical reasoning

and does not consider how ideas are related to each other. Common sense covers
topics that everyone knows (e.g. being a good student requires self-discipline or
men are too lazy to assist with house work).
• Media myths – the mass media (television, films, newspapers, magazine, internet,
etc.) have a powerful influence on knowledge, though its main purpose is to
entertain, but not to present reality accurately. However, most people learn about
the world and develop their concepts of social reality according to what they see,
hear and read in media. This source of knowledge can lead people into errors
because writers, who adapt real life situations for newspapers, magazines,
television shows and film scripts, most of the times distort reality and often rely on
tradition, authority or common sense. They have deadlines, which limit their
information, and they cannot be specialists in every topic they present. Mistakes
may be made by ignorance. 


Errors in Human Enquiry and How Scientists avoid them
We often make errors in our inquiries, but science provides safeguards against them.
Some of these errors are:

a) Inaccurate observation – before we understand the way things work, we need to know
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the what before we can explain the why. But people tend to be careless when observing
everyday events. They may not really see things happening right before their eyes, and
may wrongly think that they have seen something happen that did not in fact happen.
Conversely, scientific observation is a conscious activity, i.e. in science we observe events
deliberately, with the help of simple and complex measurement devices to prevent us
making inaccurate observations.

b) Overgeneralisation – when we look for conclusions based on our observation and we

assume that few, similar events are evidence of a certain conclusion. Using few similar
events to draw a conclusion, particularly when we are under pressure, is known as
overgeneralisation. For example, we may read a book on statistics and find it difficult to
understand; we then conclude that all books on statistics are too difficult to follow. This
also includes the “halo effect”, which is when we look at one very good aspect of
something and overgeneralise. For example, we respect someone and then we
overgeneralise by saying that this person is “wonderful”, i.e. we prejudge his/her work and
do not approach her or him by considering his/her merits and faults. Overgeneralisation
can distort the process of inquiry. Scientists avoid it by involving a sufficiently large sample
of observation. The replication (repetition of a study, checking to see if the same results
are obtained) of inquiry is another prevention of overgeneralisation. If the same results
are obtained, we can feel more confident about generalising our findings. However, if
replication gives different results, it has helped to prevent us from overgeneralising and
coming to incorrect conclusions.

c) Selective observation – once we make a decision that
 events are following a

particular pattern, and we think that we know why, we will tend to pay attention mainly to
future situations that correspond with that pattern. We will tend to overlook the situations
that conflict with that pattern. For example, we may know some elderly people who tend
to be irritated and who have told us that this is because they are frustrated by their lack of
mobility. Based on this, we then decide that other irritable elderly people that we meet are
also frustrated due to their lack of mobility. As a result, we fail to investigate what is actually
happening in their lives. In fact, there may be other reasons why elderly people are
irritable.

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Consider, for example, the striking differences in the way in which theories are used.
Laypeople base them on haphazard events and use them in a loose and uncritical
manner. When they are required to test them, they do so in a selective fashion, often
choosing only that evidence that is consistent with their hunches and ignoring that which
is counter to them. Scientists, by contrast, construct their theories carefully and
systematically. Whatever hypotheses they formulate have to be tested empirically so that
their explanations have a firm basis in fact. Laypeople generally make no attempt to
control any extraneous sources of influence when trying to explain an occurrence.
Scientists, on the other hand, only too conscious of the multiplicity of causes for a given
occurrence, resort to definite techniques and procedures to isolate and test the effect of
one or more of the alleged causes.
Science prevents selective observation by using a research design, which specifies
the number and kinds of observations we need before we can make a conclusion.
Conclusions are based on analyses of all detailed observations in the research design,
not only on some selected observations.

d) Ego involvement in understanding – we are personally and intellectually involved in

our search for knowledge. Our understanding of conditions is usually psychologically
significant to us. In several ways, we link our understanding of how things are to the image
of ourselves that we present to others. Because of this link, any disapproval of this
understanding tends to make us look gullible, stupid and generally not okay. So, we
commit ourselves more firmly to our understanding of how things are and in the process,
it creates a large barrier to further inquiry. Science guards against ego involvement in
understanding by testing hypotheses in a systematic manner, which enables us to collect
information rigorously; information which we can then consider objectively. Making the
research public in the form of a report also allows other scientists to evaluate our research
thereby exposing any personal bias or ego involvement, we may have brought to our work.

e) The premature closure of inquiry – this means that we ask questions for a short
while. The researcher collects some answers and stop his/her inquiry too soon. As a
result, his/ her attempt to understand something stops before his/her understanding is
complete. The evidence for sound conclusion is inadequate. An example of this was the

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so-called cure for Aids, which was reputedly discovered by experimentation in a
laboratory. On investigation, the proponents of this cure recognised that they had not
proceeded long and rigorously enough with their experiments and had not, in fact,
discovered a cure for Aids. Science prevents this by carrying out a thorough review of the
literature on the topic being researched. The review reveals the complexity of a subject
and presents a wide range of information, which tends to prevent the researcher ending
her or his inquiry before a thorough exploration of all options. At its base, research is an
open-ended enterprise in which we constantly modify our conclusions.

The efforts of science
The discussion above made it clear that, it is natural to go wrong in our attempts to know
and understand human behaviour. Science has ways of protecting us from drawbacks. It
differs from ordinary, day-to-day inquiry in two aspects:

a) Scientific inquiry is conscious, deliberate inquiry into special social events,

whereas we humans rarely pay any attention or focus on our daily observations. 


b) Scientific inquiry is more careful than our normal, casual efforts; we are aware
that we may make mistakes and therefore we take special precaution to avoid them.
However, it would be wrong to think that science offers total protection from the errors
made in non-scientific inquiry. We can explain the norms that help us to make our
observations scientifically whereas in everyday life we do not apply such norms.

Norms of the scientific community
The scientific community is regulated by five norms that researchers learn and internalise
as an essential part of their work. These norms are as follows:

1. Universalism – irrespective of who conducts the research and regardless of where

it was conducted, the research is to be judged only on the basis of scientific merit.
2. Organised scepticism – science should not accept new ideas or evidence in a
carefree, uncritical manner. Instead, all evidence should be challenged and
questioned. Each research is subjected to criticism and examination. The purpose
of criticism is not to attack the individual, but to ensure that the research can stand
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 up to close examination.
3. Disinterestedness – scientists must be neutral, receptive and open to unexpected
observations or new ideas. They should not be rigidly stuck to a particular idea or
point of view. They should accept even look for evidence that runs against their
positions and accept honestly all findings based on high-quality research.
4. Communalism – scientific knowledge must be shared with others; it belongs to
everyone. Creating scientific knowledge is a public act and the findings are public
property; available for all to use. The way in which the research is conducted must
be described in detail. New knowledge is not formally accepted until other
researchers have reviewed it and, it has been made publicly available in a special
form and style.
5. Honesty – this is a general cultural norm, but it is especially strong in scientific
research. Scientists demand honesty in all research; dishonesty and cheating in
scientific research is a major taboo.

Science does not operate in a vacuum, away from the real world. This means that
the norms above may be violated. However, scientists usually check on one another to
see that the norms are followed: In practice, this involves:
a) Exposing research reports to the examination of other scientists by publishing
them in academic books or journals;
b) The scientific community criticise these reports, regardless of the author's
personal status;
c) Admitting that all knowledge is tentative to be accepted only until disproved; 

d) Condemning dishonesty in research. 


Characteristics of the scientific method
• Empirical inquiry – the scientific method relies on observation and measurement.
Anyone who knows how to use the scientific method can choose the right type of
measurement and use observations to investigate a topic. The scientific method
means that we work independently of external influence or personal position. We
come to conclusions based on evidence, which we can demonstrate to others and
which they can also observe and measure.
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 • Language of science – science has its own accepted language, which is
sometimes called “scientific rhetoric”. It is conventional to use certain terms and
descriptions for the field of study we are investigating. Scientific concepts such as
theories and hypotheses, and data analysis must reach a standard that is known
as good scientific practice. You will become aware of the language of science as
you proceed through this course and when you write your research report, where
you will have to use this language.
• Assumptions in science – before we understand the place of assumptions in
science, it is paramount to know that, an assumption is a realistic expectation,
which is something that we believe to be true. However, no adequate evidence
exists to support this belief. In other words, an assumption is an act of faith which
does not have empirical evidence to support. Assumption provide a basis to
develop theories. Science is logical, but also uses assumptions. These
assumptions are often hidden, and have the power to influence our understanding
of reality. It is important to know and state your basic assumptions when you are
investigating a topic because these assumptions will influence your research
design, the type of measurement you use, your interpretation of findings and even
the kind of questions you formulate in research.
• Aesthetics – this means having a sense of beauty. Scientists have invented
apparatus thereby revealing the beauties of the universe as well as understanding
the forces of nature. Scientists explore human social life with the aim of
understanding the systems, which can be considered beautiful. A carefully
designed experiment, for example, can be called both creative and beautiful.
• Limitations – there are limits to scientific investigation and some of these are:
a) The rights of people who are the subjects of study are protected by research ethics.
b) There are also limits to the scientific effort itself. The researcher may not have the
resources needed for the scope or depth of the original research plan.
c) Time constraints usually play a role in limiting any activity. Scientists may not obtain
the cooperation of the people who could provide them with the information they need.

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d) Most importantly, communication between the researcher and the scientific community
is limited because our cognitive capacity for processing information lacks the sensitivity
required to reflect the richness and depth of social interaction.
We have to live with these limitations. But a good scientific practice demands that
we acknowledge the limitations of our investigation and that we make these clear in our
research report.

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UNIT TWO: Strategies of Discovery
In this unit we intend to discuss the dominant approaches in scientific research, the
relationship between theory and research and the processes involved in doing research.

The philosophical grounding of research
The academic subjects that make up the social sciences address many different topics.
Given the complexity of topics, different researchers take contradictory approaches to a
particular topic. Consequently, researchers use paradigms (abstract frameworks or
models of reality) to define what should be studied, what questions should be asked, how
they should be asked, and what rules should be followed in interpreting the answers
obtained.
The approaches and their corresponding assumptions (basic premises that we
believe are true) provide the foundations that underlie scientific research. Researchers'
assumptions make impact on their work. In other words, the assumptions that they make
about their subject matter serve as their point of departure when they conduct research.
The assumptions we make about social reality and human beings affect our views on how
to study them. Our position on how to know social reality reflect ontological,
epistemological and methodological assumptions we make. As a matter of convenience
and as an aid to communication, we clarify these three terminologies below.

a) Ontology - a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of reality.

All social scientists have ideas about the nature and characteristics of whatever
they study. These ideas are the researchers' ontological assumptions, which refer to what
they think exists and is real.
Ontological assumptions focus mainly on the nature or essence of the social
phenomena being investigated. Thus, the authors ask, is social reality external to
individuals imposing itself on their consciousness from without – or is it the product of
individual consciousness? Is reality an objective of nature, or the result of individual
cognition? Is it a given ‘out there’ in the world, or is it is created by one’s own mind?

b) Epistemology - a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge.

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Researchers do not only make assumptions about the nature of the subject matter
studied. They also consider the nature of their knowledge. When they do this, they focus
on the structure or format of their knowledge rather than on its content. Epistemological
questions deal with how we can know and explain something. This means that we have
to decide what types of statements about social reality are permissible, i.e. we have to
decide what can be considered as being social scientific knowledge. Epistemological
questions identify the principles or rules that determine how social phenomena can be
known and what kind of explanation is seen as being satisfactory.
Epistemology has its main concern on the bases of knowledge – its nature and
forms, how it can be acquired, and how communicated to other human beings. How one
aligns oneself in this particular debate profoundly affects how one will go about uncovering
knowledge of social behaviour.

c) Methodology - is a way to solve systematically the research problem by using the

appropriate rules and procedures. It may be understood as a science of studying how
research is done scientifically. In it, we study the various steps that are generally adopted
by a researcher in studying his/her research problem along with the logic behind them. It
is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but
also the methodology.
It is necessary for the researcher to design his/her methodology for his/her problem
as the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs
a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate
why and on what basis he selects a particular size or number and the location of doors,
windows and ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly,
in research, the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they
are implemented. He/She has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he
selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others.
From what we have stated above, we can say that methodology has many
dimensions and a wider scope. Once we have decided how we can get to know social
reality, we can then think about the best way to do this. Methodological principles in
science ensure that we can defend our findings. They are those guidelines that
researchers agree and rely on to give us acceptable research practices. They enable

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researchers to attain knowledge by providing researchers with necessary techniques or
tools.

Dominants Approaches to Social Science
Before embarking on the discussion about the dominants approaches to social science, it
is paramount to describe first what an approach is. An approach summarises all the
fundamental philosophical sets of guidelines that underlie a particular research project by
considering researchers ontological, epistemological and methodological assumptions.
We can identify different approaches to social research and get a better
understanding of research and get a better idea of the key issues in it. There are three
dominant approaches to social science: 1) the positivist approach; 2) interpretative
approach and 3) critical approach.

The positivist approach
Positivism is systematic way of doing research that emphasises the importance of
observable facts. Positivists believe that social reality can be discovered. We can perceive
social reality through our senses since it exists “out there”, independent of the knower.
For positivists all knowledge is based on facts. Facts are empirically established by the
senses. They claim that it is crucial that researchers approach social reality in a neutral,
value-free (researchers' personal values do not influence the collection of data) detached
and systematic way. Methodological tools are developed to collect evidence that is
observable and measurable.
The positivist approach to scientific investigation is based on acceptance as fact
that the world around us is real, and that we can find out about these realities. There is an
order made up of atomistic, discrete and observable events. Knowledge is derived using
scientific method and based on sensory experience gained through experiments or
comparative analysis. It aims at developing a unique and elegant description of any
chosen aspect of the world that is true regardless of what people think. By developing
these scientific facts, knowledge is built up in a cumulative fashion, despite some false
starts.

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The interpretative approach
Interpretivism or relativism is an approach to social science that emphasises the
importance of insiders’ viewpoints to understand social realities. Interpretivists argue that
social reality is naturally meaningful. People have the ability to interpret a situation and
decide how to act in response to this situation. By consciously participating in a situation,
they attribute meaning to that situation. Meaning is constructed through human beings
interacting with each other and playing central role in defining a situation to make sense
of it. They argue that the purpose of research is to make social reality intelligible and
reveal its natural meaningfulness.
Meaningful actions need to be understood from within through the study of how
social reality is experienced, interpreted and understood. According to interpretevists
there is no external social reality, this is created through conscious actions of human
beings. Therefore, there is no basis for using the same methods as those used by natural
sciences because social reality differs fundamentally from natural reality. To explain social
actions we need first to understand the meaningfulness of social reality.
To access the meaningfulness of social reality, researchers have to be sensitive to
the social context in which meaning is produced. One useful strategy is to pay attention
to common sense because this provides insight into human beings' own understanding of
their situation. Doing this enables researchers to see how people construct and
understand these situations intuitively.
For interpretevists, research into social reality is justified by its ability to
demonstrate the meaningfulness of social interaction in a particular context. Successful
research must provide outsiders with adequate understanding of the situation so that they
can communicate with insiders. This does not mean that the world is not real, but rather
that we can only experience it personally through our perceptions which are influenced by
our preconceptions, beliefs and values; we are not neutral, disembodied observers but
part of society. Unlike the natural sciences, the researcher is not observing phenomena
from outside the system, but is inextricably bound into the human situation which he/she
is studying. As well as concentrating on the search for constants in human behaviour
which highlights the repetitive, predictable and invariant aspect of society the researcher
does not ignore what is subjective, individual and creative – facts and values cannot be

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separated. The researcher encounters a world already interpreted and his/her job is to
reveal this according to the meanings created by humans rather than to discover universal
laws. Therefore, there can be more than one perspective and interpretation of a
phenomenon.
Positivist and interpretive paradigms are essentially concerned with understanding
phenomena through two different lenses. Positivism strives for objectivity, measurability,
predictability, controllability, patterning, the construction of laws and rules of behaviour, and the
ascription of causality; the interpretive paradigms strive to understand and interpret the world in
terms of its actors. In the former observed phenomena are important; in the latter meanings and
interpretations are paramount. Habermas (1984: 109 – 10), echoing Giddens (1976), describes
this latter as a ‘double hermeneutic’, where people strive to interpret and operate in an already
interpreted world.

The critical approach
This is an approach to social sciences that emphasises the need to uncover hidden
processes and structures within society. Critical social scientists argue that social reality
is multilayered, therefore giving emphasis on discovering objective facts that are
observable and measurable is misguiding, because social reality cannot be taken only at
its surface value, i.e. observable surface structures seldom coincide with reality. This is
why critical social scientists rely on theory. Their theory provides models or analogies that
reveal the hidden structure that determine the key characteristics of social reality. By using
the logic and reasoning of theory, researchers can work out the implications of the
underlying hidden dynamics of social reality and predict how the consequences of these
hidden dynamics will reveal themselves in observable surface structures. Empirically
observed patterns are the evidence that points to the underlying mechanisms. When
observations confirm the predictions made by theory, researchers become more confident
that these unobservable structures exist.
Critical scientists also argue that the interpretative approach perpetuates the myths
of social reality by reducing it to common-sense interpretation and understanding. For
them common sense ideas are only partial and incomplete, therefore, science should
move beyond the barriers by examining the unexamined and critically reflecting on it.

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 Critical social sciences assume that a critical and reflective researcher will actively
engage with the subject matter. Objectivity is not a goal because researchers are morally
committed to challenging inequalities and domination. In order to free human beings from
the ideology that sustains their false consciousness they need to be aware of the
underlying mechanisms that structure their daily lives.
This awareness of the real nature of social reality will empower human beings to
work towards meaningful social change and transformation. In this case, theory serves as
a guide by suggesting possible progressive alternatives. By exposing the current
underlying mechanisms that need to be challenged, theory provides a critical and activist
agenda. The key advocacy role of theory in encouraging freedom action is known as
praxis (putting theory into practice).
Inevitably, there has been a reaction to this postmodernist challenge to traditional
science, which threatens a descent into chaos and powerlessness to act because of lack
of possibility of agreement on truths and reality. This has been labelled critical reality
based on critical reasoning.
Critical reasoning can be seen as a reconciliatory approach, which recognises, like
the positivists, the existence of a natural order in social events and discourse, but claims
that this order cannot be detected by merely observing a pattern of events. The underlying
order must be discovered through the process of interpretation while doing theoretical and
practical work particularly in the social sciences. Unlike the positivists, critical realists do
not claim that there is a direct link between the concepts they develop and the observable
phenomena. Concepts and theories about social events are developed on the basis of
their observable effects, and interpreted in such a way that they can be understood and
acted upon, even if the interpretation is open to revision as understanding grows. This
also distinguishes critical realists from relativists, who deny the existence of such general
structures divorced from the specific event or situation and the context of the research
and researcher.







19
 UNIT THREE: Reading

Developing critical approaches

1. Fact and opinion
When reading, it is important to distinguish between facts:
v Rice is grown in warm wet climates.
and opinions:
v I like rice.
Decide if the following statements are facts, opinions or both.

Fact Opinion
1. Smoking can be dangerous to health.
2. Smoking is addictive.
3. Smoking should be banned.
4. Smoking is dangerous so it should be banned.

If suggestions are made in academic writing (smoking should be banned) it is important
that they are supported by true facts (smoking is dangerous).

Read the following sentences and decide if they are fact or opinion. If they are fact,
decide if they are true or false. If they are opinion, decide if you agree or disagree.
Fact or Facts – True Opinions –
Opinion? or False? Agree or
Disagree
1. Britain has the highest crime rate in the world.
2. In Britain, hundreds of crimes are committed
every day.
3. Many criminals are never caught.
4. The police are inefficient.
5. The police should be abolished.

Assessing internet sources critically

You cannot afford to waste time on texts that are unreliable or out-of- date. If you are using
material that is not on the reading list you must assess it critically to ensure that the
material is trustworthy. Internet sources are plentiful and conveniently available, but you
need to ask several questions about each site:
• Is this a reputable website, for example with ac. (= academic) in the URL? 

20
 • Is the name of the author given, and is he/she well-known in the field? 

• Is the language of the text in a suitable academic style? 

• Are there any obvious errors in the text, e.g. spelling mistakes, which suggest a
careless approach 

Compare these two internet texts on deforestation. Which is likely to be more
reliable?
We are destroying the last of our vital natural resources, just as we are starting
a) to wake up to how precious they are. Rainforest once covered 14 per cent of
the land now it’s down to a mere 6 per cent. Scientists predict that the rest could
disappear in less than 40 years. Thousands of acres are cut down each second with
dire consequences for the countries involved and the planet as a whole. Scientists
estimate that we loose 50,000 species every year, many species every second including
137 plant types (not even species but whole groups of plant species) and as these
plants disappear before science can record them so does the chance to gain helpful
knowledge and possible medicines.

The scale of human pressures on ecosystems everywhere has increased

b) enormously in the last few decades. Since 1980 the global economy has tripled
in size and the world population has increased by 30 per cent. Consumption of
everything on the planet has risen – at a cost to our ecosystems. In 2001, The World
Resources Institute estimated that the demand for rice, wheat, and corn is expected to
grow by 40 per cent by 2020, increasing irrigation water demands by 50 per cent or
more. They further reported that the demand for wood could double by the year 2050;
unfortunately it is still the tropical forests that supply the bulk of the world’s demand for
wood.

There are several aspects of (1) which should make the reader cautious: the style is very
personal (we are . . .) and informal (it’s down to . . .) and there is a word used wrongly
(‘loose’ instead of ‘lose’). No sources are provided. But possibly more disturbing is
carelessness with facts. Is it really possible that thousands of acres of rainforest are being
cut down every second? The writer also claims that many species are being lost every
second, but if we take the figure of 50,000 per year it means one species is lost every 10
minutes. Clearly the writer is seeking to dramatise the subject, but it is quite unsuitable as
an academic source.

21
In contrast, the second text is written in accurate, semi-formal language and includes a
source. It seems more likely to be reliable.

Practice
(a) Read the following texts and decide if you can trust the information. Give
reasons for your decisions in the table below.
Hard up? Why struggle when you could live in luxury? Solve your money worries
a) easily and quickly by working for us. No experience needed, you can earn
hundreds of pounds for just a few hours’ work per day. Work when it suits you, day or
night. Don’t delay, call today for an interview on 07795–246791.

If you have money problems, there’s lots of ways you can save cash. Instead
b)
of spending money on new clothes, try buying them secondhand from charity
shops, where you’ll find lots of stylish bargains. Eating out is another big expense, but
instead you can get together with a few friends and cook a meal together; it’s cheaper
and it’s fun. Bus fares and taxis can also cost a lot, so it might be worth looking for a
cheap bicycle, which lets you travel where you want, when you want.

Most students find that they have financial difficulties at times. It has been
c)
estimated that nearly 55 per cent experience financial difficulties in their first
year at college or university. It’s often hard living on a small fixed income, and the cost
of accommodation and food can come as a shock when you first live away from your
parents. The most important thing, if you find you are getting into debt, is to speak to a
financial advisor in the Student Union, who may be able to help you sort out your
problems.

22
 1

(b) You are writing an essay on expanding educational provision in developing

countries, titled:

‘Improving literacy in sub-Saharan Africa.’

You find the following article in a recent magazine. Read it critically and decide
whether you could use it in your work.

How can we get the world’s poorest children into school? This is a difficult question with
no easy answer. In 1999 the UN adopted a set of goals called ‘Education for All’, but in
many countries there has been little progress towards these aims. In Nigeria, for
instance, the number of children not going to school has hardly changed since then. It
is estimated that worldwide about 72m children never attend school, 45 per cent of
whom are in sub-Saharan Africa. Even when schools and teachers are provided, there’s
no guarantee that teaching is going on: World Bank research in India shows that a
quarter of teachers don’t turn up on any day. Several proposals have been made to
improve matters. A British academic, Professor Tooley, argues that low-cost private
schools are more effective in delivering education to the poor since parental pressure
maintains good standards. State schools could also relate pay to performance: research
by Muralihadan and Sundararaman in India found that this improved students’ test
performance far more significantly than spending the same money on teaching
materials.

23
Positive aspects: ________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Negative aspects: _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Critical thinking
Even when you feel that a text is reliable and that you can safely use it as a source, it is
still important to adopt a critical attitude towards it. This approach is perhaps easiest to
learn when reading, but is important for all other academic work (i.e. listening, discussing
and writing). Critical thinking means not just passively accepting what you hear or read,
but instead actively questioning and assessing it. As you read you should ask yourself the
following questions:

(a) What are the key ideas in this? 


(b) Does the argument of the writer develop logically, step by step? 


(c) Are the examples given helpful? Would other examples be better? 


(d) Does the author have any bias? 


(e) Does the evidence presented seem reliable, in my experience and using common
sense? 


(f) Is this argument similar to anything else I have read? 


(g) Do I agree with the writer’s views? 


Read the text below, thinking critically about the sections in bold. Then answer
questions 1–9.

24
 The growth of the world wide web

In the history of civilisation there have been many significant developments, such as
the invention of the wheel, money and the telephone, but the development of the
internet is perhaps the most crucial of all. In the space of a few years the world wide
web has linked buyers in New York to sellers in Mumbai and teachers in Berlin to
students in Cairo, so that few people can imagine life without it.

It is estimated that over 70 per cent of North Americans, for instance, have
internet access, and this figure is steadily increasing. Physical shops are under
threat, as growing numbers shop online. In areas such as travel it is now impossible
to buy tickets on certain airlines except on the internet. The web also links together
millions of individual traders who sell to buyers through websites such as Ebay.

Beyond the commercial sphere, the internet is also critically important in the academic
world. A huge range of journals and reports are now available electronically, meaning
that researchers can access a vast amount of information through their computer
screens, speeding up their work and allowing them to produce better quality
research. In addition, email permits academics to make effortless contact with fellow-
researchers all over the world, which also assists them to improve their output.

There is, of course, a darker side to this phenomenon, which is the use criminals have
made of their ability to trade illegal or fraudulent products over the internet, with little
control over their activities. But such behaviour is hugely compensated for by the
benefits that have been obtained by both individuals and businesses. We are reaching
a situation in which all kinds of information are freely available to everyone, which
must lead to a happier, healthier and richer society.

25
1. ‘…such as the invention of the wheel, money and the telephone . . .’ 
Are these
really critical developments? 


2. ‘…the development of the internet is perhaps the most 
crucial of all.’ 
Is this
true? 


3. ‘…so that few people can imagine life without it.’ 
Is this claim credible? 


4. ‘It is estimated that over 70 per cent of North Americans, for 
instance, have
internet access . . .’ 
No source given. Does this figure seem likely? 


5. ‘Physical shops are under threat, as growing numbers shop 
online.’ 
Is the first
part true, and if so, is it caused by online shopping? 


6. ‘…speeding up their work and allowing them to produce 
better quality research.’

If the first part is true, does the result logically follow? 


7. ‘We are reaching a situation in which all kinds of information are freely available
to everyone, which must lead to a happier, healthier and richer society.’ 
Does the
first part need any qualification? 
Is the conclusion justified? 


8. Is the writer objective or biased? 


9. Do I agree with this argument overall? 


26
 UNIT FOUR: Types of Research

In social sciences research is classified into different ways. This classification is based on
what is investigated in that particular type of research, namely: classification of research
by purpose, methodology, aims and time dimension.
It is, however, important to note that the different types of research are not mutually
exclusive as far as purpose, method, aim and time dimension are concerned, i.e. they are
not necessarily autonomous in nature, but they can be complementary. In here, we rely
our discussion over purpose and methodology.
The researcher has to decide first which type of research to use – namely basic or
applied research, evaluation research, research and development (R&D) and action
research. Then he or she has to decide which method to use – historical research,
descriptive research, correlational research, causal-comparative research and
experimental research or multiple methods (triangulation).

Classification of research by purpose

Basic versus applied research

Classification of research by purpose is based primarily on the degree to which findings
have direct (educational) application and the degree to which they are generalisable to
other (educational) situations. Basic research involves the development of theory, i.e. it is
conducted solely for the purpose of theory development and refinement. It is not
concerned with practical applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory
conditions and controls usually associated with scientific research. It establishes general
principles of learning.
Applied research is concerned with the application of theory to the solution of
problems. As the name implies, it is conducted for the purpose of applying, or testing,
theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving (educational) problems. Rightly or wrongly,
most educational research studies are classified at the applied end of the continuum, as
they are more concerned with “what” works best than with “why.” This type of research is
concerned with the utility of general principles of learning in educational settings.

27
 Social-impact assessment
This type of applied research is part of a larger impact study of the environment and aims to
evaluate the consequences of the planned social change. It is usually by state or government
bodies for planning, and for choosing the policy they wish to adopt.

Social-impact assessment is generally used with regard to the following:

1. Community services (e.g.: medical clinics, civil defence)

2. Social conditions (e.g.: crimes committed against the elderly)

3. Economic impact (e.g.: closure of factories in a certain area)
4. Demographic consequences (e.g.: migration from rural areas to the city)
5. Health (e.g. impact of an immunisation programme)
6. Environment (e.g.: preservation of old buildings)

7. Psychological well-being (e.g. traffic rage)

Evaluation research

Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting and analysing data in order to make
decisions. Evaluation involves questions such as the following:
1. Is this special program worth what it costs?
2. Is the new curriculum better than the former one?
Answers to these questions require the collection and analysis and interpretation of data
with respect to one or more criteria. The more objective the criteria, the better; although
some degree of subjectivity is unavoidable since people determine the criteria. For
example, deciding whether a new curriculum is better than the old one depends on the
criteria for success, i.e. students, achievement and students/teachers attitudes.
The purpose of evaluation is not to determine whether something is "good", or
worthwhile, per se. The function of evaluation is to select an alternative in order to make
a decision. There may be only two alternatives (e.g. adopt the new curriculum or keep the
current one) or there may be several alternatives (e.g. many textbooks may be available
for adoption).

28
 Evaluation research consists of the following two types of research:
a) Formative evaluation - This type of research involves in-built monitoring or
continuous feedback on a programme that is being evaluated. It is, therefore a
continuous evaluation process.
b) Summative evaluation - The emphasis here is on the outcome or the end result. It
is, therefore, a reflective process.

Research and development (R&D)

The major purpose of R&D is to develop effective products for use in schools. Products
produced by this type of research include: teacher-training materials, learning materials,
media materials and management systems. Products are developed to meet specific
needs and according to detailed specifications. Once completed, products are field-tested
and revised until a pre-specified level of effectiveness is achieved.

Action research
Action research is an approach to awareness of teaching, defined as self-reflective inquiry
initiated by teachers for the purpose of improving their classroom practices. In other
words, it is used to solve classroom problems through the application of the scientific
method. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in a local setting. It is not
concerned with the generalisation of results to any other setting. The primary goal of this
type of research is the solution of a given problem, not contribution to science. Whether
the research is conducted in one classroom or in many, the teacher is an essential part of
the process. Its value is confined to those who conduct it. It provides immediate answers
to problems that cannot wait for theoretical solutions.
Strickland (1988) quoted by Gebhard (1992) suggests seven steps followed in order to
carry out action research. They are:
1. Identify an issue
2. Seek knowledge

3. Plan an action

4. Implement the action

5. Observe the action

29
6. Reflect on your observations and
7. Revise the plan
A sample of action research questions teachers have used to solve problems in their
classes is that provided by Allwright and Bailey (1991) Gebhard et al (1987), Nunan
(1990), and Richards (1990), below.
Problem: "I notice that students don't stay on task."

Questions: How much time is spent "on task"?

What goes on in the interaction that possibly takes students off task?

What can I do to get students to spend more time on task?

The main characteristics of action research are the following:

1. The people that are studied take part in the research process itself
2. It includes ordinary and everyday knowledge

3. It focus on the empowerment

 4. It tries to foster awareness, or to draw attention to it
5. It is directly related to political realities or policy-making research.

Classification of research by Method

The second way to classify research is that of the approach, method or even strategy on
which it is based.
The method or strategy we select may include more than one approach, since it
represents the skeleton that supports and frames the study. Many factors affect the
selection of the strategy, such as the reality we live in, our individual needs, the nature of
the problem and the kinds of data required.
Any strategy we choose to solve a problem will lie in a continuum between
quantitative and qualitative research approaches.

Quantitative Approach
1. Quantitative approaches describe events or phenomena m terms of numbers. These
are also known as statistical, as they imply working with numerical data, to establish the
degree of relationship between variables. Quantitative research method deals with data
30
in the form of numbers and uses mathematical operations to investigate their properties
and it asks questions such as ‘how long’ or ‘how many’ or, looks to quantify data and
generalize results from a sample of the population of interest. They aim at examining the
generally accepted explanation of phenomena, and are therefore more controlled in
nature and more structured.
To be valid and reliable, these approaches use specific scientific methods and
techniques such as questionnaires or survey methods, random sampling, etc. The points
of departure here are the following:
1. Natural and social realities are observed and studied in the same way,

 2. Scientific knowledge should be based on things that can be observed and
measured by means of the senses, and

 3. The research process should have value-free knowledge.

Characteristics of Quantitative approaches

a. Is more formalized and controlled, with a carefully defined scope and close to
the approach used by researchers in the natural sciences; 

b. Aims at examining the generally accepted explanations of phenomena - is more
structured and controlled and, 

c. The scope is larger and more universal in nature and can be defined accurately.

In this type of research, preference is given to the following methods and techniques:
• Conceptualisation of concepts that can be operationalised through measuring
instruments (observations, questionnaires interviews and analysis of existing
documentation). 

• Data-collection techniques 

• Data-analysis techniques, varying from simple cross-tabulation of data to

 complex analysis techniques (descriptive statistics). 


Types of research involved in the Quantitative approach

a) Pre-experimental 

b) Quasi-experimental 

c) Ex-post fact or causal-comparative and 


31
 d) Correlational 


Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research Approach 


Ø The main strengths:
1. Opportunity for relatively uncomplicated data analysis;
2. Data which are verifiable;
3. Data which are comparable between different communities within different
locations;
4. Data which do not require analytical judgement beyond consideration of how 

information will be presented in the dissemination process.

Ø Weaknesses inherent in quantitative data include:

1. Gaps in information - issues which are not included in the questionnaire, or
secondary 
 data checklist, will not be included in the analysis;
2. A labour intensive data collection process;
3. Limited participation by affected persons in the content of the questions or
direction of 
 the information collection process.

Qualitative approaches
Qualitative approaches address the research problem from a more conceptual point of
view. They do not require special research instruments, since the data used will be in the
form of educational and philosophical positions obtained from the analysis of previous
studies and other related literature. The reflection on the problem is more necessary in
qualitative approaches when we interpret the data and report the results. In these
approaches the procedures are explained in a not strict way.
The aim of qualitative approaches is to offer descriptions, interpretations and
clarifications of naturalistic social contexts. Thus, in contrast to formulating, testing
and confirming hypotheses, qualitative research draws on the data collected by the
researcher to make sense of human behaviour within the research context, (Johnson &
Christensen, 2007: 7).

32
 The typical qualitative approach, also called documentary analysis, describes a
phenomenon through the information obtained from different documentary sources such
as books, records, magazines, journals, interviews and newspaper articles.
The point of departure, in qualitative research, is to study the man (object) within
human situations or interactions. Observation often generates the investigation and
preference is given to the following methods and techniques
a. Concepts that provide the meaning of the experience (situation), action or
interaction of the research object (man),
b. Unstructured (open) questionnaires and interviews;

c. Participant observations, ethnographic studies and case-studies;

d. Recording of life histories, use of autobiographies and diaries and

e. Analysis of collected data by means of non-quantitative frameworks and
categories systems.

Types of research involved in the Qualitative approach

The literature points out different types of qualitative research, just as Johnson &
Christensen (2007: 8) who describe five major types of qualitative research:
1. Ethnographies, in which the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a
natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting, primarily, observational data
(Creswell,1998).
2. Grounded theory, in which the researcher attempts to derive a general, abstract
theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants in a study.
This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and
interrelationship of categories of information (Strauss & Corbin, 1990,1998).Two primary
characteristics of this design are the constant comparison of data with emerging
categories and theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize the similarities and
the differences of information.
3. Case studies, in which the researcher explores in depth a program, an event,
an activity, a process, or one or more individuals. The case(s) are bounded by time and
activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection
procedures over a sustained period of time (Stake, 1995).

33
 4. Phenomenological research, in which the researcher identifies the "essence"
of human experiences concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants in a study.
Understanding the "lived experiences" marks phenomenology as a philosophy as well as
a method, and the procedure involves studying a small number of subjects through
extensive and prolonged engagement to develop patterns and relationships of meaning
(Moustakas,1994). In this process, the researcher "brackets" his or her own experiences
in order to understand those of the participants in the study (Nieswiadomy,1993).
5. Narrative research, a form of inquiry in which the researcher studies the lives
of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives. This
information is then retold or restoried by the researcher into a narrative chronology. In the
end, the narrative combines views from the participant's life with those of the researcher's
life in a collaborative narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).

Qualitative approaches have the fallowing characteristics:

1. Involve a wholistic investigation conducted in a natural set-up/situation, where all its
elements are studied. The set-up is studied as a whole in order to understand the realities
involved. For this reason, the researcher tries to understand a phenomenon within its
social, cultural and historical context.
2. Man is the primary data-collecting instrument. The researcher relies on man as
observer, rather than on measuring tools. Additional data are obtained by means of other
more objective instruments: such as documents and or questionnaires.
3. The emphasis is on the use of qualitative methods
4. Subjects are selected in a purposeful manner, rather than in a random one.
5. The researcher makes use of inductive data analysis, to understand the situation, and
then makes deductions.

We can summarise the above discussion as follow:

Quantitative data: information, which is recorded in numerical way. That is it can be
manipulated mathematically.
Qualitative data: Information, which is recorded in non-numerical way. It cannot be
manipulated.
e.g. If you want to a see how long your students take to perform a task -
Quantitative data
34
if you want to see how they perform a task - Qualitative data

35
 UNIT FIVE: Ethics in research
When conducting research we also have responsibilities and are expected to follow
certain standards of behaviour, because we deal with other people and what we do or
omit to do may have a detrimental effect on others. Being so, what ethical requirements
must we keep in mind when doing research?
To answer this question we first have to consider the meaning of the concept
"ethics". To a layperson, "ethics" represents certain standards according to which a
particular community or a particular group (Christians, football players, or social workers)
agrees to regulate its behaviour. Conversely, ethics in research is that which is morally
justifiable, i.e. research ethics consists, fundamentally, of collecting, analysing and
interpreting data in a way that respects the rights of our participants and respondents.
The methods, purpose, personal interest and consequences of research have to be
regulated by six behavioural norms: universalism, communality, disinterestedness,
organised scepticism, honesty and respect. However, we also must take responsibility
towards the people involved in research.
First, we need not to harm the participants and respondents. This includes anything
from physical discomfort to emotional stress, humiliation or embarrassment. Very young
children, the elderly, individuals with disabilities and prisoners, for example, are vulnerable
because they may agree to take part in research for the wrong reasons. They may agree
to take part just because they want to please us or they believe that their contribution will
help someone else, regardless the harm the research may cause to them.
Second, we need to make sure that the participants in our research understand what the
research involves, i.e. the procedures to be followed, as well as any demands or risks. As
this is the case, direct consent must be obtained directly from the participant. Substitute
consent or third-party consent must be obtained from someone who is not personally
involved, when the actual persons concerned do not have the cognitive or emotional
capacity to give consent, e.g. young children or mentally retarded people.

To be ethically justifiable, consent has to meet three requirements:

1. Person's ability - the person must have the cognitive capacity to understand and
evaluate the information about the intended research. Competence is legally linked to age,
therefore, children require permission from a parent.

36
2. Voluntariness - consent must be voluntary. Individual participants must have the ability
and right to choose whether to participate or not in the research. Nobody must be forced
to.
3. Information - we as researchers have the responsibility to ensure that our explanations
of what the research consists in can be easily understood by the participants.
The procedures used to obtain consent from the participants very often depend on the
data collection method. For instance, if a questionnaire is posted to respondents, it is
almost impossible to obtain consent before collecting the data. Under these
circumstances, the information about voluntariness has to be included in a covering letter
that accompanies the questionnaire.
It should be remembered that the research will have less internal validity, if
participants respond in a not appropriate way just because they know they are part of the
study. This behaviour has been called the Hawthorne effect (the effect on participants of
knowing that they are being researched) or Placebo effect (the subjects think that they
are sufficiently treated when they know about the study).

Ensuring privacy
Total privacy or confidentiality virtually does not exist. In social sciences, we collect and
analyse information bout individuals. However, our goal may be in conflict with people's
right to privacy. Researchers can deal with this conflict by considering the following issues:
• The sensitivity of information;

• The place where the research is conducted and

• How public we intend to make our research findings.
Certain information may be sensitive depending on who we are dealing with, for example
our sexual experiences or preferences. Therefore, as researchers, we have to ask
ourselves if the information we want to collect will or could be regarded as sensitive for
the individuals concerned. The place where research is conducted can be public (school)
or private (someone's bedroom). If, however, the actual place or setting represents an
invasion of a person's privacy, we should try to choose another place in which to collect
data. If it is only the researcher who has access to the information collected and who
knows the identity of those who participate in the study, they are less likely to feel their

37
privacy has been invaded. But, if the researcher publishes such information, this is likely
to be a breach of confidence. If there is a risk of invading someone's privacy, we must first
ensure that we obtain participants consent. Then, we must take precautions to protect
their anonymity.

Ethical issues related to different research approaches


This section is concerned with the kinds of ethical issues that apply to quantitative and
qualitative approaches.
Experimental research, as example of a quantitative approach, involves unique
ethical issues because researchers manipulate experimental variables. In other words,
certain participants receive a particular treatment, therefore the importance of consent
and harm are particularly relevant here. But experiments that involve control groups raise
another ethical issue: What about the welfare of people who do not receive the
experimental treatment? The treatment has to be administered to both the control and the
experimental groups.
Consent and privacy also create challenges for researchers who use qualitative
research. For example, when researchers observe people in their natural environment,
this involves no harm at all. However, because they are being observed without knowing,
this could be regarded as an invasion of their privacy. A possible solution to this is to carry
out a brief interview with people who were observed and inform them about the nature of
research and tell them that they have been observed without knowing. Then the
researcher has to obtain consent to use and publish the data collected.

When using interviews, the researcher has to ensure confidentiality and discretion.

Ethical issues related to you as a researcher

Absolutism and antinomianism represent two extreme issues related to researchers. The
former refers to the fact that a researcher should never tell a lie, and the latter has to do
with the fact that a researcher needs not to observe moral laws. These two extremes are
unacceptable when undertaking research. The alternative perspective to these is
situationism, in which certain ethical principles, rules and requirements are accepted but
adjusted according to people and circumstances. Moral constitutes the key issue in

38
research. Another issue is that of integrity (honesty and trustworthiness) regardless the
purpose of research. Researchers must be honest.

Ethical issues related to the various stages of the research project


These issues concentrate on the matter of the important questions, which a researcher
has to answer before beginning a research project.

1. Choice of topic


a. Is the research topic researchable? Does it deserve scientific research?


b. Does it merit the time, money, energy and people involved?


c. Does the researcher possess the necessary qualifications/skills required?
d. Is the data accessible?
2. Sampling


a. How accurate is our sample?


b. How confidently can we generalise our findings?
3. Selection of an appropriate method

a. Is the method we have selected suitable, given the purpose of our research?
4. Treatment of respondents

 a. Do we meet the requirements of justice when dealing with people? Are
respondents treated equally?

5. Treatment of data

a. Are subjectivity and personal bias avoided when selecting and interpreting
data?
6. Interpretation of data and reporting findings


 a. Are the interpretations accurate and valid? Not forged/cooked up?

b. Is the report of findings free of plagiarism?

Ideally, a research report should meet the following requirements


• It must be technically correct (including the proper acknowledgement of sources
consulted and assistance received from co-researchers).

39
 • It should serve a useful function (be of social relevance and fulfil practical
information needs).
• It should be characterised by feasibility (the findings and conclusions, as reported,
must be realistic).
• It must meet legal requirements and promote human welfare.
• It must be accurate (findings must be supported by the data collected).

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 Bibliography

1. Bailey, S. 2011. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. London:

Routledge.

2. https://gimmenotes.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/RSC201H-fullSummary.pdf

3. Kothari, C.R. 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and techniques. New Delhi: New
Age International Publishers.

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