Mastering Kotlin

Mastering Kotlin helps readers quickly understand core concepts and then move
on to practical projects using the Kotlin programming language.

Back in the day, Java was the de facto choice for creating Android apps. How-
ever, since Google announced Kotlin as the new language of choice for building
Android applications, developers haven’t looked back.

Kotlin is a general-purpose, statically typed, open source programming language

that runs on Java Virtual Machines. It can be called a Java replacement; however,
the Kotlin syntax isn’t blindly identical to that of Java. Sure, Kotlin can work with
Java, and owing to its intuitiveness, it can also enhance overall productivity and
efficiency, but it is not a Java clone.

Kotlin differs from Java in that it has assertive interfaces that help determine variables
and expressions classes, even if they’re not defined. Kotlin is a beautiful alternative
for modifying and identifying faults because it has a familiar and straightforward
syntax and programming structure. It comes with a sophisticated compiler that can
track automatic casts, allowing verification durations to be more efficient. Kotlin
also has simple signals that may be interpreted without any need for set parameters.
And Kotlin is easy to set up: all you need is a Kotlin component for Android Studio.

Kotlin developers are in high demand. As a Kotlin developer, you’ll be able to pur-
sue a variety of career routes, spanning fields such as mobile app dev, game dev,
game design, and even software development. Many well-known brands use Kotlin
in their software and projects. Naturally, it is a good idea to learn Kotlin, and this
is where Mastering Kotlin can be the right manual for you!

With Mastering Kotlin, learning Kotlin becomes an easy task, and learners can use
their skills to create innovative Kotlin apps.

The Mastering Computer Science series is edited by Sufyan bin Uzayr, a writer and
educator with over a decade of experience in the computing field.
Mastering Computer Science
Series Editor: Sufyan bin Uzayr

Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Divya Sachdeva, Faruq KC, and Aruqqa Khateib

Mastering KDE: A Beginner’s Guide

Jaskiran Kaur, Mathew Rooney, and Shahryar Raz

Mastering GNOME: A Beginner’s Guide

Jaskiran Kaur, Mathew Rooney, and Reza Nafim

Mastering Flutter: A Beginner’s Guide

Divya Sachdeva, NT Ozman, and Reza Nafim

Mastering Visual Studio Code: A Beginner’s Guide

Jaskiran Kaur, D Nikitenko, and Mathew Rooney

Mastering Ubuntu: A Beginner’s Guide

Jaskiran Kaur, Rubina Salafey, and Shahryar Raz

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge

.com/Mastering-Computer-Science/book-series/MCS

The “Mastering Computer Science” series of books are authored by the

Zeba Academy team members, led by Sufyan bin Uzayr.
Zeba Academy is an EdTech venture that develops courses and content
for learners primarily in STEM fields, and offers education consulting
to Universities and Institutions worldwide. For more info, please visit
https://zeba.academy.
Mastering Kotlin
A Beginner’s Guide

Edited by
Sufyan bin Uzayr
First Edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 Sufyan bin Uzayr
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Bin Uzayr, Sufyan, editor.

Title: Mastering Kotlin : a beginner’s guide / edited by Sufyan bin Uzayr.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2023. |
Series: Mastering computer science | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022021392 (print) | LCCN 2022021393 (ebook) | ISBN
9781032318950 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032318851 (paperback) | ISBN
9781003311904 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Android (Electronic resource) | Kotlin (Computer program
language) | Application software--Development. | Mobile apps--Development. |
Java (Computer program language)
Classification: LCC QA76.73.K68 M37 2023 (print) | LCC QA76.73.K68
(ebook) | DDC 005.4/45--dc23/eng/20220810
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022021392
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022021393

ISBN: 9781032318950 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781032318851 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003311904 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904

Typeset in Minion
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Contents

Preface, xix
About the Author, xxi

Chapter 1   ◾   Getting Started 1

HISTORY OF KOTLIN2
FEATURES OF KOTLIN2
KOTLIN’S KEY CHARACTERISTICS2
HOW KOTLIN MULTIPLATFORM FUNCTIONS5
KOTLIN’S ARCHITECTURE6
KOTLIN VS. JAVA7
KOTLIN MULTIPLATFORM IN MOBILE9
Begin with Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile9
Platforms That Are Supported9
Kotlin for Server-Side 10
Kotlin Frameworks for Server-Side Development10
Using Kotlin to Deploy Server-Side Apps11
Kotlin for Android11
Kotlin for JavaScript (JS)12
Frameworks in Kotlin/JS12
Kotlin/Native13
Why Is Kotlin/Native Used?13
Kotlin for Data Science14
Editors Who Work Interactively14
Kotlin for Competitive Programming14
v
vi   ◾    Contents

Kotlin Language Applications15

Setup of the Kotlin Environment for Command Line15
Intellij IDEA Is Used to Build up a Kotlin Environment15
Kotlin Hello Everyone Program16
DATA TYPES IN KOTLIN18
Integer Data Type18
Floating-Point Data Type19
Boolean Data Type20
Character Data Type20
VARIABLES IN KOTLIN20
Immutable Using val Keyword21
Variable Scope21
Naming Convention22
OPERATORS IN KOTLIN22
Arithmetic Operator22
Relation Operator23
Assignment Operator23
Unary Operator24
Logical Operator24
Bitwise Operator25
KOTLIN STANDARD INPUT/OUTPUT25
Distinction between println() and print()26
Variables and Literals Print26
Input of Kotlin27
Take User Input with the readline() Function27
Take Input from the User Using the Scanner Class27
Take User Input without Using the Scanner Class28
TYPE CONVERSION IN KOTLIN29
Conversion of a Larger Data Type to a Smaller Data Type30
EXPRESSION, STATEMENT, AND BLOCK IN KOTLIN30
Expression in Kotlin30
Kotlin if Expression31
 Contents   ◾    vii

Statement in Kotlin31
Multiple Statements in Kotlin32
Block in Kotlin32
Variable Scope in Nested Blocks33
CONCLUSION33

Chapter 2   ◾   Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

Concepts35
OBJECTS AND CLASSES IN KOTLIN35
Language for Object-Oriented Programming36
Class36
Object37
NESTED CLASS AND INNER CLASS IN KOTLIN39
Nested Class39
In Comparison to Java40
Kotlin Inner Class41
Inner-Class Kotlin Program41
SETTERS AND GETTERS IN KOTLIN42
Setters and Getters43
Default Setter and Getter Kotlin Program44
Identifiers for Values and Fields44
Private Modifier44
Setter and Getter with Custom Parameters45
CLASS PROPERTIES AND CUSTOM ACCESSORS IN KOTLIN46
Property47
Customer Accessors48
KOTLIN CONSTRUCTOR48
Primary Constructor49
Primary Constructor with Initializer Block50
Secondary Constructor51
KOTLIN VISIBILITY MODIFIERS54
Public Modifier55
Private Modifier56
viii   ◾    Contents

Internal Modifier56
Protected Modifier57
Overriding of Protected Modifier57
Constructor Visibility58
INHERITANCE IN KOTLIN58
Inheritance Use60
Primary Constructor for Kotlin Inheritance62
Secondary Constructor for Kotlin Inheritance63
Overriding Member Functions and Properties64
Calling the Superclass Implementation65
INTERFACES IN KOTLIN66
Interfaces Creating66
Default Methods and Default Values67
Interface Properties68
Interface Inheritance69
Implementation of Multiple Interfaces70
DATA CLASSES IN KOTLIN71
Data Class Creation Rules72
toString()72
copy()73
hashCode() and equals()75
KOTLIN SEALED CLASSES76
Sealed Class with When77
KOTLIN ABSTRACT CLASS78
Multiple Derived Classes81
ENUM CLASSES IN KOTLIN82
Enums Initializing83
Enums Properties and Methods83
Properties and Functions of the Enum Class84
Enums as Anonymous Classes85
Usage of When Expression with Enum Class86
 Contents   ◾    ix

KOTLIN EXTENSION FUNCTION86

Extended Library Class Using an Extension Function87
Extensions Are Resolved Statically88
Nullable Receiver89
Companion Object Extensions89
KOTLIN GENERICS91
Generic Usage in Our Program91
VARIANCE92
The out Keyword93
The in Keyword93
COVARIANCE94
CONTRACOVARIANCE94
TYPE PROJECTIONS95
STAR PROJECTIONS95
CONCLUSION95

Chapter 3   ◾   Exceptional Handling, Null Safety,

and Regex and Ranges 97
EXCEPTIONAL HANDLING IN KOTLIN | TRY, CATCH,
THROW, AND FINALLY97
Exceptions in Kotlin98
What If We Don’t Handle Exceptions?99
How to Throw an Exception in Kotlin99
How to Avoid NullPointerException100
KOTLIN TRY-CATCH BLOCK101
Kotlin Try-Catch Block as an Expression102
Kotlin Finally Block102
Kotlin Throw Keyword104
NESTED TRY BLOCK AND MULTIPLE CATCH
BLOCK IN KOTLIN104
Nested Try Block104
Multiple Catch Block105
x   ◾    Contents

NULL SAFETY107
Nullable and Non-Nullable Sorts in Kotlin108
Checking for the Null in Conditions109
Safe Call Operator(?.)110
run() Method111
Elvis Operator(?:)112
Not-Null Assertion (!!) Operator113
TYPE CHECKING AND SMART CASTING
IN KOTLIN113
Type Checking113
Using When Expression114
Smart Casting114
Use of !is Operator115
EXPLICIT TYPE CASTING IN KOTLIN116
Unsafe Cast Operator: as116
Safe Cast Operator: as?117
REGEX AND RANGES118
Regular Expressions in Kotlin118
Regex Functions119
RANGES IN KOTLIN122
(..) Operator122
rangeTo() Function123
downTo() Function124
Range Using forEach Loop124
CONCLUSION126

Chapter 4   ◾   Control Flow Statements 127

IF-ELSE EXPRESSION IN KOTLIN127
If Statement128
If-Else Statement129
If-Else Expression in Kotlin as Ternary Operator130
If-Else-If Ladder Expression130
Nested If Expression132
 Contents   ◾    xi

WHILE LOOP IN KOTLIN134

DO-WHILE LOOP IN KOTLIN135
Working of Do-While Loop136
FOR LOOP IN KOTLIN137
Iterate across the Range Using a For Loop138
Using a For Loop, Iterate over the Array139
Iterate through a String Using the For Loop140
Iterate over the Collection Using the For Loop141
WHEN EXPRESSION IN KOTLIN141
When to Use as a Statement with Else141
Using When as a Statement in the Absence of an Else Branch142
When Used as an Expression142
In Kotlin, Different Ways to Use When Block143
Check Whether the Input Value Is Inside
the Range144
Check Whether a Provided Variable Is of a
Specific Type145
Using When as a Replacement for
an If-Else-If Chain145
Verify If a String Includes a Certain Prefix
or Suffix145
UNLABELED BREAK IN KOTLIN146
Use of Unlabeled Break in a While Loop146
Use of Unlabeled Break in a Do-While Loop147
Use of Unlabeled Break in a For Loop148
LABELED BREAK IN KOTLIN149
Use of Labeled Break in a While Loop149
Use of Labeled Break in a Do-While Loop150
Use of Labeled Break in a For Loop151
UNLABELED CONTINUE IN KOTLIN152
Use of Unlabeled Continue in a While Loop152
Use of Unlabeled Continue in a Do-While Loop154
Use of Unlabeled Continue in a For Loop155
xii   ◾    Contents

LABELED CONTINUE IN KOTLIN157

Use of Labeled Continue in a While Loop157
Use of Labeled Continue in a Do-While Loop158
Use of Labeled Continue in a For Loop159
CONCLUSION159

Chapter 5   ◾   Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java

Interoperability161
ARRAYS IN KOTLIN161
Creation of an Array162
Making Use of the arrayOf() Function162
Making Use of the Array Constructor163
Array Access and Modification164
Array Traversal165
STRING IN KOTLIN167
Creation of an Empty String167
Templates and String Elements167
String Literals169
Escaped String169
Raw String – Multiline String170
Escape Characters170
String Equality170
Structural Equality171
Referential Equality171
FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN171
Standard Library Function in Kotlin172
Kotlin User-Defined Function173
Calling a User-Defined Function174
DEFAULT AND NAMED ARGUMENTS
IN KOTLIN176
Default Arguments in Kotlin176
No Arguments Are Passed While Calling
a Function176
 Contents   ◾    xiii

Partial Arguments Are Passed While Calling a Function177

All Arguments Are Passed While Calling a Function178
Named Arguments in Kotlin179
RECURSION IN KOTLIN180
Normal Function Call180
Recursive Function Call181
TAIL RECURSION IN KOTLIN183
Benefits of Employing Tail Recursion183
LAMBDA EXPRESSIONS AND ANONYMOUS
FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN184
Lambda Expressions184
Inference in Lambda Types186
Type Declaration in Lambdas186
It: Implicit Name of a Single-Parameter187
Returning a Value from a Lambda Expression187
Anonymous Function188
Return Type and Parameters188
Distinction between Lambda Expressions
and Anonymous Functions188
INLINE FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN189
Non-Local Control Flow191
Crossline Keyword192
Noinline193
Reified Type Parameters193
Properties of Inline193
INFIX FUNCTION NOTATION IN KOTLIN194
Standard Library Infix Function Notation194
Notation for User-Defined Infix Functions196
Infix Function Precedence over Operators197
HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN198
Higher-Order Function198
Returning a Function from a Higher-Order Function202
xiv   ◾    Contents

JAVA INTEROPERABILITY – USING JAVA

TO CALL KOTLIN203
Properties of Kotlin203
Package-Level Functions203
Static Fields205
Static Methods205
Instance Fields206
Checked Exceptions206
JAVA INTEROPERABILITY – USING KOTLIN
TO CALL JAVA207
Getters and Setters in Java207
Methods208
Static Members209
Java Arrays210
Java Varargs210
Types in Java and Kotlin Are Not the Same211
CONCLUSION212

Chapter 6   ◾   Collections in Kotlin 213

COLLECTIONS IN KOTLIN213
Types of Collections213
Immutable Collection214
Mutable Collection215
ARRAYLIST IN KOTLIN216
Most Important Methods217
LISTOF() IN KOTLIN220
Indexing List Elements in Kotlin221
The First and Last Elements222
Iteration Methods for Lists222
Sorting the List’s Elements223
Contains() and ContainsAll() Functions224
SetOf () in Kotlin225
 Contents   ◾    xv

Set Indexing226
Set Basics226
Contains() and ContainsAll() Functions227
MUTABLESETOF() METHOD IN KOTLIN228
Adding and Deleting Elements from a Set229
Set Indexing229
Set the First and Last Element230
Traversal in a MutableSet230
Contains() and ContainsAll() Methods230
HASHSETOF() IN KOTLIN232
Adding and Deleting Elements from a HashSet 232
HashSet Traversal233
Indexing in a HashSet233
Contains() and ContainsAll() Functions233
MAPOF() in Kotlin234
Map Size235
Empty Map236
Get Map Values236
Map Contains Keys or Values237
Two Values and the Same Key237
HASHMAP IN KOTLIN238
HashMap Time Complexity241
ANNOTATIONS IN KOTLIN242
Using Annotation242
Declaring Annotation243
Annotate a Constructor243
Annotate a Property243
Several Built-in Annotations243
@Target 243
@Retention 244
@Repeatable 245
xvi   ◾    Contents

REFLECTION IN KOTLIN245
Class References246
Function References246
Property References247
Constructor References248
OVERLOADING OF THE KOTLIN OPERATOR248
Unary Operators248
Increment and Decrement Operators249
Binary Operators250
Other Operators251
KOTLIN DESTRUCTURING DECLARATIONS251
Destructuring Declaration in Lambdas252
EQUALITY EVALUATION253
Structural Equality253
Referential Equality254
KOTLIN COMPARATOR255
Function255
Functions of Extension255
CONCLUSION259

Chapter 7   ◾   Android Development with Kotlin 261

KOTLIN FOR ANDROID261
How to Install and Configure Android Studio for
Kotlin Development262
How to Make an Android Studio Project
Using Kotlin264
HELLOO WORLD APP IN KOTLIN265
HOW TO SET UP AN ANDROID VIRTUAL
DEVICE (AVD)266
KOTLIN ANIMATIONS FOR ANDROID267
Make a New Project268
Change the activity_main.xml File268
bounce.xml271
 Contents   ◾    xvii

fade in.xml272
fade_out.xml272
rotate.xml273
slide_down.xml273
slide_up.xml273
zoom_in.xml274
zoom_out.xml274
Create MainActivity.kt File275
AndroidManifest.xml File276
KOTLIN ANDROID FADE IN/OUT277
Modify activity_main.xml File277
Add an anim Folder278
Change the MainActivity.kt File279
AndroidManifest.xml File280
MENUS FOR ANDROID281
How Can We Define a Menu in an XML File?281
Different Sorts of Menus in Android282
Kotlin Progress Alerts for Android283
Take Note of Notification Channels283
STRUCTURE OF THE ANDROID PROJECT FOLDER286
Manifests Folder286
Java Folder287
Resource (res) Folder288
Gradle Scripts Folder289
CONCLUSION289

APPRAISAL, 291

BIBLIOGRAPHY, 299

INDEX, 303
Preface

The Mastering Computer Science series covers a wide range of topics, span-
ning programming languages as well as modern-day technologies and
frameworks. The series has a special focus on beginner-level content, and
is presented in an easy-to-understand manner, comprising:

• Crystal-clear text, spanning various topics sorted by relevance,

• A special focus on practical exercises, with numerous code samples
and programs,
• A guided approach to programming, with step-by-step tutorials for
the absolute beginners,
• Keen emphasis on real-world utility of skills, thereby cutting the
redundant and seldom-used concepts and focusing instead on the
industry-prevalent coding paradigm, and
• A wide range of references and resources to help both beginner and
intermediate-level developers gain the most out of the books.

The Mastering Computer Science series of books start from the core con-
cepts, and then quickly move on to industry-standard coding practices, to
help learners gain efficient and crucial skills in as little time as possible.
The books assume no prior knowledge of coding, so even absolute newbie
coders can benefit from this series.
The Mastering Computer Science series is edited by Sufyan bin Uzayr, a
writer and educator with more than a decade of experience in the comput-
ing field.

xix
About the Author

Sufyan bin Uzayr is a writer, coder, and entrepreneur with over a

decade of experience in the industry. He has authored several books in
the past, pertaining to a diverse range of topics, ranging from History to
Computers/IT.
Sufyan is the Director of Parakozm, a multinational IT company spe-
cializing in EdTech solutions. He also runs Zeba Academy, an online
learning and teaching vertical with a focus on STEM fields.
Sufyan specializes in a wide variety of technologies such as JavaScript,
Dart, WordPress, Drupal, Linux, and Python. He holds multiple degrees,
including ones in Management, IT, Literature, and Political Science.
Sufyan is a digital nomad, dividing his time between four countries. He
has lived and taught in universities and educational institutions around
the globe. Sufyan takes a keen interest in technology, politics, literature,
history, and sports, and in his spare time, he enjoys teaching coding and
English to young students.
Learn more at sufyanism.com.

xxi
 Chapter 1

Getting Started

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢➢ Introduction
➢➢ Environment setup
➢➢ Data types, variables, and operators
➢➢ Type conversion
➢➢ Standard input/output

Kotlin is a free and open-source programming language that can execute

the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The language can operate on a variety of
systems.
It is a language that blends Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
with functional programming in an open, self-contained, and separate
platform.

Example:
fun main()
{
println("Hello Everyone");
}

DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-1 1
2   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

HISTORY OF KOTLIN
The following are significant landmarks in Kotlin’s history:

• Kotlin v1.0 was released in 2016.

• Google made an announcement in 2017 about first-class Kotlin sup-
port in Android.
• Kotlin v1.3 was released in 2018, adding coroutines for asynchronous
programming.
• Google chose Kotlin as their preferred programming language for
Android app developers in 2019.

FEATURES OF KOTLIN
The following are major Kotlin features:

• Provides Reduced Coding.

• Kotlin uses the JVM, which combines the benefits of OOP with func-
tional programming.
• Provides quick compilation.
• Kotlin supports a wide range of extension functions without code
modifications.
• Kotlin code may be written using an IDE or the command-line
interface.
• Smart feature casting reduces application expenses, while increasing
application speed or performance.

KOTLIN’S KEY CHARACTERISTICS

• Statically typed: A programming language feature that implies the
type of every variable and expression is known at compile time. It is
a statically typed language; it does not need us to define every vari-
able declared.
• Data Classes: In Kotlin, Data Classes lead to the auto-generation
of boilerplate code such as equals, hashCode, function toString(),
getters/setters, and much more.
 Getting Started   ◾    3

Consider the following scenario:

class Books {
private String titles;
private Author authors;
public String getTitle()
{
return titles;
}
public void setTitle(String titles)
{
this.titles = titles;
}
public Author getAuthor()
{
return authors;
}
public void setAuthor(Author authors)
{
this.authors = authors;
}
}

However, in Kotlin, the above class is defined in a single line:

/* Kotlin Code */
data class Book(var titles:String, var authors:Author)

• Concise: It significantly decreases the amount of unnecessary code

written in other object-oriented programming languages.
• Safe: It is protected from the most obnoxious and aggravating
NullPointerExceptions since it supports nullability as part of its system.

By default, every variable in Kotlin is non-null.

String s = "Hello Everyone" // Non-null

When we assign a null value, we get a build time error. So,

s = null // compile-time error

To assign a null value to a string, it must first be declared nullable.

String nullableStr? = null // compiles successfully
4   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• Interoperability with Java: Because Kotlin runs on the JVM, it is

entirely compatible with Java. We can efficiently utilize java code
from Kotlin and Kotlin code from Java.
• Functional and object-oriented capabilities: Kotlin features many
helpful techniques, including higher-order functions, lambda expres-
sions, operator overloading, lazy evaluation, operator overloading,
and many others.

A higher-order function receives a function as an argument, returns a

function, or does both.
Higher-order function illustration:
fun myFun(company: String,product: String, fn:
(String,String) -> String): Unit {
val results = fn(company,product)
println(results)
}

fun main(args: Array){

val fn:(String,String)->String={org,portal->"$org
develops $portal"}
myFun("Kotlin","JetBrain",fn)
}
• Smart Cast: It explicitly typecasts immutable values and automati-
cally inserts the value in its safe cast.
A compilation error will be generated if we attempt to access a nullable
type of String (String? = “BYEBYE”) without using the safe cast.

fun main(args: Array){

var string: String? = "BYEBYE"
print(string.length) // compile time
error
}
}

fun main(args: Array){

var string: String? = "BYEBYE"
if(string != null) { // smart cast
print(string.length)
}
}
 Getting Started   ◾    5

• Compilation time: It has a faster compilation time and more excel-

lent performance.
It is tool-friendly, with excellent tooling support. Kotlin may use any
Java IDEs, including IntelliJ IDEA, Eclipse, and Android Studio. Kotlin
programs may also execute Kotlin programs from the command line.

Kotlin programming language has the following advantages:

• It is simple to learn: Basic is almost identical to Java. If we’ve worked

with Java before, we’ll be up and running in no time.
• Kotlin is platform-agnostic: Because all Java IDEs support Kotlin,
we may develop our programs and run them on any system that pro-
motes JVM.
• It’s far more secure than Java.
• It enables Java frameworks and libraries in new Kotlin projects by uti-
lizing complex frameworks without updating the entire project in Java.

HOW KOTLIN MULTIPLATFORM FUNCTIONS

Multiplatform in Kotlin.
6   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• The language, essential libraries, and basic tools are all included
in Common Kotlin. Code written in common Kotlin runs on all
platforms.
• We may reuse multiplatform logic in standard and platform-specific
code with Kotlin Multiplatform libraries.
• Platform-specific Kotlin versions should use for interoperabil-
ity. Platform-specific Kotlin versions (Kotlin/JVM, Kotlin/JS, and
Kotlin/Native) provide language extensions and platform-specific
libraries and tools.
• We may access the platform’s native code (JVM, JS, and Native) and
use all native features through these platforms.

KOTLIN’S ARCHITECTURE
A well-designed architecture is essential for an application to scale its
features and match the end user base’s expectations. Kotlin has its own
unique and exclusive architecture for allocating memory and producing
high-quality results for developers and end users.
Kotlin’s coroutines and classes construct the core so that less boilerplate
code is produced, performance is increased, and efficiency is reinforced.
The Kotlin compiler can behave differently in several situations, particu-
larly when earmarking distinct types of languages.

Architecture in Kotlin.

The architectural design clearly shows that code execution takes three
simple phases.

• The first step is to add a “.kt” or Kotlin file to the compiler.

• The code is then converted into bytecode by the Kotlin compiler in
the second stage.
• The bytecode is then loaded into the JVM and executed by the JVM
in the third stage.
 Getting Started   ◾    7

When a pair of bytecoded files run on the JVM, they initiate mutual com-
munication, which is how the Kotlin feature known as interoperability for
Java came to be.
Kotlin to JavaScript transformation occurs when Kotlin targets
JavaScript.
When JavaScript is selected as the target, any Kotlin code part of
the library that sails Kotlin is then spilled with JavaScript. The Java
Development Kit (JDK) or any java library used, on the other hand, is not
included.
A non-Kotlin file is not considered during this process. While aiming
toward JavaScript, the Kotlin compiler converts the kt file into ES5.1 to
output consistent JavaScript code. The Kotlin compiler strives for optimal
output size, interoperability with existing modules, standard library func-
tionality, and JavaScript readable output.
The discussion has shown that Kotlin compilers may produce more effi-
cient, competent, and independent code, resulting in a high-performing
software product.

KOTLIN VS. JAVA

Key features:

• Kotlin mixes object-oriented and functional programming capabili-

ties, whereas Java is confined to object-oriented programming.
• Kotlin allows users to write their extension functions, but Java
does not.
• Implicit conversions are not available in Kotlin; however, they are
supported in Java.
• In Kotlin, there are no null variables or objects; yet, null variables
and objects are part of the Java programming language.
• Kotlin does not support static members, unlike Java does.
• Variables of a primitive type in Kotlin are objects, but variables of a
primitive type in Java are not.
• Kotlin supports Lambda Expression, although Java does not.
• Variable data type specifications are not required in Kotlin, although
needed in Java.
8   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• Variable data type definitions are not required in Kotlin, although

they are necessary for Java.
• Semicolons are not required in Kotlin programs, although they are
required in Java programs.
• Language scripting features enable us to utilize Kotlin directly
in Gradle build scripts, whereas Java does not support language
scripting.

Here are the distinctions between Kotlin and Java:

Kotlin Java
Users can develop extension functions in Java does not support extension functions.
Kotlin.
For data classes, Kotlin does not To create classes, Java developers must write
necessitate a lot of effort. and construct many components.
Implicit conversions are not available in Java allows for implicit conversions.
Kotlin.
In Kotlin, there are no null variables or The Java programming language has null
objects. variables and objects.
Kotlin is a computer language that Java is only capable of object-oriented
incorporates object-oriented and programming.
functional programming elements.
Static members are not supported in Java makes use of static members.
Kotlin.
Objects are variables of a primitive type. Primitive type variables are not objects.
We can have one or more secondary Secondary constructors are not allowed in
constructors in Kotlin. Java. It can, however, have many
constructors.
The Kotlin string template also supports Java strings, unlike Kotlin, do not support
expressions. expressions.
Kotlin code is much easier to deploy. Java programming is challenging to deploy.
Semicolons are not required in Kotlin A semicolon is required in a Java application.
programming.
Coroutines are concurrency design Java takes advantage of two coroutine
patterns in Kotlin that may use to options: (1) Rx Java and (2) Project loom.
simplify coding.
There are no wildcard types in Kotlin. Java has a wildcard feature.
Kotlin’s system features built-in null NullPonter Exception is primarily
safety. responsible for Java and Android
development.
In Kotlin, the smart cast functionality is Java does not support the smart cast
accessible. capability.

(Continued)
 Getting Started   ◾    9

Kotlin Java
Variable data type specifications are not Variable data type specifications are required
required in Kotlin. in Java.
Kotlin supports lambda expression. Java does not support lambda expression.
Kotlin includes the Lazy-Loading Java does not support this functionality.
functionality.
Kotlin has language scripting capabilities; Java does not support language scripting.
we may use it directly in our Gradle
build scripts.
Kotlin supports contemporary Java supports the OOP’s paradigm.
programming notions like delegates,
extensions, and higher-order functions.
The annual pay range for “Kotlin” is The annual compensation for a java
around $107,275 for Software engineers developer is $104,793.
to $121,034 for Android Developers.

KOTLIN MULTIPLATFORM IN MOBILE

Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile (KMM) is an SDK that makes it easier to
create cross-platform mobile applications. With KMM, we can share stan-
dard code between iOS and Android apps while writing platform-specific
code only when it is required. For example, developing a native user inter-
face (UI) or working with platform-specific APIs.

Begin with Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile

Platforms That Are Supported
KMM is compatible with the following mobile targets:

• Applications and libraries for Android.

• Android NDK supports ARM32 and ARM64 processors.
• Apple iOS on ARM64 (iPhone 5s and later), ARM32 (previous
models), and desktop simulators on Intel-based and Apple Silicon
platforms.
• Apple watchOS is available on ARM64 (Apple Watch Series 4 and
later) and ARM32 (previous versions) platforms and desktop simula-
tors on Intel-based and Apple Silicon systems.
• KMM is built on the Kotlin Multiplatform technology, which sup-
ports various platforms such as JavaScript, Linux, WebAssembly,
etc.
10   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Kotlin for Server-Side

Kotlin is an excellent choice for designing server-side apps since it allows
us to create expressive and straightforward code while remaining fully
compatible with current Java-based technology stacks and having a short
learning curve:

• Expressivity: Kotlin’s novel language featured, including type-safe

constructors and delegated properties, aid in creating strong and
easy-to-use abstractions.
• Scalability: Kotlin’s support for coroutines aids in the development
of server-side applications that scale to enormous numbers of clients
while using little hardware.
• Interoperability: Kotlin is completely interoperable with all
Java-based frameworks, allowing us to continue on our existing
technology stack while benefiting from a more contemporary
language.
• Transfer: Kotlin facilitates the incremental, step-by-step migration
of huge Java codebases to Kotlin. We may begin developing new code
in Kotlin while still maintaining existing sections of our system in
Java.
• Tooling: In addition to excellent IDE support with general, Kotlin
provides framework-specific tooling (for example, Spring) in the
IntelliJ IDEA Ultimate plugin.
• Learning Curve: Getting started with Kotlin is relatively simple for
a Java developer. The Kotlin plugin’s automatic Java to Kotlin con-
verter aids in the initial phases. Kotlin Koans walk us through the
language’s essential features with a series of interactive activities.

Kotlin Frameworks for Server-Side Development

• Spring begins with version 5.0, using Kotlin language capabilities to

provide more succinct APIs. The online project generator enables us
to create a new Kotlin project easily.
• Vert.x, a framework for developing reactive Web applications on
the JVM, has extensive documentation and specialized support for
Kotlin.
 Getting Started   ◾    11

• Ktor is a JetBrains framework for developing Web apps in Kotlin that

uses coroutines for high scalability and provides an easy-to-use and
idiomatic API.
• kotlinx.html is a DSL for creating HTML in a Web application. It’s an
excellent alternative to classic templating technologies like JSP and
FreeMarker.
• Micronaut is a full-stack, contemporary, JVM-based framework for
developing modular, testable microservice, and serverless applica-
tions. It has a plethora of useful built-in functions.
• http4k is a small-footprint functional toolkit for Kotlin HTTP appli-
cations built entirely in Kotlin. The library is based on Twitter’s “Our
Server as a Function” and depicts HTTP Servers and Clients as sim-
ple Kotlin functions combined.
• Javalin is a Kotlin and Java web framework that supports WebSockets,
HTTP2, and async requests.
• Direct JDBC access, JPA, and the use of NoSQL databases via Java
drivers are all alternatives for persistence. The kotlin-jpa compiler
plugin for JPA adjusts Kotlin-compiled classes to the framework’s
specifications.

Using Kotlin to Deploy Server-Side Apps

Kotlin apps may run on any host that supports Java Web applications, such
as Amazon Web Services, Google Cloud Platform, etc.

Kotlin for Android

• Since Google I/O in 2019, Android mobile development has become

Kotlin-first.
• When we use Kotlin for Android development, we get less code
and better readability. Spend less time creating code and more time
attempting to comprehend the code of others.
• Language and environment that is mature. Since its inception in
2011, Kotlin has evolved not just as a language but also as a com-
plete ecosystem with sophisticated tools. It is now fully integrated
into Android Studio and is actively utilized by numerous businesses
to create Android applications.
12   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• Support for Kotlin in Android Jetpack and other libraries. KTX

extensions extend current Android libraries with Kotlin language
features such as coroutines, extension functions, lambdas, and
named arguments.
• Java interoperability. We may utilize Kotlin alongside Java in our
apps without moving all of our code to Kotlin.
• Multiplatform development is supported. Kotlin may use it to create
Android and iOS, backend, and web apps. Make use of the advan-
tages of sharing the common code throughout platforms.
• Code security. Less code and improved readability result in fewer
mistakes. The remaining errors are detected by the Kotlin compiler,
rendering the code safe.
• Learning is simple. Kotlin is a relatively simple language to learn,
especially for Java developers.
• A large community. The Kotlin community, which is growing world-
wide, has given it a lot of support and numerous contributions.
According to Google, Kotlin is used by more than 60% of the top
1000 apps on the Play Store.

Kotlin for JavaScript (JS)

Kotlin/JS allows us to convert our Kotlin code, the Kotlin standard library,
and suitable dependencies to JavaScript.
The kotlin.js and Kotlin. Multiplatform Gradle plugins are suggested
for using Kotlin/JS. They offer a centralized and straightforward approach
to setting up and managing Kotlin projects targeting JavaScript. This con-
tains crucial features such as customizing our application’s bundling, add-
ing JavaScript dependencies straight from npm, and more.

Frameworks in Kotlin/JS
Frameworks that make it easier to construct web apps are extremely useful
in modern web development. Here are some prominent web frameworks.

• KVision: KVision is an object-oriented web framework that allows

us to construct Kotlin/JS apps with ready-to-use components that
may be used as building blocks for our app’s UI. We may develop
our front end using reactive and imperative programming models,
 Getting Started   ◾    13

combine it with our server-side apps using connectors for Ktor,

Spring Boot, and other frameworks, and exchange code with Kotlin
Multiplatform.
• fritz2: fritz2 is a self-contained framework for creating reactive web
UIs. It has its type-safe DSL for creating and generating HTML ele-
ments, and it uses Kotlin’s coroutines and flows to define components
and data bindings. It comes with state management, validation, rout-
ing, and other features, and it connects with Kotlin Multiplatform
applications.
• Doodle: Doodle is a vector-based Kotlin/JS UI framework. Doodle
apps generate UIs using the browser’s graphics capabilities rather
than DOM, CSS, or JavaScript. Doodle’s technique allows us to pre-
cisely control the rendering of any UI components, vector shapes,
gradients, and custom visualizations.

Kotlin/Native
Kotlin/Native is a technology that compiles Kotlin code to native binaries
that can operate without using a virtual machine. It is a native implemen-
tation of the Kotlin standard library and an LLVM-based backend for the
Kotlin compiler.

Why Is Kotlin/Native Used?

Kotlin/Native is primarily created to assist compilation for plat-
forms where virtual machines are neither desired nor feasible, such
as embedded devices or iOS. It is useful when a developer creates
self-contained software that does not require a separate runtime or
virtual machine.
Platforms of target Kotlin/Native is compatible with the following
platforms:

• macOS
• Linux
• iOS, tvOS, watchOS
• Android NDK
• Windows (MinGW)
14   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Kotlin for Data Science

Kotlin may be an excellent choice for working with data from establishing
data pipelines to producing machine learning models:

• Kotlin is a compact, clear, and simple programming language.

• Static typing and null safety aid in creating dependable, maintain-
able code that is simple to troubleshoot.
• Kotlin, being a JVM language, provides excellent performance and
the ability to leverage a whole ecosystem of tried-and-true Java
libraries.

Editors Who Work Interactively

Notebooks like Jupyter Notebook and Apache Zeppelin are useful for data
visualization and exploratory study. Kotlin interacts with these tools to
assist us in exploring data, sharing our discoveries with others, and build-
ing up our data science and machine learning abilities.

• Jupyter Kotlin kernel: The Jupyter Notebook is a free and open-

source web tool that lets us create and share documents, including
code, visualizations, and markdown text. Kotlin-jupyter is an open-
source project that adds support for Kotlin to Jupyter Notebook.
• Zeppelin Kotlin interpreter: Apache Zeppelin is a well-known web-
based interactive data analytics application. It has extensive support
for the Apache Spark cluster computing system, which is beneficial
for data engineering. Apache Zeppelin includes a bundled Kotlin
interpreter beginning with version 0.9.0.

Kotlin for Competitive Programming

Competitive programming is a mental sport where participants develop
programs to solve precisely stated algorithmic challenges while adhering
to severe limits. Problems can range from basic ones that can be solved
by any software developer with minimal code to sophisticated ones that
need an understanding of particular algorithms, data structures, and
a lot of experience. While not explicitly designed for competitive pro-
gramming, Kotlin fits well in this domain by reducing the amount of
boilerplate that a programmer needs to write and read while working
with the code almost to the level offered by dynamically typed scripting
 Getting Started   ◾    15

languages having the tooling and performance of a statically typed

language.

Kotlin Language Applications

• Kotlin may use it to create Android applications.

• Kotlin may also compile to JavaScript, which the front end can then
use.
• It is also intended for use in web development and server-side
programming.

Setup of the Kotlin Environment for Command Line

We’ll look at building up a Kotlin environment on a command-line
compiler.
Installing Kotlin requires the following prerequisites: Because Kotlin
runs on the JVM, we must install JDK and set the path in the local system
environment variable.
Get the Kotlin compiler here: We can get the most recent version of
the Kotlin standalone compiler from Github Releases. The most current
version is 1.3.31.
Configure the Kotlin compiler for command-line use:

• First and foremost, extract the downloaded file to a location with

write access.
• Copy the path up to the kotlinc bin directory.
• Now go to my computer’s settings ->Advanced System Settings ->
Environment Variables.
• Click the route in system variables and then click the edit button.
• Now, put the copied path to the bin directory into this field and click
OK -> OK -> OK.
• In the command prompt, type kotlinc to confirm the installation.

Intellij IDEA Is Used to Build up a Kotlin Environment

JetBrains’ Kotlin is a statically typed, general-purpose programming lan-
guage that has been used to create world-class IDEs such as IntelliJ IDEA,
PhpStorm, Appcode, and others. JetBrains initially offered it in 2011.
16   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Kotlin is an object-oriented language superior to Java while remaining

completely compatible with Java code.
Let’s look at creating a Kotlin environment with Intellij IDEA and run-
ning our first Kotlin code:

• Install the most recent version of IntelliJ IDEA to get started.

JetBrains’ free Community Edition is available for download.
• Create a Kotlin application after installing Intellij IDEA. Creating a
new project by selecting File -> New -> Project. Then choose Kotlin
-> JVM | IDEA.
• Give our project a name and choose an SDK version. The project is
called HelloEveryone in this case.
• HelloEveryone is our new project. Make a new Kotlin file in the
source (src) folder and call it myfirstapp.kt.
• After we’ve created the file, write the main function. IntelliJ IDEA
has a template for doing this quickly. Simply write main and press
the tab key. Add a line of code that prints “Hello Everyone.”
• Start the application.
• The program is now available to use. The simplest method is to pick
Run “myfirstappKt” from the sidebar’s green Run button. By hitting
Ctrl + Shift + F10, we may run straight.
• The results will be displayed in the Run Tool Window if our program
compiles appropriately.

Kotlin Hello Everyone Program

Hello, Everyone in any programming language is the first basic program.
Let’s start with writing the first program in the Kotlin programming
language.
Kotlin’s “Hello, Everyone” program: Open our favorite editor, note-
pad or notepad++, and create a file called myfirstapp.kt containing the
code below.

// Kotlin Hello Everyone Program

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println("Hello, Everyone")
}
 Getting Started   ◾    17

The program may be compiled using a command-line compiler:

$kotlinc myfirstapp.kt

Run the program now to view the output in the command-line compiler:

$kotlin myfirstapp.kt

Hello, Everyone
The following are the specifics of the “Hello, Everyone” program:
Line 1: The first line is a remark that the compiler ignores. Comments
are made to programs to make the source code easier to understand for
readers.
Kotlin accepts two types of comments:

• Single line comment:

// This is a single line comment

• Multiple line comment:

/* This is
multiple line
comment
*/

Line 2: The main function is defined in the second line.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// ...
}

Every program begins with the main() function. All functions in Kotlin
begin with the fun keyword, followed by the function name (here main),
a list of parameters, an optional return type, and the function body
({.......}).
In this scenario, the parameter – an array of strings and return units –
is included in the main function. The unit type, which corresponds to void
in Java, indicates that the function does not return any value.
Line 3: The third line is a statement that writes “Hello, Everyone” to the
program’s standard output.

println("Hello, Everyone")
18   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Semicolons, like most current programming languages, are optional in

Kotlin.

DATA TYPES IN KOTLIN

Primitive data types are the most fundamental data types in Kotlin, while
all others, such as array and string, are reference types. To make basic data
types act like objects in Java, wrappers (java.lang.Integer) are required,
whereas Kotlin already contains all data types as objects.
In Kotlin, there are many kinds of data:

• Integer Data Type

• Floating-point Data Type
• Boolean Data Type
• Character Data Type

Integer Data Type

Integer values are contained in these data types:

Data Type Bits Min Value Max Value

Byte  8 −128 127
Short 16 −32768 32767
Int 32 −2147483648 2147483647
Long 64 −9223372036854775808 922337203685477580

Source Code:
fun main(args : Array<String>)
{
var myint = 34
//add suffix L for long integer

var mylong = 22L

println("My integer ${myint}")
println("My long integer ${mylong}")
var by1: Byte = Byte.MIN_VALUE
var by2: Byte = Byte.MAX_VALUE
println("The Smallest byte value: " +by1)
println("The Largest byte value: " +by2)
 Getting Started   ◾    19

var St1: Short = Short.MIN_VALUE

var St2: Short = Short.MAX_VALUE
println("The Smallest short value: " +St1)
println("The Largest short value: " +St2)

var It1: Int = Int.MIN_VALUE

var It2: Int = Int.MAX_VALUE
println("The Smallest integer value: " +It1)
println("The Largest integer value: " +It2)

var Lt1: Long = Long.MIN_VALUE

var Lt2: Long = Long.MAX_VALUE
println("The Smallest long integer value: " +Lt1)
println("The Largest long integer value: " +Lt2)
}

Floating-Point Data Type

Integer values are contained in these data types.

Data Type Bits Min Value Max Value

Float 32 1.40129846432481707e-45 3.40282346638528860e+38
Double 64 4.94065645841246544e-324 1.79769313486231570e+308

Let’s develop a program to represent the floating-point data type and its
minimum and maximum values.

Source Code:
// Kotlin code
fun main(args : Array<String>) {
var myfloat = 55F // add
suffix F for float
println("My float value ${myfloat}")

var Ft1: Float = Float.MIN_VALUE

var Ft2: Float = Float.MAX_VALUE
println("Smallest Float value: " +Ft1)
println("Largest Float value: " + Ft2)

var Dt1: Double = Double.MIN_VALUE

var Dt2: Double = Double.MAX_VALUE
println("Smallest Double value: " + Dt1)
println("Largest Double value: " + Dt2)
20   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Boolean Data Type

The Boolean data type simply represents one piece of information, either true
or false. In Kotlin, the Boolean type is the same as in Java. The operations
disjunction (||) and conjunction (&&) can be performed on Boolean types.

boolean 1 bit true or false

Source Code:

// Kotlin code
fun main(args : Array<String>){
if (true is Boolean){
print("Yes,true is a boolean value")
}
}

Character Data Type

Small letters (a–z), capital letters (A–Z), numerals (0–9), and other symbols
are represented by the character data type.

char 8 bits -128 127

Source Code:

// Kotlin code
fun main(args : Array<String>){
var alphabet: Char = 'D'
println("D is a character : ${alphabet is Char}")
}

VARIABLES IN KOTLIN
Every variable in Kotlin must define before it can utilize. An attempt to
use a variable without declaring it results in a syntax error. The declaration
of the variable type also determines the type of data that can store in the
memory location.
The type of variable in the case of local variables may deduce from the
initialized value.

var rollno = 54
var name = "Nidhi"
 Getting Started   ◾    21

println(roll-no)
println(name)

Above is the local variable roll-no, whose value is 54 and whose type is
Integer because the literal type is int, and another variable, name, whose
type is String.
Variables in Kotlin are declared using one of two kinds:

• Immutable using val keyword

• Mutable using var keyword

Immutable Using val Keyword

Immutable variables are sometimes known as read-only variables. As a
result, we cannot alter the variable’s value specified using the val keyword.

val myName = "Gautam"

myName = "Preeniti" // compile-time error
// It gives an error

Because it may be initialized with the value of a variable, an immutable vari-

able is not a constant. It implies that the value of an immutable variable does
not have to be known at compile-time, and if it is defined within a construct
that is called repeatedly, it can take on a new value with each function call.

var myBirthDate = "01/11/1996"

val myNewBirthDate = myBirthDate
println(myNewBirthDate)

We can alter the value of a variable in a Mutable variable:

var myAge = 26
myAge = 27 // compiles successfully
println("My new Age is ${myAge}")

Variable Scope
A variable exists just within the code block({............}) where it was defined.
Outside of the loop, we cannot access the variable. The same variable can
declare inside the nested loop – for example, if a function has an argument
x and we create a new variable x inside the same loop, then the variable x
inside the loop is different from the argument.
22   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Naming Convention
LowerCamelCase should be used to name all variables.

val myBirthDate = "01/11/1996"

OPERATORS IN KOTLIN
Operators are special symbols that carry out various operations on oper-
ands. For example, + and – are addition and subtraction operators, respec-
tively. Kotlin, like Java, has a variety of operators:

• Arithmetic operator
• Relation operator
• Assignment operator
• Unary operator
• Logical operator
• Bitwise operator

Arithmetic Operator
Operators Meaning Expression Translate to
+ Addition c+d c.plus(d)
– Subtraction c–d c.minus(d)
* Multiplication c*d c.times(d)
/ Division c/d c.div(d)
% Modulus c%d c.rem(d)

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
var c = 20 var d = 4 println("c + d = " + (c + d))
println("c - d = " + (c - d))
println("c * d = " + (c.times(d)))
println("c / d = " + (c / d))
println("c % d = " + (c.rem(d)))
}
 Getting Started   ◾    23

Relation Operator
Operators Meaning Expression Translate to
> greater than c>d c.compareTo(d) > 0
< less than c<d c.compareTo(d) < 0
>= greater than or equal to c >= d c.compareTo(d) >= 0
<= less than or equal to c <= d c.compareTo(d) <= 0
== is equal to c == d c?.equals(d)? : (d === null)
!= not equal to c != d !(c?.equals(d)? : (d === null)) > 0

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
var a = 20
var b = 10
println("a > b = "+(a>b))
println("a < b = "+(a.compareTo(d) < 0))
println("a >= b = "+(a>=b))
println("a <= b = "+(a.compareTo(b) <= 0))
println("a == b = "+(a==b))
println("a != b = "+(!(a?.equals(b)?: (b ===
null))))
}

Assignment Operator
Operators Expression Translate to
+= c=c+d c.plusAssign(d) > 0
−= c=c–d c.minusAssign(d) < 0
*= c=c*d c.timesAssign(d) >= 0
/= c=c/d c.divAssign(d) <= 0
%= c=c%d c.remAssign(d)

Source Code:
fun main(args : Array<String>){
var c = 10
var d = 5
c+=d
println(c)
c-=d
println(c)
24   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

c*=d
println(c)
c/=d
println(c)
c%=d
println(d)
}

Unary Operator
Operators Expression Translate to
++ ++c or c++ c.inc()
— –c or c– c.dec()

Source Code:
fun main(args : Array<String>){
var c=10
var flag = true
println("First print then increment: "+ c++)
println("First increment then print: "+ ++c)
println("First print then decrement: "+ c--)
println("First decrement then print: "+ --c)
}

Logical Operator
Operators Meaning Expression
&& return true if all expressions are true (c>d) && (c>a)
|| return true if any expression is true (c>d) || (c>a)
! return complement of the expression c.not()

Source Code:
fun main(args : Array<String>){
var a = 110
var b = 24
var c = 11
var result = false
if(a > b && a > c)
println(a)
if(a < b || a > c)
println(y)
 Getting Started   ◾    25

if( result.not())
println("Logical operators")
}

Bitwise Operator
Operators Meaning Expression
Shl signed shift left c.shl(d)
Shr signed shift right c.shr(d)
Ushr unsigned shift right c.ushr()
And bitwise and c.and(d)
Or bitwise or c.or()
Xor bitwise xor c.xor()
Inv bitwise inverse c.inv()

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
println("4 signed shift left by 1 bit: " +
4.shl(1))
println("11 signed shift right by 2 bits: : "
+ 11.shr(2))
println("15 unsigned shift right by 2 bits: "
+ 15.ushr(2))
println("35 bitwise and 21: " + 35.and(21))
println("35 bitwise or 21: " + 35.or(21))
println("35 bitwise xor 21: " + 35.xor(21))
println("13 bitwise inverse is: " + 13.inv())
}

KOTLIN STANDARD INPUT/OUTPUT

We will look at how to take input and show it on the screen in Kotlin.
Kotlin standard I/O operations are used to transfer a series of bytes or byte
streams from an input device, such as a keyboard, to the system’s main
memory and from the system’s main memory to an output device, such as
a monitor.
To print output on the screen in Java, we use System.out.println(message);
however, in Kotlin, println(message) is used.
Kotlin Output – The fundamental action done to move byte streams
from main memory to the output device is known as Kotlin standard
26   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

output. We can output any of the data types integer, float, and any patterns
or texts on the system’s screen.
To display output on the screen, use any of the following functions:

print() function
println() function

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
print("Hello, Everyone ")
println("This is tutorial of Kotlin.")
}

Distinction between println() and print()

The print() method outputs the message enclosed by double quotations.
The println() method outputs the message between the double quotes
and advances to the start of the following line.
To print a string in Kotlin, use the following code:
fun main(args
: Array<String>)
{
println("Kotlin")
println("A Computer Science portal for Geeks")

print("Kotlin - ")
print("A Computer Science portal for Kotlin")
}

Actually, print() calls System.out.print() and println() calls System.out.

println().
If we’re using Intellij IDEA, go to > Declaration by clicking the right
button and then next to println. (In Windows, press Ctrl + B; in Mac,
press Cmd + B.) It will open the Console.kt file, and we can see that it calls
System.out.println inside().

Variables and Literals Print

fun sum(a: Int,b: Int) : Int{
return a + b
}
fun main(args: Array<String>){
 Getting Started   ◾    27

var a = 20
var b = 30
var c = 40L
var marks = 50.4
println("Sum of {$c} and {$d} is : ${sum(c,d)}")
println("Long value is: $e")
println("marks")
println("$marks")
}

Input of Kotlin
The core action done by Kotlin standard input is to flow byte streams from
an input device, such as a keyboard, to the system’s main memory.
We may obtain user input by using the following function:

readline() method
Scanner class

Take User Input with the readline() Function

fun main(args : Array<String>) {

print("Enter the text: ")
var input = readLine()
print("We entered: $input")
}

Take Input from the User Using the Scanner Class

If we accept input from the user that is not of the String data type, we must
use the Scanner class. To utilize Scanner, we must first import the Scanner
on the top of the application.

import java.util.Scanner;

Create an instance for the scanner class and receive user input. In the fol-
lowing application, we will demonstrate how to accept integer, float, and
Boolean data types input.

import java.util.Scanner
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
// create an object for scanner class
val number1 = Scanner(System.'in')
28   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

print("Enter integer: ")

// nextInt() method is used to take
// next integer value and store in enteredNumber1
variable
var enteredNumber1:Int = number1.nextInt()
println("We entered: $enteredNumber1")
val number2 = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter float value: ")
// nextFloat() method is used to take next
// Float value and store in enteredNumber2 variable
var enteredNumber2:Float = number2.nextFloat()
println("We entered: $enteredNumber2")
val booleanValue = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter boolean: ")
// nextBoolean() method is used to take
// next boolean value and store in enteredBoolean
variable
var enteredBoolean:Boolean = booleanValue.
nextBoolean()
println("We entered: $enteredBoolean")
}

Take User Input without Using the Scanner Class

We will use readline() to take user input and not import the Scanner class.
readline()!! To verify that the input value is not null, accept it as a string
and follow it with (!!).

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
print("Enter Integer value: ")
val string1 = readLine()!!
//.toInt() function converts the string into
Integer
var integerValue: Int = string1.toInt()
println("We entered: $integerValue")
print("Enter double value: ")
val string2= readLine()!!
//.toDouble() function converts the string
into Double
var doubleValue: Double = string2.toDouble()
println("We entered: $doubleValue")
}
 Getting Started   ◾    29

TYPE CONVERSION IN KOTLIN

Type conversion (also known as type casting) converts the entity of one
data type variable into another data type variable.
As we all know, Java provides implicit type conversion from smaller to
bigger data types. Long data type can be allocated an integer value.
As an example:

var myNumber = 110

var myLongNumber: Long = myNumber

However, implicit type conversion is not supported in Kotlin. An integer

data type cannot be allocated an integer value.

var myNumber = 110

var myLongNumber: Long = myNumber // Compiler
error
// Mismatch in type: the inferred type is Int,
although Long was anticipated.

In Kotlin, a helper function can be used to convert one data type to another
explicitly.

Example:
var myNumber = 110
var myLongNumber: Long = myNumber.toLong()

To convert one data type to another, use the following helper

function:

• toShort()
• toByte()
• toInt()
• toFLoat()
• toLong()
• toChar()
• toDouble()
30   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

It must notice that there is no help function for converting to Boolean

type.

Conversion of a Larger Data Type to a Smaller Data Type

var myLongNumber = 12L

var myNumber2: Int = myLongNumber1.toInt()

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{

println("258 to byte: " + (258.toByte()))

println("40000 to short: " + (40000.
toShort()))
println("21474847899 to Int: " + (21474847899.
toInt()))
println("12L to Int: " + (12L.toInt()))
println("21.54 to Int: " + (21.54.toInt()))
println("21 to float: " + (21.toFloat()))
println("55 to char: " + (55.toChar()))
println("B to Int: " + ('B'.toInt()))
}

EXPRESSION, STATEMENT, AND BLOCK IN KOTLIN

Expression in Kotlin
An expression is made up of variables, operators, method calls, and other
elements that all work together to generate a single value. Kotlin expres-
sions, like any different language, are building blocks of any program that
are generally constructed to produce new value. It can use to assign a value
to a variable in a program at times. It should remember that one expres-
sion can include another.

• Variable declarations cannot be expressions (for example, var a = 110).

• A value assigned is not an expression (b = 14).
• A class declaration (class XYZ…) is not an expression.

Because every function in Kotlin returns a value of at least Unit, every

function is an expression.
 Getting Started   ◾    31

Source Code:
fun sumOf(a:Int,b:Int): Int{
return a+b
}

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val a = 12
val b = 4
var sum = sumOf(c,d)
var mul = c * d
println(sum)
println(mul)
}

Both c * d and sumof(c, d) are expressions that return an integer value.

sumOf() is a function that returns the sum of two arguments.

Kotlin if Expression
“If” is a statement in Java but an expression in Kotlin. It is referred to as an
expression since it compares the values of c and d and returns the greatest
value. As a result, is there no ternary operator (c>d)?c:d in Kotlin, because
the if expression replaces.
if(condition) condition met, else condition doesn’t meet.

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>){
val c = 1100
val c = 989
var e = 1022
var max1 = if(c > d) c else d
var max2 = if(e > c) e else c
println("The maximum of ${c} and ${d} is $max1
" )
println("The maximum of ${e} and ${c} is $max2
" )
}

Statement in Kotlin
A statement is a syntactic unit in any programming language that describes
an action to be performed. A program is made up of a series of one or more
32   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

statements. A statement in Java must always conclude with a semicolon (;),

while in Kotlin, the semicolon (;) is optional.
• A variable declaration is a statement.
val marks = 99
var grade = 'A+'

• A statement is also created by assigning a value to a variable.

var sum = 11 + 21 // it is a statement

• In this case, 11 + 21 is an expression, but var sum = 11 + 21 is a

statement.

Multiple Statements in Kotlin

When we write more than one statement in a single line, it is multiple
statements.

Source Code:
fun main(args: Array<String>){
val sum: Int
sum = 110
println(sum) // single
statement
println("Hello");println("Everyone") //
Mutilple statements
}

Block in Kotlin
A block is a section of software code enclosed by curly braces ({..}). A block
can be made up of one or more statements, each preceded by variable dec-
larations. A block contains one or more nested blocks. Every function has
its own block, and the main function likewise has one.

fun main(args: Array<String>) { // main

block or outer block start
val array = intArrayOf(3, 5, 7, 8)
for (element in array) { // start
inner block
println(element)
} // end inner block
}
 Getting Started   ◾    33

Variable Scope in Nested Blocks

Unless a variable with the same name is declared at the head of the inner
block, the variables declared at the block’s head are visible throughout the
block and any nested blocks. When a new declaration becomes effective
throughout the inner block, the outer declaration reverts to being effective
after the inner block. As a result, variables have nested scopes.

CONCLUSION
This chapter covered an overview of Kotlin, including how to set up a com-
mand-line environment and integrate it with Intellij. We also covered fun-
damental programming in Kotlin and data types, variables, and operators.
In addition, we discussed Standard input-output in Kotlin. The last section
discussed type conversion, expressions, statements, and blocks in Kotlin.
 Chapter 2

Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP)
Concepts

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢➢ Class and object

➢➢ Constructor
➢➢ Inheritance
➢➢ Extension function

In Chapter 1, we discussed an overview of Kotlin, where we learned the intro-

duction and its history and covered features and advantages. We also learned
the environment setup for the command line and with IntelliJ. Moreover, we
covered data types, variables, and input-output in Kotlin. In this chapter, we
will discuss the Object-Oriented Programming’s (OOP’s) concept in Kotlin,
where we cover class object, constructor, inheritance, and interfaces.

OBJECTS AND CLASSES IN KOTLIN

Kotlin supports both functional and OOP. In the previous section, we cov-
ered about functions, higher-order functions, and lambdas, representing
Kotlin as an available language. This section will learn about the funda-
mental OOP’s ideas that define Kotlin as an OOP language.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-2 35
36   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Language for Object-Oriented Programming

The fundamental ideas of an OOP language are class and object. These
support OOP principles like inheritance, abstraction, and so forth.

Class
Class, like Java, is a blueprint for objects with comparable features. Before
creating an object, we must first specify a class, and the class keyword is
used to do so.
The class declaration comprises the class name, the class header, and the
class body, all enclosed by curly braces.

Syntax:
class class-Name
{ // class header
// property
// member-function
}

• Class name: Each class has its name.

• Class header: Class headers are made up of a class’s arguments and
constructors.
• Class body: The class body is enclosed by curly brackets and com-
prises member functions and other properties.

The header and class body are optional; if there is nothing between the
curly braces, the class body can be removed.
class emptyClass

If we wish to include a constructor, we must include the term constructor

right after the class name.
Creating a constructor:
class class-Name constructor(parameters) {
// property
// member-function
}
Kotlin class example:
class employees
{
// properties
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    37

var name: String = ""

var age: Int = 0
var gender: Char = 'D'
var salary: Double = 0.toDouble()
//member functions
fun names(){
}
fun ages() {
}
fun salary(){
}
}

Object
It is an OOP core unit that represents real-world items with state and
behavior. Objects are used to access a class’s attributes and member func-
tions. Multiple instances of the same class can create in Kotlin. An item is
made up of:

• State: It is represented through an object’s characteristics. It also

reflects an object’s attributes.
• Behavior: It is expressed through an object’s methods. It also repre-
sents an object’s interaction with other objects.
• Identity: It provides an object with a unique name and allows one
thing to communicate with other objects.

Create an object: Using the class reference, we can create an object.

var obj = class-Name()

Accessing a class’s properties: We may use an object to access a class’s

properties. First, use the class reference to build an object and then access
the property.

obj.nameOfProperty

Accessing a class member function: We may use the object to access a

class member function.

obj.funtionName(parameters)
38   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Kotlin program for creating many objects and accessing the class’s
properties and member functions:

class employee
{// Constructor Declaration of Class
var name: String = ""
var age: Int = 0
var gender: Char = 'F'
var salary: Double = 0.toDouble()
fun insertValues(n: String, a: Int, g: Char, s:
Double) {
name = n
age = a
gender = g
salary = s
println("Name of the employee: $name")
println("Age of the employee: $age")
println("Gender: $gender")
println("Salary of the employee: $salary")
}
fun insertName(n: String) {
this.name = n
}

}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// creating multiple objects
var obj = employee()
// object 2 of class employee
var obj2 = employee()

//accessing the member function

obj.insertValues("Praveen", 5, 'F', 50000.00)

// accessing the member function

obj2.insertName("Alie")

// accessing the name property of class

println("The Name of the new employee: ${obj2.
name}")

}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    39

NESTED CLASS AND INNER CLASS IN KOTLIN

Nested Class
When a class is declared within another class, it is referred to as a nested
class. Because nested classes are static by default, we may access their prop-
erties or variables using dot(.) notation without generating an instance of
the class.

Syntax:
class outClass {
............
// properties of the outer class or a member
function
class nestClass {
..........
// properties of the inner class or
member function
}
}

Note that nested classes cannot access the members of the outer class, but
we may access nested class properties from the outer class without gener-
ating an object for the nested class.
Program of accessing nested class attributes in Kotlin:

// outer class declaration

class outerClass {
var str = "Outer class"
// nested class declaration
class nestedClass {
val firstName = "Pravi"
val lastName = "Ruhi"
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// accessing member of Nested class
print(outerClass.nestedClass().firstName)
print(" ")
println(outerClass.nestedClass().lastName)
}
40   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

To access a nested class’s member function in Kotlin, we must first

build the nested class’s object and then call the member function
from it.
Program of accessing nested class member functions in Kotlin:

// outer class declaration

class outerClass {
var str = "Outer class"
// nested class declaration
class nestedClass {
var st1 = "Nested class"
// nested class member function
fun nestfunc(str2: String): String {
var st2 = st1.plus(str2)
return st2
}
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// the creating object of Nested class
val nested = outerClass.nestedClass()
//the invoking the nested member function by
passing string
var result = nested.nestfunc(" The member function
call successful")
println(result)
}

In Comparison to Java
When it comes to features and use cases, Kotlin classes are quite close to
Java classes but not identical. The Nested class in Kotlin is analogous to a
static nested class in Java, whereas Inner class is comparable to a non-static
nested class in the Java.

Kotlin Java
Nested class Static Nested class
Inner class Non-Static class
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    41

Kotlin Inner Class

The term “inner class” refers to a class that can be declared within another
class using the keyword inner. Using the inner class, we may access the
outer class property from within the inner class.
class outerClass {
............
// properties of the outer class or member
function

inner class innerClass {

..........
// properties of the inner class or member
function
}
}

In the following program, we attempt to access str from the inner class mem-
ber function. However, it does not work and generates a compile-time error.

Inner-Class Kotlin Program

/ outer class declaration
class outerClass {
var str = "Outer class"
// innerClass declaration without using inner
keyword
class innerClass {
var st1 = "Inner class"
fun nestfunc(): String {
// it can not access the outer class
property str
var st2 = str
return st2
}
}
}
// main function
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// creating object for inner class
val inner= outerClass().innerClass()
// inner function call using object
println(inner.nestfunc())
}
42   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

First, put the inner keyword before the inner class. Then, make an instance
of the outer class; otherwise, we won’t be able to utilize inner classes.

// outer class declaration

class outerClass {
var str = "Outer class"
// innerClass declaration with using inner keyword
inner class innerClass {
var st1 = "Inner class"
fun nestfunc(): String {
// can access the outer class property str
var st2 = str
return st2
}
}
}
// main function
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// for inner class creating object
val inner= outerClass().innerClass()
// using object inner function call
println(inner.nestfunc()+" property accessed
successfully from the inner class ")
}

SETTERS AND GETTERS IN KOTLIN

Properties are an essential component of every programming language.
In Kotlin, we may declare properties in the same way we declare variables.
Properties in Kotlin can be specified as changeable using the var keyword
or immutable using the var keyword.

Syntax:
var <propertyName>[: <PropertyType>]
[= <property_initializer>]
[<getter>]
[<setter>]

The property initializer, getter, and setter are all optional in this case.
If the property type can infer from the initializer, we may also omit it.
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    43

The syntax of a read-only or immutable property declaration varies from

that of a mutable property declaration in two ways:

• It begins with val rather than var.

• It does not permit a setter.

fun main(args : Array) {

var x: Int = 0
val y: Int = 1
x = 2 // It can be allocated an unlimited
number of times
y = 0 // It will never be allocated again
}

In the above code, we attempt to assign a value to “y,” but it generates a

build time error since it cannot accept the modification.

Setters and Getters

The setter is used to set the value of a variable in Kotlin, while the getter is
used to get the discount. Getters and Setters are produced automatically in
the code. Let’s define a “names” property in the “company” class. “names”
has the data type String and will be initialized with a default value.

class company
{
var names: String = "Defaultvalue"
}

The preceding code is identical to the following code:

class company
{
var names: String = "defaultvalue"
get() = field // getter
set(value) { field = value } // setter
}

We create an object “c” of the class “company..”. When we initialize the

“name” property, we provide the setter’s argument value, which sets
the “field” to value. When we try to access the object’s names property, we
44   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

obtain a field because the code get() = field. Using the dot(.) syntax, we may
acquire or set the properties of a class object.

val d = company()
d.names = "Hubtutor" // access setter
println(d.names) // access getter

Default Setter and Getter Kotlin Program

class company
{
var name: String = ""
get() = field // getter
set(value) { // setter
field = value
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val d = Company()
d.name = "Hubtutor" // access setter
println(d.names) // access getter
}

Identifiers for Values and Fields

In the preceding program, we have discovered these two identifiers:

• Value: Typically, we use the name of the setter parameter as the

value, but we can use a different name if we want. The value param-
eter holds the value to which a property has been allocated. In the
above program, we set the property name to d.name = “Hubtutor,”
and the value parameter holds the value “Hubtutor.”
• Backing Field (field): It enables saving the property value in mem-
ory. When we initialize property with value, the value is written to
the property’s backing field. The value is allocated to the field in the
preceding program, and subsequently, the field is assigned to get ().

Private Modifier
If we want the get method available to the public, we may use the follow-
ing code:
var names: String = ""
private set
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    45

Because of the private modifier near the set accessor, we can only set the
name in a method within the class. A method within a class is used in a
Kotlin application to set the value.

class company () {
var names: String = "abc"
private set

fun myfunc(n: String) {

names = n // we set the name here
}
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var d = company()
println("Name of the company is: ${d.names}")
d.myfunc("Hubtutor")
println("Name of the new company is: ${d.names}")
}

Explanation: We utilized the private modifier in conjunction with the set

in this case. First, create an object of type company() and use $c.name
to access the property name. Then, in the function specified within the
class, we supply the name “Hubtutor” as a parameter. The name property
is updated with the new name, and access is granted once more.

Setter and Getter with Custom Parameters

class registration( email: String, pwd: String, age:
Int, gender: Char) {
var email_id: String = email
// Custom Getter
get() {
return field.toLowerCase()
}
var password: String = pwd
// Custom Setter
set(values){
field = if(values.length > 7) value else
throw IllegalArgumentException("Password is small")
}
46   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

var age: Int = age

// Custom Setter
set(values) {
field = if(values > 18 ) value else throw
IllegalArgumentException("Age must be 18+")
}
var gender : Char = gender
// Custom Setter
set (values){
field = if(values == 'F') value else throw
IllegalArgumentException("User should be male")
}
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val geek = registration("PRAViRUHi1998@GMAIL.

COM","Hub@123",25,'F')

println("${hub.email_id}")
geek.email_id = "[email protected]"
println("${hub.email_id}")
println("${hub.password}")
println("${hub.age}")
println("${hub.gender}")

// throw IllegalArgumentException("Passwords is
small")
geek.password = "abc"
// throw IllegalArgumentException("Age should be
18+")
geek.age= 5
// throw IllegalArgumentException("User should be
male")
geek.gender = 'M'
}

CLASS PROPERTIES AND CUSTOM ACCESSORS IN KOTLIN

Encapsulation is the fundamental and most crucial concept of a class. It
is a property that allows us to combine code and data into a single object.
In Java, data is saved in fields, which are typically private. As a result,
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    47

accessor methods – a getter and a setter – are supplied to allow the data
to be accessed by the users of the specified class. Additional logic is imple-
mented in the setter for delivering change notifications and verifying the
passed value.

Property
In the case of Java, it is a mixture of accessories and fields. Properties
are intended to be first-class language features in Kotlin. These features
have taken the place of fields and accessor methods. A class property is
declared in the same way as a variable, using the val and var keywords. A
var-declared property is mutable and hence changeable.
Creating a class:

class Abcd(
val names: String,
val ispassed: Boolean
)

• Readable Property: Generates a field and a trivial getter

• Writable Property: A getter, a setter, and a field

Essentially, the property declaration declares the related accessors (both

setter and getter for writable and getter for the readable property). The
value is stored in a field.
Let’s have a look at how the class is used:

class Abcd(
val names: String,
val ispassed: Boolean
)

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val abcd = Abcd("Bobi",true)

println(abc.names)
println(abc.ispassed)

/*
In Java
Abcd abcd = new Abcd("Bobi",true);
48   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

System.out.println(person.getName());
System.out.println(person.isMarried());

*/
}

The constructor in Kotlin can be invoked without the need for a new key-
word. Instead of using the getter, the property is directly addressed. The
logic is same, but the code is significantly shorter. Setters of mutable prop-
erties operate identically.

Customer Accessors
Property accessor implementation on a custom basis:
class Rectanglee(val height: Int, val width: Int)
{
val isSquare: Boolean
get() {
return height == width
}
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val rectangle = Rectanglee(42, 44)

println(rectangle.isSquare)
}

The property is Square does not require a field to contain the value. It just
has a custom getter with the given implementation. The value is calculated
each time the property is accessed.

KOTLIN CONSTRUCTOR
A constructor is a specific member function called when a class object
is formed to initialize variables or attributes. A constructor is required
for every class, and if we do not specify one, the compiler will build one
for us.
There are two kinds of constructors in Kotlin:

• Primary Constructor
• Secondary Constructor
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    49

In Kotlin, a class can have one primary constructor and more subsidiary
constructors. The primary constructor is responsible for initializing the
class, whereas the secondary constructor is responsible for initializing the
class and introducing some extra logic.

Primary Constructor
After the class name, the constructor keyword is used to initialize the
primary constructor in the class header. The arguments in the main con-
structor are optional.

class Add constructor(val c: Int, val d: Int) {

// code
}

The constructor keyword can be omitted if no annotations or access

modifiers are supplied.

class Add(val c: Int, val d: Int) {

// code
}

Program of primary constructor in Kotlin:

//main function
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
val add = Add(6, 8)
println("The Sum of numbers 6 and 8 is: ${add.c}")
}
//primary constructor
class Add constructor(c: Int,d:Int)
{
var a = c+d;
}

Explanation: When we build the class’s object add, the numbers 6 and 8
are sent to the constructor. The constructor arguments a and b are initially
set to 6 and 8, respectively.
The total of variables is stored in the local variable a. In the primary
function, we use $add.a to access the constructor property.
50   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Primary Constructor with Initializer Block

The primary constructor cannot include any code; however, the initial-
ization code can insert in a separate initializer block preceded by the init
keyword.
Kotlin primary constructor program with initializer block:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val emp = employees(18118, "Sanik")
}
class employees(emp_id : Int, emp_name: String) {
val id: Int
var names: String

// initializer block
init {
id = emp_id
names = emp_names

println("Employees id is: $id")

println("Employees name: $names")
}
}

Explanation: When the object emp is formed for the class employee, the
values 18118 and “Sanik” are supplied to the constructor’s arguments emp
id and emp names. The class id and names declare two attributes.
When an object is created, the initializer block is called, which initial-
izes the attributes and prints to the standard output.
The default value in the primary constructor: We may initialize the
constructor parameters with some default values, similar to initializing
functions’ default values.
In the main constructor of a Kotlin program, the following default
values are used:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val emp = employees(18118, "Sanik")
// the default value for emp_name will be used
here
val emp2 = employees(10011)
//the default values for both parameters because
no arguments passed
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    51

val emp3 = employees()

}
class employees(emp_id : Int = 110, emp_name: String
= "abcd") {
val id: Int
var name: String

// initializer block
init {
id = emp_id
name = emp_name

print("Employee id is: $id, ")

println("Employee name: $name")
println()
}
}

Explanation: In this case, we’ve set the constructor arguments to the

default values emp id = 110 and emp name = “abcd.”
We gave the values for both arguments when we formed the object emp,
which outputs those values.
However, the initializer block utilizes the default values and prints to
standard output because we did not give the emp name when we created
the object emp2.

Secondary Constructor
As previously stated, Kotlin may have one or more secondary construc-
tors. Secondary constructors allow for variable initialization and the addi-
tion of logic to the class. The keyword constructor precedes them.
Program of Kotlin implementation of a secondary constructor:

//main function
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
Add(8, 6)
}
//class with one secondary constructor
class Add
{
constructor(c: Int, d:Int)
52   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

{
var a = c + d
println("The sum of numbers 8 and 6 is: ${a}")
}
}

The compiler determines which secondary constructor will be invoked

based on the parameters received. The above program does not indicate
which constructor should be invoked, and the compiler makes the decision.
In a class, there are two secondary constructors in Kotlin:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

employee(18118, "Sanik")
employee(10011,"Praveen",60000.5)
}
class employee {

constructor (emp_id : Int, emp_name: String ) {

var id: Int = emp_id
var name: String = emp_name
print("Employee id is: $id, ")
println("Employee name: $name")
println()
}
constructor (emp_id : Int, emp_name: String,
emp_salary : Double) {
var id: Int = emp_id
var name: String = emp_name
var salary : Double = emp_salary
print("Employee id is: $id, ")
print("Employee name: $name, ")
println("Employee name: $salary")
}
}

In a class, there are three secondary constructors in Kotlin program:

//main function
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
Add(51, 61)
Add(51, 61, 71)
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    53

Add(51, 61, 71, 81)

}
//class with three secondary constructors
class Add
{
constructor(c: Int, d: Int)
{
var a = c + d
println("Sum of 51, 61 = ${a}")
}
constructor(c: Int, d: Int, a: Int)
{
var b = c + d + a
println("Sum of 51, 61, 71 = ${b}")
}
constructor(c: Int, d: Int, a: Int, b: Int)
{
var e = c + d + a + b
println("Sum of 51, 61, 71, 81 = ${e}")
}
}

Using one secondary constructor to refer to another: Using

this() method, a secondary constructor of the same class can invoke
another secondary constructor. In the following program, we called
another constructor (a,b,71) since it requires three parameters to be
invoked.
Calling one constructor from another in Kotlin:

//main function
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
Add(51,61)
}
class Add {
// calling another secondary using this
constructor(c: Int,d:Int) : this(c,d,71) {
var sumOfTwo = c + d
println("The sum of two numbers 51 and 61 is:
$sumOfTwo")
}
// this executes first
54   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

constructor(c: Int, d: Int,a: Int) {

var sumOfThree = c + d + a
println("The sum of three numbers 51,61 and 71
is: $sumOfThree")
}
}

Calling the secondary constructor of the parent class from the secondary
constructor of the child class: using the super keyword, we may call the
parent class’s secondary constructor from the child class’s secondary con-
structor. We demonstrated the calling procedure below.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
Child(18118, "Sanik")
}
open class Parent {
constructor (emp_id: Int, emp_name: String, emp_
salary: Double) {
var id: Int = emp_id
var name: String = emp_name
var salary : Double = emp_salary
println("Employee id is: $id")
println("Employee name: $name")
println("Employee salary: $salary")
println()
}
}
class Child : Parent {
constructor (emp_id : Int, emp_name:
String):super(emp_id,emp_name,5000.55){
var id: Int = emp_id
var name: String = emp_name
println("Employee id is: $id")
println("Employee name: $name")
}
}

KOTLIN VISIBILITY MODIFIERS

Visibility modifiers are used in Kotlin to limit the accessibility of classes,
objects, interfaces, constructors, functions, properties, and their setters.
There is no need to make getters visible because they have the same vis-
ibility as the property.
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    55

In Kotlin, there are four visibility modifiers:

Modifier Description
Public Visible everywhere
Private Visible inside the same class only
Internal Visible inside the same module
Protected Visible inside the same class and its subclasses

If no modifier is supplied, it is public by default. Let’s go through the modi-

fiers above one by one.

Public Modifier
The default modifier in Kotlin is public. It is the most often used modi-
fier in the language, and there are extra limits on who may view the
part being modified. Unlike Java, there is no need to define anything
as public in Kotlin – it is the default modifier if no other modifier is
declared – public works the same in Kotlin as it does in Java. When the
public modifier is applied to top-level items – classes, methods, or vari-
ables defined directly within a package – any other code can access them.
If the public modifier is applied to a nested element – an inner class or
function within a class – then any code that can access the container may
also access this element.

// by default public
class C {
var int = 20
}

// specified with public modifier

public class D {
var int2 = 30
fun display() {
println("Accessible everywhere")
}
}

Classes C and D are available from anywhere in the code, and the vari-
ables int and int2 and the method display() are accessible from everything
that can access classes C and D.
56   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Private Modifier
Private modifiers in Kotlin restrict access to code defined inside the same
scope. It prevents access to the modifier variable or function from being
available outside of the scope. Unlike Java, Kotlin enables several top-level
declarations in the same file – a private top-level element in the same file
can be accessible by everything else in the same file.

// class C is accessible from the same source file

private class C {
private val int = 20
fun display()
{
// we can access int in the same class
println(int)
println("Accessing int successful")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>){
var c = C()
c.display()
// can not access 'int': it is private in class C
println(c.int)
}

In this case, class C can only access from within the same source file, and the
int variable can only be accessed from within class C. When we attempted
to access int from outside the class, we met with a compile-time error.

Internal Modifier
The internal modifier is a newly introduced modifier in Kotlin that Java does
not support. Internal signifies that it will only be available in the same mod-
ule; attempting to access the declaration from another module will result in
an error. A module is a collection of files that have been built together.

internal class C {
}
public class D {
internal val int = 20
internal fun display() {
}
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    57

Class C is only available from inside the same module in this case. Even
though class D may be accessed everywhere, the variable int and method
display() are only available inside the same module.

Protected Modifier
The protected modifier in Kotlin only enables access to the declaring class
and its subclasses. At the top level, the protected modifier cannot be dis-
closed. We used the derived class’s getvalue() function to retrieve the int
variable in the following example.

// base class
open class C {
// protected variable
protected val int = 20
}

// derived class
class D: C() {
fun getvalue(): Int {
// accessed from the subclass
return int
}
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var a = D()
println("The value of integer is: "+a.getvalue())
}

Overriding of Protected Modifier

To override the protected variable or function in the derived class, we must
mark it with an open keyword. In the following program, we override the
int variable.

// base class
open class C {
// protected variable
open protected val int = 20

}
58   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

// derived class
class D: C() {
override val int = 30
fun getvalue():Int {
// accessed from the subclass
return int
}
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var a = D()
println("The overridden value of integer is: "+a.
getvalue())
}

Constructor Visibility
Constructors are always public by default, but modifiers may adjust their
visibility.

class C (name : String) {

// other code
}

We must express this explicitly by using the constructor keyword when

modifying the visibility.

class C private constructor (name : String) {

// other code
}

INHERITANCE IN KOTLIN
One of the most significant aspects of OOP is inheritance. Inheritance
allows for code reuse by allowing all of the features of an existing class
(base-class) to be inherited by a new class (derived-class). Furthermore,
the derived class can add its features.

Syntax:
open class base-Class (x:Int ) {
..........
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    59

class derived-Class(x:Int) : base-Class(x) {

...........
}

By default, all classes in Kotlin are final. We must apply the open key-
word in front of the base class to allow the derived class to inherit
from it.
Kotlin inheriting properties and methods from the base class: We
inherit all of its properties and functions when we inherit a class. We can
utilize the variables and functions from the base class in the derived class
and call functions from the derived class object.

//base class
open class base-Class{
val name = "Hubtutor"
fun C(){
println("Base Class")
}
}
//derived class
class derived-Class: base-Class() {
fun D() {
println(name) //inherit name
property
println("Derived class")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val derived = derived-Class()
derived.C() // inheriting the base class
function
derived.D() // calling derived class
function
}

Explanation: There is a base class and a derived class in this case. When
we instantiate the derived class, we generate an object, which is then
utilized to call the base and derived class functions. The derived.C()
function is used to invoke the C() function, which prints “Base Class.”
The derived.D() method is used to invoke the function D(), which prints
60   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

the variable name inherited from the base class as well as the “Derived
class.”

Inheritance Use
Assume a corporation has three employees: a webDeveloper, an iOS-
Developer, and an AndroidDeveloper. They all have certain charac-
teristics in common, such as a name and an age and some unique
abilities.
First, we divide the individuals into three classes, and each class has
certain common and specific skills.

All three developers have the same name and age, but their programming
skills are very different. We would be replicating the identical code for
each character’s name and age in each class.
If we wish to add a salary() function, we must duplicate the code in all
three classes. This results in several duplicate copies of code in our pro-
gram, which will almost certainly result in more complicated and chaotic
code.
The work is made more accessible by employing inheritance. We may
construct a new base class Employee that contains the features shared by
the three original types. These three classes can then inherit common
characteristics from the basic class and add their unique features. We can
easily add the salary functionality to the Employee class without creating
duplicates.
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    61

In this case, webDeveloper inherits all of the features from the base class
and its feature website(). The same for the other two classes: iosDeveloper
and androidDeveloper. It improves the readability and extensibility of our
code.
Kotlin inheritance program:

//base-class
open class Employees( names: String,age: Int,salary :
Int) {
init {
println("Name is $names, $age years old and
earning $salary per month. ")
}
}
//derived-class
class webDevelopers( names: String,age: Int,salary :
Int): Employees(names, age,salary) {
fun website() {
println("website-developer")
println()
}
}
//derived-class
class androidDeveloper( names: String,age: Int,salary
: Int): Employees(names, age,salary) {
fun android() {
println("android app developer")
62   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println()
}
}
//derived class
class iosDevelopers( names: String,age: Int,salary :
Int): Employees(names, age,salary) {
fun iosapp() {
println("iOS app developer")
println()
}
}
//main method
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val wd = webDevelopers("Genna", 28, 12000)
wd.website()
val ad = androidDevelopers("Gautam", 29,14000)
ad.android()
val iosd = iosDevelopers("Praniti", 22,18000)
iosd.iosapp()
}

Explanation: In this case, we have a base class Employees prefixed with

the open keyword and includes the common characteristics of the derived
classes. The Employee class has a primary constructor that takes three
parameters: “name, age, and salary.” There are three derived classes: web-
Developers, androidDevelopers, and iosDevelopers, all of which have pri-
mary constructors and three variables.
First, we create an object for the webDevelopers class and send the
name, age, and salary to the derived class as arguments. It will set the val-
ues of the local variables and pass them to the base class. Then, using the
object “wd,” we execute the member function website(), which publishes
the string to standard output.
Similarly, we make objects for the remaining two classes and call their
member functions.

Primary Constructor for Kotlin Inheritance

If the derived class has the main constructor, we must initialize the base
class constructor using the derived class’s arguments. We have two param-
eters in the base class’s primary constructor and three parameters in the
derived class in the following program.
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    63

//base-class
open class Employees(names: String,age: Int) {
init{
println("The name of Employee is $name")
println("The Age of an Employee is $age")
}
}
// derived-class
class CEO( names: String, age: Int, salary: Double):
Employees(names,age) {
init {
println("The Salary per annum is $salary crore
rupees")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
CEO("Suniti Pichai", 40, 420.00)
}

Explanation: In this case, we instantiate the derived class CEO and supply
the parameters name, age, and salary. The derived class’s local variables
are initialized with the appropriate values, and the variable name and age
are sent as arguments to the Employee class.
The employees class outputs the variable names and values to standard
output before returning control to the derived class. The derived class then
terminates after executing the println() command.

Secondary Constructor for Kotlin Inheritance

If the derived class lacks the main constructor, we must use the super key-
word to call the base class’s secondary constructor from the derived class’s
secondary constructor. We must additionally initialize the base class’s sec-
ondary constructor using the derived class’s arguments.

//base class
open class Employees {
constructor(names: String,age: Int){
println("The Name of Employee is $name")
println("The Age of Employee is $age")
}
}
64   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

// derived class
class CEO : Employees{
constructor( names: String,age: Int, salary:
Double): super(names,age) {
println("The Salary per annum is $salary
million dollars")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
CEO("Sunidhi Nadela", 49, 220.00)
}

Explanation: We instantiate the class CEO and give the argument val-
ues to the secondary constructor in this case. It will initialize the local
variables and use super to pass them to the base class Employees (name,
age).

Overriding Member Functions and Properties

If member function with the same name exists in both the base and derived
classes, we may use the override keyword to override the base member
function in the derived class, but we must also mark the member function
of the base class with the open keyword.
Program of overriding the member function in Kotlin:

// base class
open class Animals {
open fun run() {
println("The Animals can run")
}
}
// derived class
class Tiger: Animals() {
override fun run() { // it overrides the run
method of base class
println("The Tiger can run very fast")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val t = Tiger()
t.run()
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    65

Similarly, we may override the base class’s property in the derived class.
Program of overriding the member property in Kotlin:

// base class
open class Animals {
open var name: String = "Dog"
open var speed = "50 km/hr"

}
// derived class
class Tiger: Animals() {
override var name = "Tiger"
override var speed = "120 km/hr"
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val d = Tiger()
println(d.name+" can run at speed "+d.speed)
}

Calling the Superclass Implementation

We can call the base class member methods or attributes from the derived
class using the super keyword. We call the base class’s property color and
method displayCompany() in the super class using the super keyword.

// base class
open class Phones() {
var color = "White Gold"
fun displayCompany(name:String) {
println("The Company is: $name")
}
}
// derived class
class iphone: Phones() {
fun displayColor(){

// calling the base class property color

println("Color is: "+super.color)

// calling the base class member function

super.displayCompany("Apple")
}
}
66   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val p = iphone()
p.displayColor()
}

INTERFACES IN KOTLIN
Interfaces are Kotlin provided custom types that cannot be instantiated
directly. Instead, these describe a type of behavior that the implementing
types must follow. The interface allows us to create a collection of attri-
butes and methods that concrete types must follow and implement.

Interfaces Creating
The interface declaration in Kotlin starts with the interface keyword, then
the name of the interface, and finally the curly brackets that contain the
interface’s members. The distinction is that the members will not have
their definition. The conforming types will offer these definitions.

Example:
interface Vehicles()
{
fun start()
fun stop()
}

Implementing interfaces: A class or an object can implement an interface.

When we implement an interface, the conforming type must define all of
its members. The name of the custom-type is followed by colon and the
name of the interface to be implemented to implement an interface.

class Car: Vehicles

An example of an interface in Kotlin:

interface Vehicles {
fun start()
fun stop()
}

class Car : Vehicles {

override fun start()
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    67

{
println("The Car is started")
}

override fun stop()

{
println("The Car is stopped")
}
}

fun main()
{
val obj = Car()
obj.start()
obj.stop()
}

Explanation: The interface vehicle specifies two methods in this applica-

tion, start() and stop(), which must be overridden. Car implements the
interface using class-literal syntax and overrides the two methods using
the override keyword. Finally, the main function creates a Car object and
calls the two functions.

Default Methods and Default Values

An interface’s methods can have default values for its arguments. If a
parameter’s value is not provided at the function call time, the default
value is utilized. Additionally, the methods may have default implementa-
tions. When the method is not overridden, they are used.
Example of a default value and default method:

interface FirstInterface {
fun add(c: Int, d: Int = 6)
fun print()
{
println("This is a default method defined in
the interface")
}
}
class InterfaceDemo : FirstInterface {
override fun add(c: Int, d: Int)
68   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

{
val a = c + d
println("Sum is $a")
}

override fun print()

{
super.print()
println("It has been overridden")
}
}

fun main()
{
val obj = InterfaceDemo()
println(obj.add(6))
obj.print()
}

Explanation: The FirstInterface in the above program provides two meth-

ods: add() and print(). The add() function accepts two arguments, one of
which has a default value of 6. A default implementation is also given for
the print() function. So, when the class InterfaceDemo implements the
interface, it uses the super keyword to override both methods and call the
default implementation of print(). In addition, when using the add method
in the primary function, only one parameter is needed because the second
is set to a default value.

Interface Properties
Interfaces, like methods, can include attributes. However, because the
interface doesn’t have a state, they cannot be created, and hence there are
no underlying fields to keep their values. As a result, the interface’s fields
are either left abstract or given an implementation.
Example of interface properties:

interface InterfaceProperties {
val c : Int
val d : String
get() = "Helloo"
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    69

class PropertiesDemo : InterfaceProperties {

override val c : Int = 6000
override val d : String = "Property Overridden"
}

fun main()
{
val x = PropertiesDemo()
println(x.c)
println(x.d)
}

Explanation: In the above program, InterfaceProperties specifies two

properties: a, an integer, and b, which is of type String and has a getter.
The class PropertiesDemo implements InterfaceProperties and adds value
to the two properties. The method main generates a class object and uses
dot-syntax to access its attributes.

Interface Inheritance
In Kotlin, interfaces can inherit from other interfaces. When one interface
extends another, it can add its properties and methods, and the imple-
menting type must define all of the properties and methods in both inter-
faces. An interface can inherit from many interfaces.
An example of interface inheritance:

interface Dimensions {
val len : Double
val br : Double
}

interface CalculateParameters : Dimensions {

fun area()
fun perimeter()
}

class XYZ : CalculateParameters {

override val len : Double
get() = 20.0
override val br : Double
get()= 17.0
70   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

override fun area()

{
println("Area is ${len * br}")
}

override fun perimeter()

{
println("Perimeter is ${2*(len+br)}")
}
}

fun main()
{
val obj = XYZ()
obj.area()
obj.perimeter()
}

Explanation: The interface Dimensions in the program define two

properties: len (length) and br (breadth). The CalculatedParameters
interface inherits Dimensions and adds the methods area() and perim-
eter(). CalculatedParameters are implemented by the class XYZ, which
overrides both the properties and methods, then executed in the main
function.

Implementation of Multiple Interfaces

Because Kotlin classes follow the idea of single inheritance, each class can
inherit just one class, interfaces support multiple inheritances known as
multiple conformance in Kotlin. A class implements more than one inter-
face as provided as it defines all of the interface’s members.
Example of multiple interface implementation:

interface InterfaceProperties {
val c : Int
val d : String
get() = "Helloo"
}

interface InterfaceMethods {
fun description()
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    71

class MultipleInterface : InterfaceProperties,

InterfaceMethods {
override val c : Int
get() = 60

override fun description()

{
println("The Multiple Interfaces implemented")
}
}
fun main()
{
val obj = MultipleInterface()
obj.description()
}

Explanation: Two interfaces, InterfaceProperties and InterfaceMethods,

are specified in the program. The class MultipleInterface implements
these interfaces, and the methods are then executed in the main
function.

DATA CLASSES IN KOTLIN

We frequently build classes to store data in them. Few standard functions
are often derivable from the data in such classes. This class is known as a
data class in Kotlin and is identified as such.
An example of data:

data class Students(val name: String, val roll_no:

Int)

The compiler generates the following functions automatically:

• toString()
• copy()
• hashCode()
• equals()
72   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Data Class Creation Rules

To maintain consistency, data classes must meet the following
requirements:

• At least one argument is required for the primary constructor.

• All primary constructor arguments must denote with val or var.
• Data classes are not allowed to be abstract, open, sealed, or inner.
• Data classes may implement only interfaces.

toString()
This function returns a string containing all of the data class’s arguments.

First Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
//declarion of a data class
data class man(val roll: Int,val name:
String,val height:Int)

//declarion of a variable of the above data

class
//and initializing values to all parameters

val man1=man(1,"man",40)

//print all the details of the data class

println(man1.toString());
}

For the automatically created functions, the compiler only uses the attri-
butes defined inside the primary constructor.
It does not include the properties declared in the body of class.

Second Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
//declarion of a data class
data class man(val name: String)
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    73

{
//the property declared in class body
var height: Int = 0;
}

//declarion of a variable of the above data

class and
//initializing values to all parameters

val man1=man("manisha")
//class body properties must be assigned
uniquely
man1.height = 80

//this method print the details of class that

//are declared in primary constructor
println(man1.toString());

//printing the height of man1

println(man1.height);
}

copy()
Sometimes we need to replicate an object and update some of its attributes
while keeping the others intact.
The copy() method is utilized in this scenario.
Copy() properties:

• It duplicates all of the parameters or members defined in the primary

constructor.
• If declared, two objects might have the same main parameter values
but distinct class body values.

copy() Declaration:

fun copy(name: String = this.a, age: Int = this.b) =

user(a, b)

where user is a data class: user(String, Int).

74   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
//declaring a data class
data class man(val name: String, val age: Int)
{
//property declared in class body
var height: Int = 0;
}

val man1 = man("manisha",19)

//copying details of man1 with change in name

of man
val man2 = man1.copy(name="rahi")

//copying all details of man1 to man3

val man3 = man1.copy();

//declaring heights of individual men

man1.height=110
man2.height=92
man3.height=130

//man1 & man3 have different class body

values,
//but same parameter values

//printing info all 3 men

println("${man1} has ${man1.height} cm
height")
println("${man2} has ${man2.height} cm
height")
println("${man3} has ${man3.height} cm
height")

}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    75

hashCode() and equals()

• The hashCode() method returns the object’s hash code value.

• The equals() function returns true if two objects have identical con-
tents and operate similarly to “==”, but differently for Float and
Double values.

hashCode() Declaration:

open fun hashCode(): Int

hashCode() properties:

• Two hash codes specified twice on the same object will be equivalent.
• If two objects are equal according to the equals() function, the hash
codes given will be the same.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring a data class
data class man(val name: String, val age: Int)

val man1 = man("manish",19)

val man2 = man1.copy(name="rahi")
val man3 = man1.copy();

val hash1=man1.hashCode();
val hash2=man2.hashCode();
val hash3=man3.hashCode();

println(hash1)
println(hash2)
println(hash3)

//checking equality of these hash codes

println("hash1 == hash 2 ${hash1.equals(hash2)}")
println("hash2 == hash 3 ${hash2.equals(hash3)}")
println("hash1 == hash 3 ${hash1.equals(hash3)}")

}
76   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Explanation: Because man1 and man2 have the same object contents, they
are equal and have the same hash code values.

KOTLIN SEALED CLASSES

Kotlin introduces a new type of class that is not seen in Java. These are
referred to as sealed classes. As the name implies, sealed classes conform
to constrained or bounded class hierarchies. Within a sealed class, a col-
lection of subclasses is defined. It is used when it is known that a type will
conform to one of the subclass types in advance. Sealed classes guarantee
type safety by limiting the types that can match at compile time rather
than runtime.
Declaration of sealed class: sealed class Demo
Simply use the sealed keyword before the class modifier to define a
sealed class. Another distinguishing aspect of sealed classes is that their
constructors are, by default, private.
Because a sealed class is implicitly abstract, it cannot be instantiated.
sealed class Demoo

fun main(args: Array)

{
var d = Demoo() //compiler error
}

Kotlin sealed class program:

sealed class Demo {

class C : Demo() {
fun display()
{
println("Subclass A of sealed class Demo")
}
}
class D : Demo() {
fun display()
{
println("Subclass B of sealed class
Demo")
}
}
}
fun main()
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    77

{
val obj = Demo.D()
obj.display()

val obj1 = Demo.C()

obj1.display()
}

It should be noted that all subclasses of the sealed class must specify in
the same Kotlin file. However, they do not have to be specified within the
sealed class; they can be defined where the sealed class is accessible.

Example:
//sealed class with single subclass defined inside
sealed class ABCD {
class X: ABCD(){...}
}

// Another subclass of the sealed class defined

class Y: ABCD() {
class Z: ABCD() // This will cause an error.
Sealed class is not visible here
}

Sealed Class with When

Because the kinds to which a sealed class reference can conform are lim-
ited, it is most typically used with a when clause. This eliminates the need
for the otherwise clause entirely.
Here’s an example of a sealed class with a when clause:
// A sealed class with a string property
sealed class Fruits
(val x: String)
{
// Two subclasses of sealed class defined within
class Apple : Fruits("Apple")
class Mango : Fruits("Mango")
}

// A subclass defined outside the sealed class

class Pomegranate: Fruits("Pomegranate")

// A function to take in an object of type Fruit

78   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

// And to display an appropriate message depending on

the type of Fruit
fun display(fruit: Fruits){
when(fruit)
{
is Fruits.Apple -> println("${fruit.x} is good
for iron")
is Fruits.Mango -> println("${fruit.x} is
yummy")
is Pomegranate -> println("${fruit.x} is good
for vitamin d")
}
}
fun main()
{
// Objects of different subclasses created
val obj = Fruits.Apple()
val obj1 = Fruits.Mango()
val obj2 = Pomegranate()

// Function called with different objects

display(obj)
display(obj1)
display(obj2)
}

KOTLIN ABSTRACT CLASS

The abstract keyword is used in front of class to declare an abstract class in
Kotlin. Because an abstract class cannot instantiate, we cannot create objects.
Declaration of an abstract class:

abstract class class-Name {

.........
}

Remember the following:

• We are unable to generate an object for the abstract class.

• All variables (properties) and member functions of an abstract class
are non-abstract by default. As a result, if we wish to override these
members in the child class, we must use the open keyword.
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    79

• When we declare a member function as abstract, we don’t need to

annotate it with the open keyword because they are open by default.
• A derived class must implement an abstract member function since
it doesn’t have a body.

As demonstrated below, an abstract class can have both abstract and non-
abstract members:

abstract class className(val c: String) {

// Non-Abstract Property
abstract var d: Int // Abstract Property

abstract fun method1() // Abstract Methods

fun method2() { // Non-Abstract Method

println("Non abstract function")
}
}

Program using both abstract and non-abstract members in an

abstract class in Kotlin:

//abstract class
abstract class Employee(val name: String,val
experience: Int) { // Non-Abstract

// Property
// Abstract Property (Must be overridden by
Subclasses)
abstract var salary: Double

// Abstract Methods (Must be implemented by

Subclasses)
abstract fun dateOfBirth(date:String)

// Non-Abstract Method
fun employeeDetails() {
println("Name of the employee: $name")
println("Experience in years: $experience")
println("Annual Salary: $salary")
}
}
80   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

// derived class
class Engineer(name: String,experience: Int) :
Employee(name,experience) {
override var salary = 510000.00
override fun dateOfBirth(date:String){
println("Date of Birth is: $date")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val eng = Engineer("Praniti",3)
eng.employeeDetails()
eng.dateOfBirth("03 December 1996")
}

Explanation: The Engineer class in the preceding software is derived from

the Employee class. For the Engineer class, object eng is created. While
creating it, we gave two arguments to the primary constructor. This ini-
tializes the Employee class’s non-abstract properties name and experience.
The eng object is then used to invoke the employeeDetails() function. It
will print the employee’s name, experience, and the override wage.
Finally, we use the eng object to call dateOfBirth() and provide the
argument date to the primary constructor. It overrides the abstract fun of
the Employee class and prints the value of to the standard output.
Using an abstract open member to replace a non-abstract open
member: In Kotlin, we may use the override keyword followed by an
abstract in the abstract class to override the non-abstract open member
function of the open class. We shall accomplish that in the following
program.
Program of overriding a non-abstract open function by an abstract
class in Kotlin:

open class Livingthing {

open fun breathe() {
println("All living thing breathe")
}
}
abstract class Animal : Livingthing() {
override abstract fun breathe()
}
class Dog: Animal(){
override fun breathe() {
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    81

println("Dog also breathe")

}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>){
val lt = Livingthing()
lt.breathe()
val d = Dog()
d.breathe()
}

Multiple Derived Classes

All derived classes can override an abstract member of an abstract class.
We override the cal function in three derived classes of calculators in the
program.
Program of overriding the abstract method in more than one derived
class in Kotlin:

// abstract class
abstract class Calculators {
abstract fun cal(a: Int, b: Int) : Int
}
// addition of two numbers
class Add : Calculators() {
override fun cal(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
return a + b
}
}
// subtraction of two numbers
class Sub : Calculators() {
override fun cal(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
return a - b
}
}
// multiplication of two numbers
class Mul : Calculators() {
override fun cal(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
return a * b
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var add: Calculators = Add()
var a1 = add.cal(5, 6)
82   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println("Addition of two numbers $a1")

var sub: Calculator = Sub()
var a2 = sub.cal(11,6)
println("Subtraction of two numbers $a2")
var mul: Calculators = Mul()
var a3 = mul.cal(22,6)
println("Multiplication of two numbers $a3")
}

ENUM CLASSES IN KOTLIN

It is occasionally necessary for a type to contain just particular values in
programming. The idea of enumeration was invented to do this. A named
list of constants is an enumeration.
An enum has its specialized type in Kotlin, as it does in many other
programming languages, signifying that something has several possible
values. Kotlin enums are classes, as opposed to Java enums.
Some key facts to remember regarding enum classes in Kotlin:

• Enum constants are more than just collections of constants; they

contain attributes, methods, and so forth.
• A comma denotes each enum constant function as a single class and
instance.
• Enums enhance code readability by assigning predefined names to
constants.
• Constructors cannot use to create an instance of the enum class.

Enums are defined by using the “enum” keyword in front of a class, as

seen below:

enum class DAYS{

MONDAY,
TUESDAY,
WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY,
FRIDAY,
SATURDAY,
SUNDAY
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    83

Enums Initializing
Enums in Kotlin, like Java enums, can have a constructor. Because enum
constants are Enum class objects, they may be initialized by supplying spe-
cific values to the primary constructor.
Here’s an example of how to assign colors to cards:

enum class Cards(val colors: String) {

Diamond("yellow"),
Heart("white"),
}

We easily access the color of a card by using:

val colors = Cards.Diamond.colors

Enums Properties and Methods

Kotlin enum classes, like those in Java and other programming languages,
include various built-in properties and functions that the programmer may
utilize. Here are some of the most important approaches and properties.
Properties:

• ordinal: This property records the constant’s ordinal value, typically

a zero-based index.
• name: The name of the constant is stored in this attribute.

Methods:

• values: This function returns a list of all the enum class’s constants.
• valueOf(): This function returns the enum constant specified in
enum that matches the input string. If the constant is missing from
the enum, an IllegalArgumentException is produced.

To show the enum class in Kotlin, consider the following example:

enum class DAY {

MONDAY,
TUESDAY,
WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY,
84   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

FRIDAY,
SATURDAY,
SUNDAY
}
fun main()
{
// A simple demonstration of properties and
methods
for (day in DAY.values()) {
println("${day.ordinal} = ${day.name}")
}
println("${DAY.valueOf(" FRIDAY ")}")
}

Properties and Functions of the Enum Class

The enum class in Kotlin provides a new type. This class type has its own
set of attributes and methods. The properties can give a default value; how-
ever, each constant must declare its value for the property if no default
value is provided. Functions are often defined within companion objects
so that they do not rely on individual class instances. They can, however,
be defined without the use of companion objects.
In Kotlin, an example is used to show properties and functions:

// Property with default value provided

enum class DAY(val isWeekend: Boolean = false){
SUNDAY(true),
MONDAY,
TUESDAY,
WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY,
FRIDAY,
// Default value overridden
SATURDAY(true);

companion object{
fun today(obj: DAY): Boolean {
return obj.name.compareTo("SATURDAY") == 0
|| obj.name.compareTo("SUNDAY") == 0
}
}
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    85

fun main(){
// A simple demonstration of properties and
methods
for(day in DAY.values()) {
println("${day.ordinal} = ${day.name} and is
weekend ${day.isWeekend}")
}
val today = DAY.MONDAY;
println("Is today a weekend ${DAY.today(today)}")
}

Enums as Anonymous Classes

Enum constants behave similarly to anonymous classes in that they imple-
ment their functions and override the class’s abstract functions. The most
crucial thing is that each enum constant is overridden.

// enum class defining

enum class Season(var weather: String) {
Summer("hot"){
// if not override the function foo() compile
time error
override fun foo() {
println("The Hot days of a year")
}
},
Winter("cold"){
override fun foo() {
println("The Cold days of a year")
}
},
Rainy("moderate"){
override fun foo() {
println("The Rainy days of a year")
}
};
abstract fun foo()
}
// main function
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// calling foo() function override be Summer constant
Season.Summer.foo()
}
86   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Usage of When Expression with Enum Class

When enum classes in Kotlin are paired with the when expression, they
have a significant benefit. The advantage is that because enum classes limit
the values that a type may take when combined with the when expression
and all of the constant definitions are supplied, the necessity for the oth-
erwise clause is avoided. A compiler warning will be generated as a result.

enum class DAY{

MONDAY,
TUESDAY,
WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY,
FRIDAY,
SATURDAY
SUNDAY;
}

fun main(){
when(DAY.SUNDAY){
DAY.SUNDAY -> println("Today is Sunday")
DAY.MONDAY -> println("Today is Monday")
DAY.TUESDAY -> println("Today is Tuesday")
DAY.WEDNESDAY -> println("Today is Wednesday")
DAY.THURSDAY -> println("Today is Thursday")
DAY.FRIDAY -> println("Today is Friday")
DAY.SATURDAY -> println("Today is Saturday")
// Adding an else clause will generate a
warning
}
}

KOTLIN EXTENSION FUNCTION

Kotlin allows the programmer to extend the functionality of existing
classes without inheriting them. This is accomplished through the use of a
feature called extension. An extension function is a function that is added
to an existing class.
To add an extension function to a class, create a new function that is
attached to the classname, as demonstrated in the following example:

// A sample class to demonstrate extension functions

class Circle (val radius: Double){
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    87

// member function of class

fun area(): Double{
return Math.PI * radius * radius;
}
}
fun main(){
// Extension function created for a class Circle
fun Circle.perimeter(): Double{
return 2*Math.PI*radius;
}
// create object for class Circle
val newCircle = Circle(3.6);
// invoke member function
println("The Area of the circle is ${newCircle.
area()}")
//invoke extension function
println("The Perimeter of the circle is
${newCircle.perimeter()}")
}

Explanation: In this case, a new function is attached to the class using dot
notation, with the function class Circle.perimeter() and a return type of
Double. An object is created to instantiate the class Circle in the primary
function, and the function is invoked using the println() statement. When
the member function is called, it returns the area of the circle, whereas the
extension function delivers the perimeter of the circle.

Extended Library Class Using an Extension Function

Not only may user-defined classes be expanded in Kotlin, but library
classes can as well. The extension function may be added to library classes
and used in the same manner that it can be introduced to user-defined
classes.
The example below shows an extension function created for a user-
defined class:

fun main(){

// Extension function defined for Int type

fun Int.abs() : Int{
return if(this < 0) -this else this
}
88   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println((-6).abs())
println(6.abs())
}

Explanation: We used an extension function to expand the library func-

tion in this case. We used an integer value to do the modulus operation.
We provided the integer values −6 and 6 and received positive results for
both. If the parameter value is less than 0, it returns -(value), and if it is
more than 0, it returns the same value.

Extensions Are Resolved Statically

The extension functions are resolved statically, which means that whatever
extension function is executed relies entirely on the type of the expression
on which it is called, rather than the type resolved on the final execution
of the expression at runtime.
The following example will demonstrate the above point:

// Open class created to be inherited

open class C(val a:Int, val b:Int){
}
// Class D inherits C
class D():A(6, 6){}
fun main(){
// Extension function operate defined for A
fun C.operate():Int{
return c+d
}

// Extension function operate defined for B

fun D.operate():Int{
return c*d;
}

// Function to display static dispatch

fun display(c: C){
print(c.operate())
}

// Calling display function

display(D())
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    89

Explanation: If we’re familiar with Java or another OOP language, we’ll

note that class D inherits class A. The parameter supplied to the show
method is an instance of class D in the above program. According to the
dynamic method dispatch paradigm, the output should be 36, but the
extension functions are statically resolved, the operate function is called
on type C. As a result, the output is 12.

Nullable Receiver
Extension functions can also be defined using the nullable class type.
When the check for null is added inside the extension function, the proper
value is returned.
A nullable receiver is an example of an extension function:

// A sample class to display name name

class ABC(val name: String){
override fun toString(): String {
return "Name is $name"
}
}

fun main(){
// An extension function as a nullable receiver
fun ABC?.output(){
if(this == null){
println("Null")
}else{
println(this.toString())
}
}
val x = ABC("Charch")
// Extension function called using an instance
x.output()
// Extension function called on null
null.output()
}

Companion Object Extensions

If a class has a companion object, we may also provide extension methods
and attributes for the companion object.
90   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Declaration of companion object:

class myClass {
// the companion object declaration
companion object {
fun display(){
println("The Function declared in
companion object")
}
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// invoking member function
val ob = myClass.display()
}

Like regular member functions of the companion object, extension func-

tions can call with merely the class name as the qualifier.
Example of a companion object extension:

class myClass {
companion object {
//the member function of companion object
fun display(str :String) : String{
return str
}
}
}
// the extension function of companion object
fun myClass.Companion.abc(){
println("The Extension function of companion
object")
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val ob = myClass.display("The Function declared in
companion object")
println(ob)
// invoking the extension function
val ob2 = myClass.abc()
}
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    91

KOTLIN GENERICS
Generics are useful features that enable us to build classes, methods, and
properties that are accessible using various data types while maintaining
compile-time type safety.
Creating parameterized classes: A generic type is a type-parameter-
ized class or function. We always use angle brackets () to define the type
parameter in the program.
The following is the definition of the generic class:

class myClass<D>(text: D) {
var name = text
}

To build an instance of such a class, we must provide the following

type arguments:

val my : myClass<String> = Myclass<String>

("Hubtutors")

If the parameters can deduce from the constructor arguments, the

type arguments can be omitted:

val my = myClass("Hubtutors ")

Because Hubtutors has the type String, the compiler figures out that we are
discussing myclass<String>.
Advantages of generic:

• Avoiding typecasting: There is no need to typecast the object.

• Type safety: Generic permits just a single type of object at a time.
• Compile-time safety: Generics code is tested for parameterized
types at compile time to avoid run time errors.

Generic Usage in Our Program

In the following example, we define a Company class with a single argu-
ment and a primary constructor. Now, we try to pass other data types in
the Company class object, such as String and Integer. The primary con-
structor of the Company class accepts string types (“Hubtutors”) but gives
a compile-time error when an Integer type is passed (15).
92   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

class Company (text: String) {

var y = text
init{
println(y)
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>){
var name: Company = Company("Hubtutors")
var rank: Company = Company(15)// compile time
error
}

To address the above issue, we may develop a user-defined generic type

class that takes many parameters in a single class. The Company type class
is a general type class that accepts both Int and String types parameters.
A Kotlin program using generic class:

class Company<D> (text : D){

var y = text
init{
println(y)
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>){
var name: Company<String> = Company<String>("Geeks
forGeeks")
var rank: Company<Int> = Company<Int>(16)
}

VARIANCE
In contrast to Java, Kotlin makes arrays invariant by default. Generic
types, by extension, are invariant in Kotlin. The out and in keywords
might help with this. Invariance is the feature that prevents a standard
generic function/class that has already been created for a specific data type
from accepting or returning another data type. All additional data types
are supertypes of Any.
There are two kinds of variation:

• Declaration-site variance (using in and out)

• Use-site variance: Type projection
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    93

The out Keyword

We may utilize the out keyword on the generic type in Kotlin to assign this
reference to any of its supertypes. The out value can only be created by the
specified class and cannot be consumed:

class OutClass<out D>(val value: D) {

fun get(): D {
return value
}
}

We defined an OutClass class above that can return a value of type T. Then,
for the reference that is a supertype of it, we may allocate an instance of
the OutClass:

val out = OutClass("string")

val ref: OutClass<Any> = out

Note: If we did not utilize the out type in the preceding class, the next
statement will result in a compiler error.

The in Keyword
We may utilize the in keyword on the generic type to assign it to the refer-
ence of its subtype. The in keyword may only use on parameter type that
are consumed, not produced:

class InClass<in D> {

fun toString(value: D): String {
return value.toString()
}
}

In this case, we’ve declared a toString() method that exclusively accepts D

values. Then we may allocate a reference of type Number to its subtype – Int:

val inClassObject: InClass<Number> = InClass()

val ref<Int> = inClassObject

Note: If we did not utilize the in type in the preceding class, the following
sentence would result in a compiler error.
94   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

COVARIANCE
Covariance states that substituting subtypes is permissible but not super-
types, i.e., the generic function/class may accept subtypes of the data type for
which it is already defined, for example, a generic class created for Number
can accept Int, while a generic class defined for Int cannot accept Number.
This may be implemented in Kotlin by using the out keyword as seen below:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val a: MyClass<Any> = MyClass<Int>()
// Error: Type mismatch
val b: MyClass<out Any> = MyClass<String>()
// Works since String is a subtype of Any
val c: MyClass<out String> = MyClass<Any>()
// Error since Any is a supertype of String
}
class MyClass<D>

We may immediately allow covariance by appending the out keyword to

the declaration site. The following code works perfectly.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val b: MyClass<Any> = MyClass<String>()
// Compiles without error
}
class MyClass<out D>

CONTRACOVARIANCE
It is used to replace a supertype value in the subtypes, i.e., the generic func-
tion or class may accept supertypes of the data type it is already defined.
For example, a generic class defined for Number cannot take Int, while a
generic class defined for Int may accept Number. In Kotlin, it is accom-
plished using the in keyword as follows:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var x: Container<Dog> = Container<Animal>()
//compiles without error
var y: Container<Animal> = Container<Dog>()
//gives compilation error
}
open class Animal
class Dog : Animal()
class Container<in D>
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts    ◾    95

TYPE PROJECTIONS
It is feasible to copy all the members of an array of some type into an array
of Any type, but for the compiler to compile our code, we must annotate
the input argument with the out keyword. As a result, the compiler con-
cludes that the input argument can be a subtype of the Any type.
Kotlin program for copying array elements into another:
fun copy(from: Array<out Any>, to: Array<Any>) {
assert(from.size == to.size)
// copying (from) array to (to) array
for (c in from.indices)
to[c] = from[c]
// printing elements of array in which copied
for (c in to.indices) {
println(to[c])
}
}
fun main(args :Array<String>) {
val ints: Array<Int> = arrayOf(1, 2, 3,4)
val any :Array<Any> = Array<Any>(4) { "" }
copy(ints, any)

STAR PROJECTIONS
When we don’t know what sort of value we’re looking for and merely want
to print all the items of an array, we use the star(*) projection.
Program of using star projections in Kotlin:
// star projection in array
fun printArray(array: Array<*>) {
array.forEach { print(it) }
}
fun main(args :Array<String>) {
val name = arrayOf("Good","for","Good")
printArray(name)
}

CONCLUSION
This chapter covered OOP’s concept, where we learned class and object,
nested class, constructors, and inheritances. We also covered interfaces,
abstract class, and Generic Type in Kotlin.
 Chapter 3

Exceptional Handling,
Null Safety, and
Regex and Ranges

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢➢ Exception handling | try, catch, throw, and finally

➢➢ Nested try block and multiple catch block
➢➢ Null safety
➢➢ Regex and ranges

In Chapter 2, we learned all the OOP’s concepts in Kotlin, and in this

chapter, we will cover exceptional handling where we cover try, catch,
finally, and nested and multiple catch block in Kotlin. We will also cover
null safety, including Type checking and smart casting. Moreover, we will
learn Regex and Ranges in Kotlin.

EXCEPTIONAL HANDLING IN KOTLIN | TRY, CATCH,

THROW, AND FINALLY
An exception is an unwelcome or unexpected occurrence during program
execution, i.e., during run time, disrupting the usual flow of the program’s
instructions. Exception handling is a strategy for handling mistakes and
preventing run-time crashes that might cause our application to crash.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-3 97
98   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Exceptions are classified into two types:

• Checked Exception: Exceptions are often put on methods and checked

at build time, such as IOException, FileNotFoundException, etc.
• Unchecked Exception: Exceptions are often caused by logical mis-
takes and are checked at run time, such as NullPointerException,
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundException, etc.

Exceptions in Kotlin
Exceptions in Kotlin are only unchecked and may be detected only
at run time. All exception classes are descended from the Throwable
class.
To throw an exception object, we often use the throw-expression:

throw Exception("Throwme")

Among the most common exceptions are:

• NullPointerException: When we try to execute a property or method

on a null object, we get a NullPointerException.
• Arithmetic Exception: This exception is thrown when numbers are sub-
jected to improper arithmetic operations. For example, divide by zero.
• SecurityException: This exception is thrown to signify a security
breach.
• ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: This exception is thrown
when we attempt to retrieve an array’s incorrect index value.

Throwing an arithmetic exception in Kotlin program:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

var num = 20 / 0 // throws exception
println(num)
}

In the above program, we start the num variable with the value 20/0,
although we know that dividing by zero is not permitted in arithmetic.
When we try to run the application, an exception is thrown.
To address this issue, we must employ the try-catch block.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    99

Exception handling in Kotlin: In the following example, we divide an

integer by 0 (zero), resulting in an ArithmeticException. The catch block
will be executed because this code is in the try block.
In this scenario, the ArithmeticException happened; therefore, the
ArithmeticException catch block run, and “Arithmetic Exception” was
written in the output.
When an exception occurs, everything following that point is ignored,
and the control immediately moves to the catch block if one exists.
Whether or not an exception occurs, the finally block is always executed.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
try {

var num = 30/0

println("Beginners ")
println(num)

} catch (c: ArithmeticException) {

println("Arithmetic Exception")
} catch (c: Exception) {
println(c)
} finally {
println("in any case it will print.")
}
}

What If We Don’t Handle Exceptions?

Assume that the program will end suddenly if we do not handle the excep-
tion in the preceding example.
Because we did not handle exceptions, the application ended with an
error in this case.
How to Throw an Exception in Kotlin
The throw keyword may also use to throw an exception. The throw key-
word is used to throw an exception in the following example. The state-
ment preceding the exception was executed, but the statement after the
exception did not perform because control was moved to the catch block.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
try{
println("Before exception")
throw Exception("Something went wrong ")
100   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println("After exception")
}
catch(c: Exception){
println(c)

}
finally{
println("can't ignore ")
}
}

NullPointerException Example: Here’s an example of a Null­

PointerException thrown when a null String object’s length() function
is called:

public class ExceptionExample {

private static void printLength(String str) {
System.out.println(str.length());
}

public static void main(String args[]) {

String myString = null;
printLength(myString);
}
}

In this example, the printLength() function uses the length() method of a

String without first performing a null check. Because the string given from
the main() function has no value, running the preceding code results in a
NullPointerException:

Exception in thread "main" java.lang.

NullPointerException
at ExceptionExample.printLength(ExceptionExample.
java:3)
at ExceptionExample.main(ExceptionExample.java:8)

How to Avoid NullPointerException

The NullPointerException may avoid by employing the following checks
and protective methods:

• Adding a null check before referring to an object’s methods or prop-

erties to ensure that it is correctly initialized.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    101

• Using Apache Commons StringUtils for String operations, such as

StringUtils.isNotEmpty(), to check whether a string is empty before
using it.
• Whenever feasible, use primitives rather than objects since they can-
not have null references, such as int instead of Integer and boolean
instead of Boolean.

KOTLIN TRY-CATCH BLOCK

In Kotlin, we utilize the try-catch block to handle exceptions in the appli-
cation. The try block encloses the code responsible for throwing an excep-
tion, while the catch block handles the exception. This block must include
in the main or other methods. Following the try block, there should be a
catch block, a finally block, or both.

Syntax:
try {
// the code that can throw exception
} catch(c: ExceptionName) {
// catch exception and handle it
}

Kotlin application for handling arithmetic exceptions with a try-

catch block program:

import kotlin.ArithmeticException

fun main(args : Array<String>){

try{
var num = 20 / 0
}
catch(e: ArithmeticException){
// caught and handles it
println("not allowed divide by zero")
}
}

Explanation: In the preceding program, we utilized a try-catch block.

Because the division by 0 is not defined in arithmetic, the num variable,
which might throw an exception, is enclosed behind the braces of the
102   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

try block. The catch block will catch an exception and run the println()
function.
Kotlin Try-Catch Block as an Expression
As we have already established, expressions always return a value. We may
utilize the Kotlin try-catch block as an expression in our software. The
expression’s return value will be either the final expression of the try block
or the last expression of the catch block. If there is an exception in the
function, the catch block returns the value.
Using try-catch as an expression in a Kotlin program:
fun test(c: Int, d: Int) : Any {
return try {
c/d
//println("The Result is: "+ c / d)
}
catch(e:Exception){
println(e)
"Divide by zero not allowed"
}
}
// main function
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// invoke test function
var results1 = test(20,2 ) //execute try block
println(results1)
var results = test(20,0 ) // execute catch block
println(results)
}

We utilized try-catch as an expression in the preceding code. Declare a

function test at the program’s head and use a try-catch block to return
a value. We called the test function from the main method and passed
the argument values (20, 2). The try result (20/2 = 10) is returned by the
test function after evaluating the arguments. However, in the next call,
we passed (b = 0), and this time the exception is caught and returns the
expression of the catch block.

Kotlin Finally Block

In Kotlin, whether or not the catch block handles an exception, the finally
block is always executed. As a result, it is utilized to execute critical code
statements.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    103

We can combine the finally block with the try block and then omit the
catch block.

Syntax:
try {
//the code that can throw exception
} finally {
// code of finally block
}

Kotlin program of using finally block with a try block:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

try{
var ar = arrayOf(11,22,33,44,55)
var int = ar[6]
println(int)
}
finally {
println("This block will always executes")
}
}

In the preceding program, we utilized the try with finally block instead of
the catch block. In this case, the catch block does not handle the exception,
but executes the finally block.
Finally block with try-catch block Syntax:

try {
// the code that can throw exception
} catch(c: ExceptionName) {
// catch the exception and handle it.
} finally {
// code of finally block
}

Kotlin program of using a finally block with a try-catch block:

fun main (args: Array<String>){

try {
var int = 20 / 0
104   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println(int)
} catch (c: ArithmeticException) {
println(c)
} finally {
println("This block will always executes")
}
}

Kotlin Throw Keyword

To throw an explicit exception in Kotlin, we utilize the throw keyword. It
is also capable of throwing a custom exception.
throw keyword in Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

test("abcde")
println("executes after validation")
}
fun test(password: String) {
// it calculate length of entered password and
compare
if (password.length < 6)
throw ArithmeticException("Password is short")
else
println("Password strong ")
}

NESTED TRY BLOCK AND MULTIPLE CATCH BLOCK

IN KOTLIN
Nested Try Block
This part will learn about nested try-catch blocks and numerous catch
blocks. A nested try block is one in which one try catch block is imple-
mented inside another try catch block.
When an exception occurs in the inner try catch block that the inner
catch blocks are not handled, the outer try-catch blocks are examined for
that exception.

Syntax:
// the outer try block
try
{
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    105

//the inner try block

try
{
//the code that can throw an exception
}
catch(c: SomeException)
{
//it catch the exception and handle it
}
}
catch(c: SomeException)
{
// it catch the exception and handle it
}

Nested try block Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val numbers = arrayOf(11,22,33,44)

try {
for (i in numbers.indices) {
try {
var n = (0..4).random()
println(numbers[i+1]/n)

} catch (c: ArithmeticException) {

println(c)
}
}
} catch (c: ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException) {
println(e)
}
}

Keep in mind that this result is created for a random integer. Don’t worry
if we obtain a different result because our result will be determined by the
random number generated at that moment.

Multiple Catch Block

A try block may include several catch blocks. When we are unsure what
sort of exception may occur inside the try block, we may insert numerous
106   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

catch blocks for the various exceptions and the parent exception class in
the last catch block to handle all the remaining exceptions that are not
defined by catch blocks in the program.

Syntax:
try {
// the code may throw exception
} catch(c: ExceptionNameOne) {
// catch the exception one and handle it
} catch(c: ExceptionNameTwo) {
// it catch the exception two and handle it
}

Program of multiple catch blocks in Kotlin:

import java.util.Scanner
object Tests {
@JvmStatic
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val scn = Scanner(System.'in')
try {
val n = Integer.parseInt(scn.nextLine())
if (512 % n == 0)
println("$n is a factor of 512")
} catch (c: ArithmeticException) {
println(c)
} catch (c: NumberFormatException) {
println(c)
}
}
}

Expression in catch block use: When expression in catch block may be

used to replace several catch blocks in Kotlin. We will demonstrate how to
utilize when expression in the following section.

import java.lang.NumberFormatException
import java.util.Scanner
object Tests {
@JvmStatic
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    107

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val scn = Scanner(System.'in')
try {
val n = Integer.parseInt(scn.nextLine())
if (512 % n == 0)
println("$n is a factor of 512")
} catch (c: Exception ) {
when(c){
is ArithmeticException -> { println("The
Arithmetic Exception: Divide by zero") }
is NumberFormatException -> {
println("The Number Format Exception ") }
}
}
}
}

NULL SAFETY
The goal of Kotlin’s type system is to remove the risk of null references
in code since it is a billion-dollar error. The NullPointerExceptions are
thrown by the program at runtime, resulting in the application or system
failure.
If we’ve ever written code in Java or another language that contains the
idea of a null reference, we’ve probably seen a NullPointerException. If
Kotlin compiler finds a null reference without executing any other state-
ments, it raises a NullPointerException.
The following are some of the probable sources of NullPointer
Exceptions:

• NullPointerException() is thrown explicitly.

• The !! Operator is used.
• Some data inconsistency in terms of initialization, for example, an
uninitialized this being supplied as an input.
• Java interoperations include attempting to access a member on a null
reference and generics types with erroneous nullability.
108   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Nullable and Non-Nullable Sorts in Kotlin

The Kotlin type system distinguishes between two types of references:
those that can hold null (nullable references) and those that cannot hold
null (non-nullable references) (non-null references).
A String variable cannot contain the value null. If we try to assign null
value to the variable, it gives a compiler error.

var st1: String = "Hub"

st1 = null // compilation error

We declare a variable as nullable string, typed String?, to allow it to

retain null:

var st2: String? = "Huboftutors"

st2 = null // ok
print(st2)

Now, if we want to get the length of the string st1, it assures that it will not
throw an NPE; therefore, we can confidently say:

val l = st1.length

However, accessing the length of the string st2 is not safe, and the
compiler gives an error:

val l = st2.length // error: variable 'st2'

can be null

A non-nullable Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>){

// the variable is declared as non nullable
var st1 : String = "Hubs"

//st1 = null // gives compiler error

print("length of the string st1 is: "+st1.length)

}

If we try to assign null value to a non-nullable variable in this case, we get

a compiler time error. However, if we try to read the length of the string,
we will get a NullPointerException.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    109

Nullable type Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// the variable is declared as nullable
var st2: String? = "Huboftutors"
st2 = null // no compile error
println(st2.length) // compile error because
string can be null
}

We may easily set null to a nullable type variable in this case. To retrieve
the length of the string, however, we should use the safe operator.

Checking for the Null in Conditions

The most popular technique to check for null references is to use an if-else
statement. We may check explicitly if the variable is null and handle the
two possibilities independently.
Program for checking null in conditions in Kotlin:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// the variable is declared as nullable
var st: String? = "Huboftutors"
println(st)
if (st != null) {
println("String of length ${st.length}")
} else {
println("Null string")
}
// assign null
st = null
println(st)
if (st != null) {
println("String of length ${st.length}")
} else {
println("Null String")
}
}

It is important to remember that we used an if-else block to check for nul-

lability. If the string includes null, the if block is executed; otherwise, the
else block is executed.
110   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Safe Call Operator(?.)

Null comparisons are straightforward, but the amount of nested if-else
expressions might be difficult. As a result, Kotlin features a Safe call opera-
tor,?, which eliminates this complexity by executing an action only when
the specified reference has a non-null value. It enables us to use a null-
check and a method call in the same expression.
The following expression:

firstname?.toUpperCase()

is equivalent to:

if(firstname != null)
firstname.toUpperCase()
else
null

Kotlin program that employs the safe operator:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// variable declared as nullable
var firstname: String? = "Preesha"
var lastname: String? = null
println(firstname?.toUpperCase())
println(firstname?.length)
println(lastname?.toUpperCase())
}

If value is not null, we may use the safe call operator with let(), also(), and run().
A let operator can use to execute an action only when a reference con-
tains a non-nullable value. The lambda expression included within the let
is only run if the variable firstName is not null.

val firstname: String? = null

firstname?.let { println(it.toUpperCase()) }

Because the variable firstname is null in this case, the lambda expression
to convert the string to Upper Case letters is not executed.
Program of using let in Kotlin:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creation of a list contains names
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    111

var stringlist: List<String?> = listOf("Hub","of",

null, "tutors")
// creation of new list
var newlist = listOf<String?>()
for (item in stringlist) {
// only for non-nullable values executes
item?.let { newlist = newlist.plus(it) }
}
// to print elements stored in newlist
for(items in newlist){
println(items)
}
}

also() method chain with let():

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creation of a list contains names
var stringlist: List<String?> = listOf("Hub","of",
null, "tutors")
// creation of a new list
var newlist = listOf<String?>()
for (item in stringlist) {
// only for non-nullable values executes
item?.let { newlist = newlist.plus(it) }
item?.also{it -> println(it)}
}
}

run() Method
To perform an operation on a nullable reference, Kotlin provides the run()
function. It appears to be quite similar to let(), but inside a function body,
the run() method runs only when this reference is used instead of a func-
tion parameter:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creation of a list contains names
var stringlist: List<String?> = listOf("Hub","of",
null, "tutors")
// creation of a new list
var newlist = listOf<String?>()
for (item in stringlist) {
112   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

// only for non-nullable values executes

item?.run { newlist = newlist.plus(this) }
// this reference
item?.also{it -> println(it)}
}
}

Elvis Operator(?:)
When original variable is null, the Elvis operator returns a non-null value
or a default value. In other words, if the left expression is not null, the elvis
operator returns it; otherwise, the right expression is returned. If the left-
hand side expression is discovered to be null, the right-hand side expres-
sion is evaluated.

The following expression:

val name = firstname?: "Unknown"

is equivalent to:

val name = if(firstname!= null)

firstname
else
"Unknown"

Moreover, on the right-side of the Elvis operator, we may utilize throw

and return expressions, which is very useful in the functions. As a result,
instead of returning default value on the right-side of the Elvis operator,
we can throw an exception.

val name = firstname?: throw

IllegalArgumentException("Enter a valid name")

Program of using Elvis operator in Kotlin:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var st : String? = "Huboftutors"
println(st?.length)
st = null
println(st?.length?: "-1")
}
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    113

Not-Null Assertion (!!) Operator

If the value is null, the not null assertion (!!) operator changes it to a non-
null type and throws an exception.
If someone wants a NullPointerException, he can ask for it directly
using this operator.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var st : String? = "Huboftutors"
println(st!!.length)
st = null
st!!.length
}

TYPE CHECKING AND SMART CASTING IN KOTLIN

Type Checking
At runtime, we may use the is operator in Kotlin to determine the type of
a variable. It is a method of separating the flow for various objects by vali-
dating the type of a variable at runtime.
Program of type checking in Kotlin with if-else blocks:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var names = "Praniti"
var ages = 26
var salary = 5100.54
val employeeDetails: List<Any> =
listOf(names,ages,salary)

for(attribute in employeeDetails) {
if (attribute is String) {
println("The Name is: $attribute")
} else if (attribute is Int) {
println("The Age is: $attribute")
} else if (attribute is Double) {
println("The Salary is: $attribute")
} else {
println("Not an attribute")
}
}
}
114   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Explanation: In this case, we initialize three variables: name, age, and

salary, which are then passed into the list. Then, using the for loop, we
walk the list, check the element’s type with the is operator in each if-
else block, and execute the appropriate print() command in each if-else
block.

Using When Expression

When expressions may simply replace if-else blocks, we will learn when
expression in the control flow chapter. We can refer to when expression in
Kotlin for further information.
Kotlin type checking program that employs when:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var names = "Pariniti"
var ages = 25
var salary = 5100.55
var emp_id = 13245f
val employeeDetails: List<Any> = listOf(names,
ages, salary, emp_id)

for (attribute in employeeDetails) {

when (attribute) {
is String -> println("Name is: $attribute ")
is Int -> println("Age is: $attribute")
is Double -> println("Salary is:
$attribute")
else -> println("Not an attribute")
}
}
}

Smart Casting
In Java and other programming languages, explicit type casting on the
variable is required before accessing its properties, while Kotlin uses
smart casting. When a variable is passed through a conditional opera-
tor, the Kotlin compiler automatically changes it to a specific class
reference.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    115

Let’s look at a Java example. First, we use the instanceOf operator to

determine the type of the variable, and then we cast it to the target type,
as seen below:

Object obj = "Huboftutors";

if(obj instanceof String) {
// Explicit type casting
String st = (String) obj;
System.out.println("length of String "
+ st.length());
}

Smart type casting is one of the most exciting capabilities offered in Kotlin.
To verify the type of a variable, we use the is or ! is operator, and the com-
piler automatically casts the variable to the desired type, as seen below:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val st1: String? = "Huboftutors"
var st2: String? = null // prints String is null
if(st1 is String) {
// No Explicit type Casting needed.
println("The length of String ${st1.length}")
}
else {
println("String is null")
}
}

Use of !is Operator

Similarly, we may verify the variable with the !is operator.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val st1: String? = "huboftutors"
var st2: String? = null // prints String is null
if(st1 !is String) {
println("The String is null")
}
else {
println("The length of String ${st1.length}")
}
}
116   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Smart casts do not operate if the compiler cannot ensure that the variable
will not change between the check and the usage. The following guidelines
regulate the use of smart casts:

• Except for local delegated properties, val local variables always works.
• val properties only work if the property is private or internal, or if the
check is done in the same module as the property is defined. Smart
casts do not work on open properties or properties with custom
getters.
• var local variables only work if the variable has not been modified
between the check and usage, is not captured in lambda that modi-
fies it, and is not a local delegated property.
• Because the variable can change at any time, var properties never
operate.

EXPLICIT TYPE CASTING IN KOTLIN

To check the type of a variable in Smart Casting, we usually use the is or!is
operator, and the compiler automatically casts the variable to the target
type, while in explicit type casting, we use the as operator.
Explicit type casting can be accomplished by employing:

• Unsafe cast operator: as

• Safe cast operator: as?

Unsafe Cast Operator: as

We utilize the type cast operator to cast a variable to the target type
manually.
Variable st1 of string type is cast to target type using as operator in the
following program.

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val st1: String = "works fine"
val st2: String = st1 as String // Works
println(st1)
}

It is possible that we cannot cast a variable to the target type, and it throws
an exception at runtime, which is why it is called unsafe casting.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    117

When an Integer type is used to cast to a String type, a ClassCastException

is thrown.

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val st1: Any = 13
val st2: String = st1 as String // throw
exception
println(st1)
}

We cannot cast a nullable string to a non-nullabe string, and an exception

is thrown as TypeCastException.

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val st1: String? = null
val st2: String = st1 as String // throw
exception
println(st1)
}

As a result, we must utilize the target type as a nullable String as well, so

that type casting does not cause an exception.

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val st1: String? = null
val st2: String? = st1 as String? // throw
exception
println(st1)
}

Safe Cast Operator: as?

Kotlin also provides type casting using the safe cast operator, as? If cast-
ing is not possible, the method returns null value rather than throwing a
ClassCastException error.
Here’s an example: it works great if we try to cast any sort of string value
that the programmer is familiar with into a nullable string. When we ini-
tialize the Any with an integer value and try to cast it into a nullable string,
the type casting fails and returns null to st3.

fun main(args: Array<String>){

var st1: Any = "Safe casting"
118   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

val st2: String? = st1 as? String // it works

st1 = 13
// the type casting not possible so returns null
to st3
val st3: String? = st1 as? String
val st4: Int? = st1 as? Int // it works
println(st2)
println(st3)
println(st4)
}

REGEX AND RANGES

Regular Expressions in Kotlin
Regular Expressions are a basic feature of almost every programming lan-
guage, including Kotlin. The Regex class in Kotlin provides support for
regular expressions. This class’s objects represent regular expressions that
may use for string matching.

class Regex

Regular expressions may be found in a wide range of software, from the

most basic to the most complicated.

Constructors:

• <init>(pattern: String): This constructor creates a regular expres-

sion based on the pattern string.
• (pattern: String, option: RegexOption): This constructor generates
a regular expression based on the pattern and option specified. The
option is a constant of the RegexOption enum class.
• (pattern: String, options: Set<RegexOption>): This constructor
creates a regular expression based on the specified string pattern and
the set of options.

Properties:

• val options: Set<RegexOption>: It includes the set of options that

must be utilized while creating a regex.
• val pattern: String: It holds the pattern’s description string.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    119

Regex Functions
containsMatchIn(): This function returns a boolean indicating whether
our pattern is matched in the input.

fun containsMatchIn(input: CharSequence): Boolean

This example will show how to use the containsMatchIn() method in

Kotlin:

fun main()
{
// A regex to match any string starting with the
letter 'a'
val pattern = Regex("^a")
println(pattern.containsMatchIn("abcd"))
println(pattern.containsMatchIn("bacd"))
}

find(): From the specified beginning index, this method returns the
first matched substring pertaining to our pattern in the input.
fun find(input: CharSequence, start_Index: Int): MatchResult?
This example will show how to use the find() method in Kotlin:

fun main()
{
// Regex to match "ll" in a string
val pattern1 = Regex("ll")
val ans : MatchResult? = pattern1.
find("HellooHelloo", 6)
println(ans?.value)
}

findAll(): This method returns all matchings of the supplied pattern in

the input, beginning with the start index specified.

fun findAll(
input: CharSequence,
start_Index: Int
): Sequence
120   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

This example will show how to use the findAll method in Kotlin:

fun main()
{
// A Regex to match a 3 letter pattern beginning
with ab
val pattern2 = Regex("ab.")
val ans1 : Sequence<MatchResult> = pattern2.
findAll("absfffgdbabc", 0)
// forEach loop used to display all matches
ans1.forEach()
{
matchResult -> println(matchResult.value)
}
println()
}

matches(): This method returns a boolean indicating whether the input

string matches the pattern entirely or not.

infix fun matches(input: Char_Sequence): Boolean

This example will show how to use the matches() method in

Kotlin:

fun main()
{
//to tests the demonstrating entire string match
val pattern = Regex("h([ee]+)ks?")
println(pattern.matches("heeks"))
println(pattern.matches("heeeeeeeeeeks"))
println(pattern.matches("heeksforheeks"))
}

matchEntire(): This method attempts to match the full input to the

specified pattern string and returns the string if it does. Return a null if it
does not match the string.

fun matchEntire(input: Char_Sequence): MatchResult?

 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    121

This example will show how to use the matchEntire() method in

Kotlin:

fun main()
{
// Tests demonstrating entire string match
var pattern = Regex("heeks?")
println(pattern.matchEntire("heeks")?.value)
println(pattern.matchEntire("heeeeeeeks")?.value)
pattern = Regex("""\D+""")
println(pattern.matchEntire("heeks")?.value)
println(pattern.matchEntire("heeks13245")?.value)
}

replace(): This function replaces all pattern occurrences in the input

string with the replacement string specified.
fun replace(input: Char_Sequence, replacement: String): String
replaceFirst(): This function replaces the replacement string with the
first regular expression match in the input.

fun replaceFirst(
input: Char_Sequence,
replacement: String
): String

In Kotlin, here’s an example of the replace() and replaceFirst() work

methods:

fun main()
{
// Tests demonstrating replacement functions
val pattern4 = Regex("xyzz")
// replace all xyzz with abcd in the string
println(pattern4.replace("xyzzxyzzzzzzzzz",
"abcd"))
// replace only first xyz with abc not all
println(pattern4.replaceFirst("xyzzddddddxyzz",
"abcd"))
println()
}
122   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

split(): This function divides the input string into tokens based on the
parameter value.

fun split(input: Char_Sequence, limit: Int): List

This example will show how to use the split() method in Kotlin:

fun main()
{
// Tests demonstrating split function
val pattern = Regex("\\s+") // separate for
white-spaces
val ans : List<String> = pattern.split("This is a
class")
ans.forEach { word -> println(word) }
}

RANGES IN KOTLIN
The range in Kotlin is a set of finite values specified by endpoints. In Kotlin,
a range consists of a start, a stop, and a step. The start and finish points in
the Range are inclusive, and the step value is set to 1 by default.
The range is used with comparable kinds.
Range may create in three ways in Kotlin:

• Using (..) operator

• Using rangeTo() function
• Using downTo() function

(..) Operator
It is the most basic approach to interact with range. It will generate a range
from start to finish that includes both the start and end values. It is the
rangeTo() function’s operator form. We may create ranges for integers and
characters by using the (..) operator.
In Kotlin, use the (..) operator to create an integer range program:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

println("Integer-range:")
// creation of integer range
for(num in 1..5){
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    123

println(num)
}
}

Character range Kotlin program using the (..) operator:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

println("Character-range:")
// creation of character range
for(ch in 'a'..'e'){
println(ch)
}
}

rangeTo() Function
It is similar to the (..) operator. It will generate a range up to the value
specified as an argument. It is also used to create range for numbers and
characters.
Program of using the rangeTo() method in Kotlin to create an integer
range:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

println("Integer-range:")
// creation of integer range
for(num in 1.rangeTo(5)){
println(num)
}
}

of using the rangeTo() method in Kotlin to create a character

range:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

println("Character -range:")
// creation of character range
for(ch in 'a'.rangeTo('e')){
println(ch)
}
}
124   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

downTo() Function
It is the reverse of the rangeTo() or (..). It generates a range in decreasing
order, from larger to smaller numbers. This section will define ranges in
reverse order for both integers and characters.
Kotlin program with an integer range that uses the downTo()
function:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

println("The Integer range in descending order:")
// creation of integer range
for(nums in 5.downTo(1)){
println(nums)
}
}

Program of character range using downTo() function in Kotlin:

fun main(args : Array<String>){

println("The Character range in reverse order:")
// creation of character range
for(ch in 'e'.downTo('a')){
println(ch)
}
}

Range Using forEach Loop

The forEach loop is also used to loop through the

range.
fun main(args : Array<String>){
println("Integer-range:")
// creation integer range
(2..5).forEach(::println)
}

step(): The keyword step can use to create a step between values. It is
mainly used to give the space between two values in rangeTo(), downTo(),
or the (..) operator. The default value for step is 1; therefore, the step func-
tion cannot have a value of zero.
 Exceptional Handling, Null Safety, and Regex and Ranges   ◾    125

The following is a step-by-step Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

//for iterating over range
var i = 2
// for loop with the step keyword
for (i in 3..10 step 2)
print("$i ")
println()
// print the first value of the range
println((11..20 step 2).first)
// print last value of the range
println((11..20 step 4).last)
// print the the step used in the range
println((11..20 step 5).step)
}

reversed function(): It’s used to reverse the specified range type. We

may use the reverse() method instead of downTo() to print the range in
descending order.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var range = 3..8
for (y in range.reversed()){
print("$y ")
}
}

Various predefined functions in range: The following functions are

predefined in Kotlin Range: min(), max(), sum(), and average ().

fun main() {
val predefined = (15..20)
println("minimum value of the range is:
"+predefined.min())
println("maximum value of the range is:
"+predefined.max())
println("sum of all values of the range is:
"+predefined.sum())
println("average value of the range is:
"+predefined.average())
}
126   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Check to see whether a value is inside a range:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
var i = 3
//to check whether value lies in the range
if( i in 5..10)
println("$i is lie within range")
else
println("$i does not lie within range")
}

CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we covered Exceptional handling with try, catch, throw,
and finally, and we also covered try block and multiple catch blocks.
Moreover, we learned about Null safety and Regex and Ranges in Kotlin.
 Chapter 4

Control Flow Statements

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢➢ If-else
➢➢ While, do-while
➢➢ For loop
➢➢ Labeled and unlabeled break
➢➢ Labeled and unlabeled continue

Chapter 3 covered expression handling, null safety, and regex and ranges.
In this chapter, we will cover the control flow statement in Kotlin.

IF-ELSE EXPRESSION IN KOTLIN

Making decisions in programming is similar to making decisions in real
life. When a given condition is met in programming, a particular code
block must be performed. Regulate statements are used in programming
languages to control program execution flow based on specific conditions.
If the condition is met, the program enters the conditional block and per-
forms the instructions.
In Kotlin, there are several forms of if-else expressions:

• if expression
• if-else expression

DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-4 127

128   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• if-else-if ladder expression

• nested if expression

If Statement
It is used to describe whether a block of statements should be executed or
not, i.e., if a given condition is true, then the statement or block of state-
ments should execute; otherwise, the statement or block of statements
should not run.

Syntax:
if(condition) {
// the code to run if condition is true
}

Flowchart:

Statement of if.
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    129

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var c = 3
if(c > 0){
print("Yes,the number is positive")
}
}

If-Else Statement
The if-else statement is made up of two blocks of statements. When the condi-
tion is true, the “if” statement is used to run the block of code, and when the
condition is false, the “else” statement is used to execute the block of code.

Syntax:
if(condition) {
// the code to run if condition is true
}
else {
// the code to run if condition is false
}

Flowchart:

Statement of if-else.
130   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var a = 7
var b = 13
if(a > b){
print("Number 7 is larger than 13")
}
else{
println("Number 13 is larger than 7")
}
}

If-Else Expression in Kotlin as Ternary Operator

Because it returns a result, if-else may be used as an expression in Kotlin.
In contrast to Java, there is no ternary operator in Kotlin since if-else
returns the value based on the condition and operates just like ternary.
The Kotlin program to discover the bigger value between two integers
using an if-else statement is shown below:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var c = 70
var d = 50

// if-else returns value which is to be stored in

the max variable
var max = if(c > d){
print("The Greater number is: ")
c
}
else{
print("The Greater number is:")
d
}
print(max)
}

If-Else-If Ladder Expression

A user can enter numerous criteria here. All of the “if” statements are per-
formed. All of the conditions are examined one by one, and if any of them
are found to be true, the code associated with the if statement is run, and
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    131

all other statements are skipped until the end of the block. If none of the
conditions are met, the last else statement is performed by default.

Syntax:
if(first-condition)
{
// the code to run if condition is true
}
else if(second-condition)
{
// the code to run if condition is true
}
else
{
}

Flowchart:

Statement of if-else-if.
132   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

The Kotlin program to determine whether a number is positive, negative,

or equal to zero is shown below:

import java.util.Scanner
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// to create an object for scanner class
val reader = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter number: ")

// to read the next Integer value

var nums = reader.nextInt()
var result = if ( nums > 0){
"$num is positive number"
}
else if( nums < 0){
"$nums is negative number"
}
else{
"$nums is equal to zero"
}
println(result)

Nested If Expression
Nested if statements are if statements that are nestled inside another if
statement. If the first condition is true, code the associated block to be
run, and then check for if condition nested in the first block, and if it is
also true, code the related block to be executed. It will continue till the last
condition is met.

Syntax:
if(condition1){
// code-1
if(condition2){
// code-2
}
}
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    133

Flowchart:

Statement of nested-if.

The Kotlin program to find the greatest value among three integers
is shown below:

import java.util.Scanner
fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// to create an object for scanner class

val reader = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter 3 numbers: ")
var nums1 = reader.nextInt()
var nums2 = reader.nextInt()
var nums3 = reader.nextInt()
var max = if ( nums1 > nums2) {
if (nums1 > nums3) {
"$nums1 is the largest number"
}
else {
"$nums3 is the largest number"
}
}
134   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

else if( nums2 > nums3){

"$nums2 is the largest number"
}
else{
"$nums3 is the largest number"
}
println(max)
}

WHILE LOOP IN KOTLIN

In programming, a loop is used to continually run a given code block until
a condition is fulfilled. If you need to print a count from 1 to 100, you must
repeat the print command 100 times. However, using a loop may save time
and write only two lines.
While loops are consisting of a code block and a condition, the condi-
tion is first tested, and if true, the code within the block is run. It is repeated
until the condition turns false since the condition is verified before enter-
ing the block each time. The while loop may be thought of as a series of if
statements that are repeated.

Syntax of a while loop:

while(condition) {
// the code to run
}

Flowchart:

Statement of while-loop.
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    135

Using a while loop, this Kotlin program prints integers from 1 to

10: We use a while loop to display the numbers in the following program.
First, set the variable numb to 1. Put the expression (numb = 10) in a while
loop and check whether it is true or false. If true, it enters the block, exe-
cutes the print statement, and increases the number by one. This process is
repeated until the condition turns false.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb = 1
while(numb <= 10) {
println(numb)
numb++;
}
}

Using a while loop, this Kotlin program prints the elements of an

array: In the following program, we build an array (name) and initialize
it with a different number of strings, and set a variable index to 0. array-
Name.size may use to compute the size of an array. In the while loop, pro-
vide the condition (index < name.size).
If index value is less than or equal to the array size, it enters the block
and prints the name stored at the corresponding index and increment the
index value after each iteration. This process is repeated until the condi-
tion turns false.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var name = arrayOf("Praniti","Gautam","Akashay","S
idharth","Abhinav","Manav")
var index = 0
while(index < name.size) {
println(name[index])
index++
}
}

DO-WHILE LOOP IN KOTLIN

Do-while loops, like Java, are control flow statements that run a block of
code at least once without verifying the condition, and then repeatedly
execute the block, or not, depending entirely on a Boolean condition at the
end of the do-while block. In contrast to the while loop, which runs the
136   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

block only when the condition becomes true, the do-while loop performs
the code first and then evaluates the expression or test condition.

Working of Do-While Loop

The condition is evaluated after all of the statements in the block have been
executed. If the condition is met, the code block is re-executed. The code
block execution procedure is repeated as long as the expression evaluates
to true. If the expression becomes false, the loop exits, and control is trans-
ferred to the sentence after the do-while loop.
It is also known as a post-test loop as it tests the condition after the
block has been executed.
The syntax of the do-while loop is as follows:

do {
// the code to run
{
while(condition)

Flowchart:

Statement of do-while-loop.
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    137

A Kotlin program that uses a do-while loop to calculate the factorial

of a number:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb = 6
var factorial = 1
do {
factorial *= numb
numb--
}while(numb > 0)
println("The Factorial of 6 is $factorial")
}

Program of printing a table of two using a do-while loop:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb = 2
var c = 1

do {
println("2 * $c = "+ numb * c)
c++
}while(c < 11)
}

FOR LOOP IN KOTLIN

The for loop in Kotlin is equivalent to the foreach loop in other languages
such as C#. The for loop is used here to loop through any data structure
that has an iterator. It is not used in the same way as the for loop in other
programming languages such as Java or C.
The syntax of a for loop in Kotlin is as follows:

for(item in collection) {
// the code to execute
}

The for loop in Kotlin is used to iterate over the following since they all
offer an iterator:

• Range
• String
138   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• Array
• Collection

Iterate across the Range Using a For Loop

Range offers an iterator so that we can traverse it. There are several ways
to iterate across range. The in operator is used in the for loop to determine
whether or not the value is within the range.
The following programs are examples of traversing the range in various
ways, where in is the operator to verify the value in the range. If the value
is between the ranges, it returns true and outputs the value.
Print the values when we iterate over the range:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
for (c in 1..6) {
print("$c ")
}
}

Using step 3, iterate over the range to jump:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
for (c in 1..10 step 3) {
print("$c ")
}
}

We can’t iterate across range from top to down unless we use

downTo:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
for (c in 5..1) {
print("$c ")
}
println("It print nothing")
}
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    139

Iterate over the range from top to down using downTo:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
for (c in 5 downTo 1) {
print("$c ")
}
}

Iterate over the range from top to down using downTo, and then
step 3:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
for (c in 10 downTo 1 step 3) {
print("$c ")
}
}

Using a For Loop, Iterate over the Array

Array is a data-structure that holds data of the same kind, such as an inte-
ger or a string. Because it includes an iterator, an array may be traversed
using a for loop. Each array has a beginning index, which is by default 0.
We can traverse the array in the following ways:

• Without using index property

• With using index property
• Using withIndex() library function

Without utilizing the index property, traverse an array:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numbs = arra
yOf(11,22,33,44,55,66,77,88,99,100)

for (num in numbs){

if(num%2 == 0){
print("$num ")
}
}
}
140   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Using the index property, traverse an array:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var colors = arrayOf("Green", "Yellow", "Blue",
"Red", "White")
for (i in colors.indices) {
println(planets[i])
}
}

Using the withIndex() library function, we may traverse an array:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var colors = arrayOf("Green", "Yellow", "Blue",
"Red", "White")
for ((index,value) in colors.withIndex()) {
println("Element at $index th index is
$value")
}
}

Iterate through a String Using the For Loop

Because the for loop includes an iterator, it may traverse a string.
The string can traverse in the following ways:

• Without using index property

• With using index property
• Using withIndex library function
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var name = "Hub"
var name2 = "oftutors"
// traversing the string without using index
property
for (alphabets in name) print("$alphabets ")
// traversing the string with using index
property
for (i in name2.indices) print(name2[i]+" ")
println(" ")
// traversing the string using withIndex()
library function
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    141

for ((index,value) in name.withIndex())

println("The Element at $index th index is
$value")
}

Iterate over the Collection Using the For Loop

The for loop may use to traverse the collection. Collections are classified
into three types: List, Map, and Set.
We can pass different data types to the listOf() method at the same
time.
The program to traverse the list using a for loop is shown below:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// to read only, fix-size
var collection = listOf(1,2,3,"listOf", "mapOf",
"setOf")
for (elements in collection) {
println(elements)
}
}

WHEN EXPRESSION IN KOTLIN

Expression when replaces the switch operator of other languages such
as Java in Kotlin. A specific block of code must be performed when
a given condition is met. The when expression parameter compares
each branch one by one until a match is found. When the first match
is detected, it reaches the end of the when block and executes the code
following the when block. We do not need a break statement at the end
of each case, unlike a switch case in the Java or any other programming
language.
When may be used in two ways in Kotlin:

• when as a statement
• when as an expression

When to Use as a Statement with Else

When may be used as a statement with or without the else branch. When
used as a statement, the values of all individual branches are successively
compared with the argument, and the relevant branch is executed when
142   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

the condition matches. If none of the branches satisfy the requirement, the
else branch is executed.

import java.util.Scanner;
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var reader = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter largebody:")
var lbt = reader.next()
when(lbt) {
"Sun" -> println("The Sun is a Star")
"Moon" -> println("The Moon is a Satellite")
"Earth" -> println("The Earth is a planet")
else -> println("don't know anything")
}
}

Using When as a Statement in the Absence of an Else Branch

We may use when as a statement in the absence of an otherwise branch.
When used as a statement, the values of all individual branches are sequen-
tially compared with the argument, and the relevant branch is executed
when the condition matches. If none of the branches satisfy the require-
ment, the block simply departs without printing anything to the system
output.

import java.util.Scanner;
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var reader = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter-name:")
var lbt = reader.next()

when(lbt) {
"Sun" -> println("The Sun is a Star")
"Moon" -> println("The Moon is a Satellite")
"Earth" -> println("The Earth is a planet")
}
}

When Used as an Expression

If used as an expression, the value of the branch with which the condi-
tion is satisfied becomes the value of the overall expression. Using an
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    143

expression produces a result that matches the parameter, which we may

save in a variable or print directly.

import java.util.Scanner;
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var reader = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter the month of number:")
var monthyear = reader.nextInt()
var months = when(monthyear)
{
1->"Jan"
2->"Feb"
3->"March"
4->"April"
5->"May"
6->"June"
7->"July"
8->"Aug"
9->"Sept"
10->"Oct"
11->"Nov"
12->"Dec"
else -> {
println("Not a month of the year")
}
}
println(months)
}

If the argument doesn’t satisfy any of the branch requirements, the else
branch is performed. The else branch is required as an expression, unless
the compiler can demonstrate that all possible scenarios are handled by
branch conditions. If we are unable to use the else branch, a compiler error
will be generated.
Error:(7, 16) Kotlin: “when” expression must be exhaustive, add neces-
sary “else” branch.

In Kotlin, Different Ways to Use When Block

We can use a comma to separate several branches in one. When some
branches share common logic, we can unite them into a single branch.
In the following example, we need to determine whether the entered
144   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

largebody is a planet or not; therefore, we combined all planet names into

a single branch. Anything different than the planet name will cause the
else branch to be executed.

import java.util.Scanner;
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var reader = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter the name of planet: ")
var names = reader.next()
when(names) {
"Mercury","Earth","Mars","Jupiter",
"Neptune","Saturn","Venus","Uranus" ->
println("Planet")
else -> println("Neither the planet nor the
star")
}
}

Check Whether the Input Value Is Inside the Range

We may verify the range of arguments supplied in when block using the
in or !in operator. In Kotlin, the “in” operator is used to check for the exis-
tence of a certain variable or attribute within a range. If the argument lies
inside a specific range, the in operator returns true; if the argument does
not lies within a specific range, the !in operator returns true.

import java.util.Scanner;
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var reader = Scanner(System.'in')
print("Enter month number of the year: ")
var numb = reader.nextInt()
when(numb){
in 1..3 -> println("It is the spring season")
in 4..6 -> println("It is the summer season")
in 7..8 ->println("It is the rainy season")
in 9..10 -> println("It is the autumn season")
in 11..12 -> println("It is the winter
season")
!in 1..12 ->println("Enter the valid month of
year")
}
}
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    145

Check Whether a Provided Variable Is of a Specific Type

We may verify the type of variable passed as an input in the when block
using the is or !is operator. If the variable is of the integer type, is Int
returns true; otherwise, it returns false.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb: Any = "Huboftutors"
when(numb){
is Int -> println("its an Integer")
is String -> println("its a String")
is Double -> println("its a Double")
}
}

Using When as a Replacement for an If-Else-If Chain

When can be used in place of if-else-if. If no arguments are provided, the
branch conditions are simply Boolean expressions, and a branch is per-
formed only when its condition is true:

fun isOdd(c: Int) = c % 2 != 0

fun isEven(c: Int) = c % 2 == 0
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var numb = 8
when{
isOdd(numb) ->println("Odd")
isEven(numb) -> println("Even")
else -> println("neither even or not odd")
}
}

Verify If a String Includes a Certain Prefix or Suffix

The method below may also use to check for a prefix or suffix in a supplied
string. If the string has the prefix or suffix, it will return true; otherwise, it
will return false.

fun hasPrefix(company: Any) = when (company) {

is String -> company.startsWith("Huboftutors")
else -> false
}
146   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var company = " Huboftutors a computer science
portal"
var result = hasPrefix(company)
if(result) {
println("Yes, string started with
Huboftutors")
}
else {
println("No, String does not started with
Huboftutors")
}
}

UNLABELED BREAK IN KOTLIN

When working with loops, if we want to end the loop’s execution instantly
once a given condition is met, we may use either a break or a return expres-
sion to leave the loop.
This section will teach us how to utilize a break expression to quit a
loop. When the break expression is encountered in a program, it returns
to the nearest enclosing loop.
In Kotlin, there are two types of break expressions: unlabeled break
expressions and labeled break expressions. We will learn how to utilize
unlabeled break expressions in while, do-while, and for loops.

Use of Unlabeled Break in a While Loop

Unlabeled break is used to escape the loop without checking the test
expression when it meets a certain condition. The control is then passed to
the next while block statement.
Break syntax in a while loop:

while(test expression) {
// the code to run
if(break condition) {
break
}
// the another code to run
}
A Kotlin program that computes the sum of integers from 1 to 10:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var sum = 0
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    147

var c = 1
while(i <= Int.MAX_VALUE) {
sum += c
c++
if(c == 11) {
break
}
}
print("sum of integers from 1 to 11: $sum")
}
In the above program, we use a while loop and a break expression to com-
pute the sum of numbers from 1 to 10. Create a variable sum and set its ini-
tial value to 0. Iterate through the loop again, and this time set variable I to 1.
Iterator now proceeds from i = 1) and executes the sum statement.
When the iterator value i reaches 11, the break expression is executed, and
the loop is exited without testing the test expression i = Int.MAX VALUE).
The control then goes to the while block’s print() instruction, which prints
the total of integers = 55.

Use of Unlabeled Break in a Do-While Loop

We may also use the break expression in a do-while loop to quit the loop
without testing the test expression.
Break in a do-while loop syntax:

do {
//the code to run
if(break-condition) {
break
}
while(test-expression)

An array’s elements are printed using a Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var name = arrayOf("Earth","Mars","Venus","Jupiter
","Saturn","Uranus")
var c = 0

do{
println("The name of $c th planet: "+name[c])
if(name[c]=="Jupiter") {
break
148   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

}
c++
}while(c<=name.size)
}

We traverse the array in the preceding program to print the names of

planets. First, initialize the array names with planet names, and i is the
iterator for the test statement. We calculate size of an array using name.
size.
The do block prints the array’s element first, and then compares the
array’s value at any index to “Jupiter” every time. If it does match, increase
the iterator and run one more. If the expressions match, the break expres-
sion is executed, and the do-while loop is terminated without checking for
the test expression.

Use of Unlabeled Break in a For Loop

We can use a break expression when traversing a for loop within an array
or string.
The syntax of break in for loop is as follows:

for(iteration through iterator) {

// the code to run
if(break-condition){
break
}
}

Kotlin program for printing a string up to a specific character: In the

program below, we traverse the string to break at a specific position by com-
paring the char value. First, create an array with the name “Hubsoftutors”
and the value “Hubsoftutors.” Then a for loop with an iterator I to explore.
It outputs the char value and compares it to char “s” at each point. The loop
is terminated if a match is found, and control is transferred to the next
statement.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var name = "Hubsoftutors"
for (c in name){
print("$c")
if(c == 's') {
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    149

break
}
}
}

LABELED BREAK IN KOTLIN

Suppose we want to terminate the loop’s execution instantly if a specific
condition is met when interacting with loops. We may escape the loop by
using either a break or a return expression in this situation.
In this tutorial, we’ll look at utilizing a break expression to leave a loop.
When the break statement is encountered in a program, it returns to the
nearest enclosing loop.
In Kotlin, there are two sorts of break expressions: As we all know,
unlabeled break is used to terminate to the nearest enclosing loop when a
given condition is met.
However, a labeled break returns to a desired loop when a given condi-
tion is met. It is possible to accomplish this with the use of labels. Label is
an identifier followed by a @ sign, such as inner@, outer@, first@, second@,
and so on. Label can use with any expression, but it must be written in
front of it.
We’ll see how to employ labeled break expressions in while, do-while,
and for loops.

Use of Labeled Break in a While Loop

When a certain condition is met, a labeled break is used to leave the target
block without verifying the condition in the while loop. The control is then
passed to the next statement of the while block.
If you use the label outer@ to identify the outer loop, we can simply
break it using break@outer in the break condition block.
while loop labeled break syntax:

outer@ while(condition) {
// code…
inner@ while(condition) {
// code…
if(break-condition) {
break @outer
}
}
}
150   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Program of using labeled break in a while loop in Kotlin:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb1 = 4
outer@ while (numb1 > 0) {
var numb2 = 4
inner@ while (numb2 > 0) {
if (numb1==2)
break@outer
println("numb1 = $numb1, numb2 = $numb2")
numb2--
}
numb1--
}
}

When the (num1 == 2) expression is true, the break@outer is performed,

ending the desired loop marked with outer@.

Use of Labeled Break in a Do-While Loop

The labeled break is also run in the do-while loop to finish the desired loop.
In this case, we’ve used outer@ for the outer do-while loop and inner@ for
the inner do-while loop.
In a do-while loop, the syntax of a labeled break is as follows:

outer@ do {
// code..
inner@ do {
// code..
if(break-condition) {
break@outer
}
} while(condition)
} while(condition)

Program of using labeled break in a do-while loop in Kotlin:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb1 = 4
outer@ do {
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    151

var numb2 = 4
inner@ do {
if (numb1 == 2)
break@outer
println("numb1 = $numb1; numb2 = $numb2")
numb2--
} while (numb2 > 0)
numb1--
} while (numb1 > 0)
}

We print the same output as in the while loop here. When the (num1 == 2)
expression is true, the break@outer command is performed, which ends
the desired loop marked with outer@.

Use of Labeled Break in a For Loop

We can also use a labeled break to stop the desired loop if a given condition
is met in the for loop. The outer for loop has been labeled as outer@, while
the inside for loop has been labeled as inner@. Iteration in for loop is done
using an iterator.
Labeled break in for loop syntax:

outer@ for(iteration through iterator) {

// code..
inner@ for(iteration through iterator)
// code..
if(break-condition) {
break@outer
}
}
}

Kotlin program that employs a labeled break in a for-loop:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

outer@ for (numb1 in 4 downTo 1) {
inner@ for (numb2 in 4 downTo 1) {
if (numb1 == 2)
break@outer
152   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println("numb1 = $numb1; numb2 = $numb2")

}
}
}

UNLABELED CONTINUE IN KOTLIN

In this section, we will learn how to utilize continue in Kotlin. When pro-
gramming with loops, it is occasionally beneficial to skip the current itera-
tion of the loop. In such a situation, we may utilize the program’s continue
statement. Continue is essentially used to repeat the loop for a given con-
dition. It skips the following statements and moves on to the next loop
iteration.
In Kotlin, there are two kinds of continues - unlabeled continue and
labeled continue:
We’ll see at how to utilize unlabeled continue in while, do-while, and
for loops.

Use of Unlabeled Continue in a While Loop

In Kotlin, the unlabeled continue is used to skip current iteration of the
nearest enclosing while loop. If condition for continue is true, it skips
the instructions after continue and returns to the beginning of the while
loop. It will check for the condition again, and the loop will repeat until it
becomes false.
The syntax of an unlabeled continue in a while loop is as follows:

while(condition) {
//code…
if(condition for continue) {
continue
}
//code…
}
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    153

Flowchart:

unlabeled continue in a while loop.

The continue in while loop is used in a Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb = 0
while (numb <= 15) {
if (numb % 3 == 0) {
numb++
continue
}
println(numb)
numb++
}
}
154   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

In the preceding program, we print the integers and skip all multiples of 3.
The phrase (num % 3 == 0) is used to determine if a number is divisible
by 3. If the number is a multiple of three, increase it without printing it to
standard output.

Use of Unlabeled Continue in a Do-While Loop

We may also use the unlabeled continue in do-while to skip the iteration
of the nearest closing loop. We must include the continue condition in the
do block in this case. If the condition becomes false, the next instruction
will skip, and control will transfer to the while condition.
The syntax of an unlabeled continue in a do-while loop is as follows:

do{
// code…
if(condition for continue) {
continue
}
}
while(condition)

Flowchart:

unlabeled continue in a do-while loop.

 Control Flow Statements   ◾    155

Kotlin program to utilize continue in a do-while loop:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb = 1
do {
if (numb <= 5 || numb >=15) {
numb++
continue
}
println("$numb")
numb++
} while (numb < 20)
}

We used the condition (num = 5 || num >=15) in the preceding pro-

gram to skip printing numbers to the standard output less than or
equal to 5 and more than or equal to 15. As a result, it only prints the
digits 6–14.

Use of Unlabeled Continue in a For Loop

We can also use unlabeled continue in for loop to skip the current iteration
to the closing loop. We used an array of letters and an iterator to traverse
the array planets in the following program. The equation (i < 2) skips iter-
ating through array indices less than two; therefore, it does not display the
text stored at indexes 0 and 1.
The following is the syntax for an unlabeled continue in a for loop:

for(iteration through iterator)

{
//code..
if(condition for continue)
{
continue
}
}
156   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Flowchart:

Kotlin program to use continue in for loop:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var colors = arrayOf("Green", "Yellow", "Blue",
"White", "Orange")
for (i in colors.indices) {
if(i < 2){
continue
}
println(colors [i])
}
}
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    157

LABELED CONTINUE IN KOTLIN

In this topic, we will learn how to utilize continue in Kotlin. It is occasionally
beneficial to skip the current loop iteration when dealing with a loop in pro-
gramming. In such a situation, we may utilize the program’s continue state-
ment. Continue is essentially used to repeat the loop for a given condition. It
skips the following statements and moves on to the next loop iteration.
In Kotlin, there are two forms of continuing.
Unlabeled continue, as we know, skips the iteration of the nearest clos-
ing loop, whereas labeled continue skips the iteration of the intended clos-
ing loop. It may be done with the use of labels such as inner@, outer@, and
so on. We put a label in front of the phrase and call it with continue@abc.

Use of Labeled Continue in a While Loop

In the while loop, labeled continue is used to skip the iteration of the
desired block when it meets a specified condition without checking the
condition in the while loop. If we mark the outside loop with outer@ and
the inner loop with inner@, you can simply skip for the specified condition
in the conditional block by using continue@outer.
The syntax for labeled continue in a while loop is as follows:

outer@ while(first-condition) {
// code…
inner@ while(second-condition) {
//code…
if(condition for continue) {
continue@outer
}
}
}

Kotlin program that uses labeled continue in a while loop:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb1 = 4
outer@ while (numb1 > 0) {
numb1--
var numb2 = 4
inner@ while (numb2 > 0) {
if (numb1 <= 2)
continue@outer
158   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println("numb1 = $numb1, numb2 = $numb2")

numb2--
}
}
}

Use of Labeled Continue in a Do-While Loop

In the do-while loop, we may also utilize the designated continue. We uti-
lized a nested do-while loop in the following program, labeling the outside
loop with outer@ and the inner loop with inner@. The continue condi-
tion is executed within an inner do-while loop. If the condition is true,
continue@outer skips the next lines or expressions and returns control to
outer do-while for repetition.
In the do-while loop, the syntax for labeled continue is as follows:

outer@ do {
// code…
inner@ do {
// code…
if(condition for continue) {
continue@outer
}
} while(first-condition)
} while(second-condition)

Kotlin program that uses labeled continue in a do-while loop:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb1 = 4
outer@ do {
numb1--
var numb2 = 4
inner@ do {
if (numb1 <= 2)
continue@outer
println("numb1 = $numb1; numb2 = $numb2")
numb2--
} while (numb2 > 0)

} while (numb1 > 0)

}
 Control Flow Statements   ◾    159

Use of Labeled Continue in a For Loop

In addition, we may utilize labeled continue in for loop. We utilized nested
for loops in the following program, labeling the outside loop with outer@
and the inner loop with inner@. The continue condition is executed within
the inner for-loop. If the condition is met, the next statements are skipped,
and the control is passed to the outer for-loop for further iteration.
The syntax for labeled continue in for loop is as follows:

outer@ for(iteration through iterator) {

// code..
inner@ for(iteration through iterator) {
// code..
if(condition for continue) {
continue@outer
}
}
}

Kotlin program that uses for loop with a continue label:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

outer@ for (numb1 in 4 downTo 1) {
inner@ for (numb2 in 4 downTo 1) {
if (numb1 <= 3)
continue@outer
println("numb1 = $numb1; numb2 = $numb2")
}
}
}

CONCLUSION
This chapter covered the control flow statement where we learned if-
else, while loop, do-while loop, and for loop. Moreover, we covered when
expression, labeled and unlabeled break, and labeled and unlabeled
continue.
 Chapter 5

Arrays and Strings,

Functions, and Java
Interoperability

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢➢ Array and String

➢➢ Functions
➢➢ Recursion and Expression
➢➢ Calling Kotlin from Java

In Chapter 4, we covered control flow statements in Kotlin. In this chapter,

we will cover array and string, functions that include lambda expressions,
recursion, and inline functions. Moreover, we will also learn about how to
call Kotlin from Java.

ARRAYS IN KOTLIN
The array data structure is one of the most fundamental data structures in
almost all computer languages. Array is a data-structure that allows us to
store several items of the same data type, such as integer or string, under
a single variable name.
Arrays are used in programming to arrange data so that a related group
of values can be readily sorted or searched.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-5 161
162   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Arrays have the following basic properties:

• They are kept in memory in contiguous memories.

• Their indexes allow them to be accessed programmatically (array[1],
array[0], etc.).
• They are malleable.
• Their sizes are fixed.

Creation of an Array
Arrays are not native data types in Kotlin, but rather a mutable collection
of related items represented by the Array class.
In Kotlin, an array may define in two ways.

Making Use of the arrayOf() Function

By passing values of elements to the library function arrayOf(), we may
generate an array.

Syntax:
val numb = arrayOf(1, 2, 3, 4) //type
declaration implicit
val numb = arrayOf<Int>(1, 2, 3) //type
declaration explicit

Program of creating the array using arrayOf() and arrayOf<Int>

functions:

fun main()
{
// declarion of array using arrayOf()
val arrayname = arrayOf(11, 22, 33, 44, 55)
for (c in 0..arrayname.size-1)
{
print(" "+arrayname[c])
}
println()
// the declarion of an array using arrayOf<Int>
val arrayname2 = arrayOf<Int>(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    163

for (c in 0..arrayname2.size-1)
{
print(" "+arrayname2[c])
}
}

Making Use of the Array Constructor

Because array is a class in Kotlin, we can also create an array using the
Array constructor.
The constructor accepts two parameters:

• The array’s size.

• A function that accepts the index of a given element and returns its
initial value.

Syntax:
val numb = Array(3, {c-> c*1})

In the above example, we pass the array’s size as 3 and a lambda function
that initializes element values from 0 to 9.
Program of creating array using constructor:

fun main()
{
val arrayname = Array(5, { c -> c * 1 })
for (c in 0..arrayname.size-1)
{
println(arrayname[c])
}
}

Aside from these, Kotlin provides various built-in factory methods for cre-
ating arrays of primitive data types like byteArray, intArray, shortArray,
and so on. Although they implement the same methods and attributes,
these classes do not extend the Array class.
The factory method for creating an integer array, for example:

val numb = intArrayOf(1, 2, 3, 4)

164   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Other factory methods for creating arrays include:

• byteArrayOf()
• charArrayOf()
• shortArrayOf()
• longArrayOf()

Array Access and Modification

So far, we’ve covered how to build and initialize an array in Kotlin. Let’s
look at how to access and modify them now.
There are two options:

• Using the get() and set() Functions: As you may be aware, an array
in Kotlin is essentially a class. As a result, we may access a class
object’s data using its member functions. The methods get() and set()
are referred to as member functions.
The get() function accepts a single parameter, the element’s index,
and returns the item’s value at that index.

First Syntax:
val x = numb.get(0)

The set() function accepts two parameters: the element’s index and
the value to insert.

Second Syntax:
num.set(1, 3)

The above code sets value of the array’s second element to 3.

• Using the index operator [ ]: Arrays can access and modify using
the [] operator.

The syntax for accessing an array element would be:

val x = numb[1]

This will set x to the value of the second element in numb.

 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    165

To change an array element, we must perform the following:

numb[2] = 5;

The value of the third element in the numb array will change to 5.
Note that the index operator, or [], is an overloaded operator that
only stands for calls to the get() and set() member functions.
Here’s an example of Kotlin array manipulation in action, in
which we build an array, edit its values, and access a specific element:
fun main()
{ // declare an array using arrayOf()
val numb = arrayOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

numb.set(0, 10) // set first element equal to 10

numb.set(1, 6) // set secondelement equal to 6

println(numb.get(0)) // print first element

using get()
println(numb[1]) // print second element using []
}

Array Traversal
An array’s key quality is that it can traverse programmatically, and each
element in the array may change separately. Kotlin provides a few useful
methods for traversing arrays.
The for-loop is the simplest and most often used idiom for traversing
an array.

First Syntax:
for(c in numb.indices){
println(numb[c])
}

Kotlin array traversal program using for loop:

// traversing an array
fun main()
{
val numb = arrayOf<Int>(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
166   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

numb.set(0, 10)
numb.set(1, 6)
for (c in numb.indices)
{
println(numb[c])
}
}

To get the same result, we may also utilize the range. A range in Kotlin is
an interval between two values (start and finish) that may create with the
(..) operator. The in keyword may then use to traverse the range.
Range syntax is as follows:

for (c in 0..10){
println(c)
}

An array’s element range is defined as 0 to size-1. So, to traverse an array

using the range, we execute a loop on the array name from 0 to size-1.
Program of an array traversal in Kotlin using range:

// traversing an array
fun main()
{
val arraynames = arrayOf<Int>(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
for (c in 0..arraynames.size-1)
{
println(arraynames[c])
}
}

The forEach loop is another, probably less time-consuming, approach to

perform the above.

Second Syntax:
arraynames.forEach({index->println(index)})

Program of an array traversal using forEach loop:

// traversing an array
fun main()
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    167

{
val arraynames = arrayOf<Int>(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
arraynames.forEach({ index -> println(index) })
}

STRING IN KOTLIN
A string is an array of characters. Kotlin strings are comparable to Java
strings; however, they include several additional features. Kotlin strings
are likewise immutable, which implies that we cannot modify the compo-
nents or length of the string.
In Kotlin, the String class is defined as follows:

class string : Comparable<String>, Char-Sequence

In Kotlin, we must use double quotes (" ") to declare a string; single quotes
are not permitted to define strings.

Syntax:
var variable_name = "Hello, Everyone"

or

var variable_name : String = "Huboftutors"

Creation of an Empty String

To create an empty string, we must first create an instance of the String class.

var variable_name = String()

Templates and String Elements

• String elements
A character, digit, or other symbols in a string is referred to as an
element of a string. Using string[index], we can quickly get the ele-
ment of the string. Elements are stored in a string starting at index 0
and ending at (string.length – 1).
In Kotlin, string elements may access in three ways:
• Using index: This method returns the character at the specified
index.
168   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• Using the get function: Returns the character at the specified

index, which was passed as an input to the get function.
• Iterating through the string: To access the characters in the
string, use loops.

To access the elements of a string in Kotlin, use the following code:

fun main(args: Array<String>){
// access the string elements one by one
var str = "Hiiii"
println(str[0])
println(str[1])
println(str[2])
println(str[3])
println(str[4])
// access the string elements using for loop
var str2 = "Everyone"
for(c in str2.indices){
print(str2[c]+" ")
}
}

• String Template
String template expressions are evaluated pieces of code, and the
results are delivered as strings. Template expressions can found in
both escaped and raw string types. String templates begin with a dol-
lar sign $ and are followed by either a variable name or an arbitrary
expression enclosed in curly braces.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var num = 10
println("The value of n is $num")
// using string
val str = "Everyone"
println("$str is string which length is ${str.
length}")
}
The string has the following essential properties and functions:
• Length: It returns the length of string.
var st =" String"
println(st.length)
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    169

• get(index): It returns the character at that particular index.

st.get(3) // Output: - i

• subSequence(start, end): It returns a substring starting at the

beginning and ending but excluding the end.
st.subSequence(1, 4) // Output: - tri

• str.compareTo(string): It returns 0 if str = = string.

Kotlin program using the mentioned properties and

functions:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var g1 = "PeeksForPeeks"
var e1 = "Peeks"
println(g1.length)
println(g1.get(4))
println(g1.subSequence(0, 5))
println(g1.compareTo(e1))
}

String Literals
In Kotlin, there are two kinds of string literals:

• Escaped string
• Raw string

Escaped String
An escape string is defined with double quotes ("....") and may contain
escape characters such as /n, /t, and so on.
Escaped string Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// the escaped string
val str1 = "World \n is \n beautiful"
println(str1)
}
170   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Raw String – Multiline String

The raw string is enclosed in triple quotes ("""....""") and lacks escape char-
acters. Because it allows us to split the string into numerous lines, it’s also
known as a multiline string.
Raw string Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// the raw string - multiline string
var str1 = """My
|name
|is
|Harsh
""".trimMargin()
println(str1)
}

Escape Characters
Some of the escapees include:

• \” : for double quote

• \b : for backspace
• \n : for newline
• \’ : for single quote
• \r : for carriage return
• \\ : for backslash
• \t : for tab

String Equality
Kotlin includes comparing instances of a specific type in two separate
ways. This characteristic distinguishes Kotlin from other programming
languages.
There are two kinds of equality: 

• Structural equality
• Referential equality
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    171

Structural Equality
The = = operator and its inverse, the != operator, assess structural equality.
The expression x==y is converted into a call to the type’s equals() method
by default.

Referential Equality
In Kotlin, referential equality is tested using the = = = operator and its
opposite, the != = operator. This equality returns true only if two instances
of the same type refer to the same memory location. When used on types
that are converted to primitives at runtime, the = = = check is converted to
= = check, and the != = check is converted to != check.
Program to demonstrate the structural and referential equality:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var a = "PeeksForPeeks"
var b = "PeeksForPeeks"
var c = "Peeks"
println(a= = =b) // true, as both are pointing to
same StringPool
println(a= =c) //false since values are not equal
println(a= = =c) //false
}

FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN
Function is a piece of code that does a specific task. Functions are used in
programming to divide code into smaller modules, making the program
more manageable.
For instance, if we need to compute the sum of two numbers, we may
create a fun sum ().

fun sum(c: Int, d: Int): Int {

return c + d
}

We may call sum(c, d) many times as we like, and it will always return
the sum of two values. As a result, the function minimizes code repetition
and makes code more reusable.
There are two kinds of functions in Kotlin:

• Standard library function

• User-defined function
172   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Standard Library Function in Kotlin

In Kotlin, there are various built-in functions already specified in the stan-
dard library and ready to use. We can call them by passing parameters
based on the situation.
We will utilize the built-in methods arrayOf(), sum(), and println()
in the following program. To build an array, the method arrayOf()
requires various arguments such as integers, double, and so on, and we
can determine the total of all items using sum(), which does not require
any inputs.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var sum1 = arrayOf(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10).sum1()
println("Sum of all elements of an array is:
$sum1")
}

In the following program, we will use rem() to calculate the

remainder:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var numb1 = 26
var numb2 = 3
var result = numb1.rem(numb2)
println("The remainder when $numb1 is divided by
$numb2 is: $result")
}

The following is a list of some standard library functions and their use:

• sqrt(): This function is used to compute the square root of an integer.

• print(): This function prints a message to standard output.
• rem(): Returns the remainder of one number after it has been divided
by another.
• toInt(): This function converts a number to an integer value.
• readline(): This function is used for standard input.
• compareTo(): A function that compares two integers and returns a
Boolean value.
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    173

Kotlin User-Defined Function

A user-defined function is one that the user defines. As we all know, to
partition a huge program into little modules, we must first define the func-
tion. Each defined function has its own set of attributes, such as the func-
tion’s name, the type of function’s return value, the number of arguments
passed to the function, and so on.
Defining user-defined functions: In Kotlin, functions may be
declared at the top, eliminating the requirement to build a class to house
a function, as we are used to doing in other languages such as Java or
Scala.
In general, we define a function as follows:

fun fun_name(x: data_type, y: data_type, ......):

return_type {
// other code..
return
}

• fun: A function-definition keyword.

• fun name: The function’s name that will be used to call the function
later.
• a: data type: Here, a: is a passed argument, and data type specifies
the data type of the argument, such as integer or string.
• return type: This parameter specifies the type of data value returned
by the function.
• {....}: Curly braces represent the function block.

To multiply two numbers with the same kind of arguments, use the
Kotlin method mul():

fun mul(numb1: Int, numb2: Int): Int {

var numbers = numb1.times(numb2)
return numbers
}

Explanation: Above, we defined a function using the fun keyword whose

return type is an integer.
174   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

>> The function's name is mul() 

>> numb1 and numb2 are the names of the parameters
taken by the function, and they are both of the
integer type.

The Kotlin method student() has many sorts of parameters:

fun students(names: String, roll_no: Int, grades:

Char) {
println("The Name of the students is : $names")
println("The Rollno of the students is: $roll_no")
println("The Grade of the students is: $grades")
}

Explanation: We defined a function with the fun keyword, with a return

type of unit by default.
>> students is the function's name.
>> names is a string data type argument. 
>> roll no is an integer data type parameter.
>> grades is a character data type parameter.

Calling a User-Defined Function

We write a function to do a certain activity. When a function is called, the
program exits the current code section and starts executing the function.
A function’s flow control:

• The program reaches the line containing a function call.

• When a function is called, control is passed to that function.
• Executes all of the function’s instructions one by one.
• Only when the function reaches the closing braces or a return state-
ment is control returned.
• Any function data returned is utilized in place of the function in the
original line of code.

Program to call the mul() function by passing two arguments:

fun mul(c: Int, d: Int): Int {
var number = c.times(d)
return number
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    175

}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var result = mul(4,6)
println("Multiplication of 2 numbers is: $result")
}

Explanation: We call the mul(4, 6) function with two arguments in

the above program. When the function is called, control is passed to
mul(), which begins the execution of the statements in the block. It
computes the multiple of two integers and stores the result in a vari-
able number using the built-in times() function. The function then
returns the integer value and controls transfer back to main(), where
it calls mul(). The value produced by the function is then stored in
the mutable variable result, and println() prints it to the standard
output.
Program to call the student() method with all arguments:

fun students( names: String, grades: Char, roll_no:

Int) {
println("The Name of the students is : $names")
println("The Grade of the students is: $grades")
println("The Rollno of the students is:
$roll_no")

}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val name = "Pariniti"
val rollno = 23
val grade = 'C'
students(names,grades,rollno)
students("Gautam",'C',25)
}

Explanation: In the above program, we call the students() method by giv-

ing the parameters in the same order. When we try to jumble the param-
eters, we get a type mismatch error. In the first call, we use variables to
provide the argument, and in the second call, we pass the parameter values
without storing them in variables. As a result, both methods are valid for
calling a function.
176   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

DEFAULT AND NAMED ARGUMENTS IN KOTLIN

Most programming languages require us to declare all of the parameters
that a function takes when calling that function, but one of the most
significant characteristics of Kotlin is that we do not need to specify all
of the arguments that a function accepts when calling that function. We
may remove this requirement and make parameters optional, allowing
us to choose whether or not to give an argument when calling a function.
Function arguments in Kotlin are separated by comma and defined
using Pascal notation, i.e., name:data_type.

fun fun_names(names1: data_type, names2: data_type)

In Kotlin, there are two kinds of arguments:

• Default arguments
• Named arguments

Default Arguments in Kotlin

The parameters that do not need to be specified explicitly when invoking a
function are referred to as default arguments.
If function is called without any arguments, the function’s default
arguments are utilized as parameters. If arguments are given dur-
ing a function call, they are utilized as function parameters in other
circumstances.
There are three scenarios in which default parameters are used:

• No arguments are passed while calling a function

• Partial arguments are passed while calling a function
• All arguments are passed while calling a function

No Arguments Are Passed While Calling a Function

When no arguments are given when calling a function, the function
parameters are the default arguments. While defining a function, we must
initialize the variables.
Program for calling the students() method in Kotlin without supply-
ing any parameters:
// the default arguments in the function definition
names, standard and roll_no
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    177

fun students(names: String="Praniti", standard:

String="IX", roll_no: Int=11) {
println("The Name of the students is: $names")
println("The Standard of the students is:
$standard")
println("The Roll no of the students is:
$roll_no")
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val names_of_students = "Gautam"
val standard_of_students = "VII"
val roll_no_of_students = 23
students() // passing no arguments while
calling the students
}

Explanation: In the preceding program, we utilized the student function,

which takes three arguments: names, standard, and roll no. It’s worth not-
ing that we’ve assigned a value to each of the student’s parameters. It is
used to guarantee that these are the default settings if no arguments are
passed into the students() function when calling the function. As a result,
because no arguments are supplied in the preceding program, it uses the
default arguments as function parameters and outputs the default values
to standard output.

Partial Arguments Are Passed While Calling a Function

Some of the arguments given when calling a function are utilized as func-
tion parameters here. The default value will utilize if a formal argument
does not get a value from the function call.
Kotlin program that calls the students() method and passes certain
parameters:

// default arguments in function definition

names,standard and roll_no
fun students( names: String="Praniti", standard:
String="X", roll_no: Int=13 ) {
println("The Name of the students is: $names")
println("The Standard of the students is:
$standard")
println("The Roll no of the students is:
$roll_no")
}
178   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val names_of_students = "Gautam"
val standard_of_students = "VII"
val roll_no_of_students = 24
// passing only two arguments name and standard of
students
students(names_of_students,standard_of_students)
}

Explanation: In the preceding program, we utilized the student function,

which takes three arguments: names, standard, and roll no. It’s worth noting
that we’ve assigned a value to each of the student’s parameters. We passed
data for the student’s name and standard here. As a result, for roll no, it will
utilize the default value (13) and display all of the values to standard output.

All Arguments Are Passed While Calling a Function

In this case, we must pass all of the parameters defined in the function
declaration, but the data type of the real arguments must match the data
type of the formal arguments in the same sequence.
Kotlin program for calling the students() method with all parameters:

// the default arguments in function definition names,

standard and roll_no
fun students( names: String="Praniti", standard:
String="X", roll_no: Int=13 ) {
println("The Name of the students is: $names")
println("The Standard of the students is:
$standard")
println("The Rollno of the students is: $roll_no")
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val names_of_students = "Gaurav"
val standard_of_students = "VIII"
val roll_no_of_students = 25

//passing all the arguments of the students name,

//standard and roll_no in the same order as
defined in function

students(names_of_student,standard_of_students,roll_
no_of_students)
}
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    179

Explanation: In the preceding program, we gave all of the arguments to

the students() function, which overwrites the default values for the func-
tion parameters. As a result, it only prints the values passed to formal
arguments during the function call.

Named Arguments in Kotlin

We run into difficulty while working with the default arguments. If we
jumble the arguments, a compilation error will occur; thus, we must pro-
vide the actual arguments to the formal arguments in the same order as
defined in the function definition.
Kotlin program for executing students() with parameters passed in
random order:

// the default arguments in the function definition

names,standard and roll_no
fun students( names: String="Praniti", standard:
String="X", roll_no: Int=13 ) {
println("The Name of the students is: $names")
println("The Standard of the students is: $standard")
println("The Roll no of the students is:
$roll_no")
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val names_of_students = "Gautam"
val standard_of_students = "VII"
val roll_no_of_students = 23
// passing the argument names_of_students to name
// and roll_no_of_students to standard
students(names_of_students,roll_no_of_students)
}

In the preceding program, we did not send the parameters in the order
stated in the function. As a result, it returns a compilation error.
Named arguments are parameters that are supplied using the name
while calling a function. We must use name of the formal argument to
which we are passing the actual argument value when calling the function.
Program for calling students() with the following arguments:

// the default arguments in the function definition

// names,standard and roll_no
180   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

fun students( names: String="Praniti", standard:

String="X", roll_no: Int=13 ) {
println("The Name of the students is: $names")
println("The Standard of the students is:
$standard")
println("The Rollno of the students is: $roll_no")
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val name_of_students = "Gautam"
val standard_of_students = "VII"
val roll_no_of_students = 23

// passing arguments with the name as defined in

function

students(names=names_of_students,roll_no=roll_no_of_
students)
}

Explanation: In this case, we used the name to pass the actual arguments
to the formal arguments. We just gave the values for name and roll no;
therefore, it prints the default value of “Students standard.”

RECURSION IN KOTLIN
We will learn how to use the Kotlin recursive function. In Kotlin, we may
utilize recursion just like in other programming languages.
A recursive function calls itself, and the act of recurrence is known as
recursion.
When a function is called, one of two things is possible:

• Normal function call

• Recursive function call

Normal Function Call

When a function is called from the main() block, it is referred to as a regu-
lar function call. In the following example, sum() is called one at a time,
and it runs its instructions before returning the sum of the numbers. If we
wish to rerun the code, we must call sum() from the main block once again.
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    181

Calling the sum() function from main() block:

fun sum(a:Int, b:Int) : Int {

Val numb = a+b
return numb
}
fun main( args: Array < String>) {
sum()
}

Recursive Function Call

When a function calls itself, this is referred to as a recursive function call.
Every recursive function should include a terminate condition, or other-
wise, the program would enter an infinite loop, resulting in a stack over-
flow error.
Calling the callMe() function from its own block:

fun callMe(a:Int) {
println(a)
if (a > 0) callMe(a – 1)
}
fun main (args: Array <String>) {
var n = 5
callMe()

In this case, we utilized the terminate condition if (a > 0); otherwise, it

enters an infinite loop. It also prints the value from 5 to 0.

First Example: Determine the factorial of a number without using a

terminate condition
// program of factorial using recursion
fun Fact(numb: Int):Long{
return numb*Fact(numb-1) // no terminate
condition
}
//the main method
fun main() {
println("The Factorial of 5 is: "+Fact(5))
//recursive-call
}
182   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Second Example: Using the terminate condition; get the factorial of a

number
// program of factorial using recursion
fun Fact(numb: Int):Long{
return if(numb==1) numb.toLong()
// terminate-condition
else numb*Fact(numb-1)
}
//the main method
fun main() {
println("The Factorial of 5 is: "+Fact(5))
//recursive-call
}

Third Example: Using recursion, get the sum of an array’s elements

// two parameters passed an array and the size of
array
fun sum(args: Array<Int>, index:Int ):Int{
return if(index<=0) 0
else (sum(args, index-1) + args[index-1])
// recursive-function call
}
fun main() {
// array-initialization
val array = arrayOf(11,22,33,44,55,66,77,88,
99,100)
// size of array
val ny = array.size
val result = sum(array,nu)
// normal function call
println("Sum of array elements is: $result")
}

Explanation: We’ve initialized an array and provided it as an argument to

the sum() method. The index value is decremented by one in each recur-
sive call. If the index is zero or less, the program is terminated and the total
of all the elements is returned.
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    183

TAIL RECURSION IN KOTLIN

In a traditional recursion call, we perform our recursive call first, then
take the recursive call’s return value and compute the result. In tail recur-
sion, however, the computation is performed first, followed by the recur-
sive call, with the results of the current step being sent to the next recursive
call. In the end, both recursion and tail recursion provide the same result.
The must-follow rule for tail recursion is that the recursive call should
be the method’s final call.

Benefits of Employing Tail Recursion

• In tail recursion, the function call is the last item done by the function,
and there is nothing left to run in the current function. As a result,
there is no need to save the current function call in stack memory,
and the compiler can reuse that stack space for the next recursive call.
• StackOverflowError does not occur during program execution in tail
recursion.

First Example: Using tail-recursion, calculate the factorial of a

number
// program of factorial using tail-recursion
fun Fact(numb: Int, x:Int):Long{
return if(numb==1) // terminate-condition
x.toLong()
else
Fact(numb-1,x*numb) //tail-recursion
}
fun main() {
var n = 1
var result = Fact(5,n)
println("The Factorial of 5 is: $result")
}

Second Example: Using tail-recursion, calculate the sum of an array’s

elements
// two parameters passed an array and the size of
an array
184   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

fun sum(args: Array<Int>, index:Int, s : Int = 0

):Int{
return if(index<=0) s
else sum(args, index-1, s + args[index-1])
// tail-recursion
}
fun main() {
// array-initialization
val array = arrayOf(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10)
// size of array
val nu = array.size
val result = sum(array,nu) //
normal-function call
println("Sum of array elements is: $result")
}

Explanation: In this case, we gave the array as an argument to the sum()

method, along with two additional arguments. The (s) parameter’s default
value is zero. With each recursive call, we calculate the sum of the items
starting at the last index of the array. We’ll have the sum of all items in “s”
with the final recursive call and return it when the condition is met.

LAMBDA EXPRESSIONS AND ANONYMOUS

FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN
This topic will cover lambda expressions and anonymous functions in
Kotlin. While they are syntactically similar, Kotlin and Java lambdas have
vastly distinct characteristics.
Lambdas expression and anonymous function are both function liter-
als, which imply they are not declared but are supplied as an expression.

Lambda Expressions
As we all know, the syntax of Kotlin lambdas is quite similar to that of
Java lambdas. An anonymous function does not have a name. We may call
lambda expressions anonymous functions.

First Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val company = { println("PeeksforPeeks")}
// invoking the function method1
company()
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    185

// invoking the function method2

company.invoke()
}

Syntax:
val lambda_names : Data_type = { argument_List ->
code_body }

Curly braces always enclose a lambda expression, argument declarations

are enclosed by curly braces and have optional type annotations, and an
arrow -> sign encloses the code body. If the lambda’s inferred return type
is not Unit, the final expression inside the lambda body is considered the
return value.

Second Example:
val sum = {x: Int, y: Int -> x + y}

Except for the code body, the lambda expression in Kotlin has optional
parts. The lambda expression is shown below after the optional component
has been removed.

val sum:(Int,Int) -> Int = { x, y -> x + y}

It’s worth noting that we don’t always need a variable because it can be
supplied directly as an argument to a method.
Program:

// with the type annotation in lambda expression

val sum1 = { x: Int, y: Int -> x + y }
// without type annotation in lambda expression
val sum2:(Int,Int)-> Int = { x, y -> x + y}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val result1 = sum1(1,4)
val result2 = sum2(2,5)
println("Sum of two numbers is: $result1")
println("Sum of two numbers is: $result2")
// directly print return value of the lambda
// without storing in variable.
println(sum1(4,6))
}
186   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Inference in Lambda Types

Type inference in Kotlin assists the compiler in determining the type of
a lambda expression. The lambda expression used to compute the sum of
two numbers is shown below.
val sum = {x: Int, y: Int -> x + y}

In this case, the Kotlin compiler evaluates it as a function that takes two
Int parameters and returns an Int value.
(Int,Int) -> Int

If we want to return a String value, we may use the inbuilt function

toString() method.
val sum1 = { x: Int, y: Int ->
val num = x + y
num.toString() //convert the Integer to String
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val result1 = sum1(12,7)
println("Sum of two numbers is: $result1")
}

The Kotlin compiler self-evaluates the preceding program into a function

that accepts two integer values and returns a string.

Type Declaration in Lambdas

The type of our lambda expression must be explicitly declared. If lambda
does not return a value, we can use: Unit.
Pattern: (Input) -> Output

Lambdas examples with return type:

val lambda1: (Int) -> Int = (x -> x * x)
val lambda2: (String,String) -> String = { x, y -> x
+ y }
val lambda3: (Int)-> Unit = {print(Int)}

Lambdas can be used as class extension:

val lambda4: String.(Int) -> String = {this + it}

It represents implicit name of single parameter.

 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    187

Program when lambdas used as class extension:

val lambda4 : String.(Int) -> String = { this + it }

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val result = "Peeks".lambda4(40)
print(result)
}

Explanation: The preceding example uses the lambda expression as a

class extension. We used the format mentioned above to pass the param-
eters. This keyword is used for string and the Int parameter given in the
lambda. The code body then concatenates both values and returns to the
variable result.

It: Implicit Name of a Single-Parameter

In most cases, lambdas only have one parameter. It is used here to indicate
the single parameter passed to the lambda expression.
Program utilizing lambda function shorthand:

val numb = arrayOf(1,-2,3,-4,5)

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println(numb.filter { it > 0 })
}

Program with lambda function in longhand:

val numb = arrayOf(1,-2,3,-4,5)

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println(numb.filter {item -> item > 0 })
}

Returning a Value from a Lambda Expression

The final value returned by lambda expression after execution. The lambda
function can return any integer, string, or Boolean values.
Kotlin program that uses a lambda function to return a String
value:

val find =fun(numb: Int): String{

if(numb % 2==0 && numb < 0) {
return "The number is even and negative"
}
188   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

else if (numb %2 ==0 && numb >0){

return "The number is even and positive"
}
else if(numb %2 !=0 && numb < 0){
return "The number is odd and negative"
}
else {
return "The number is odd and positive"
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val result = find(112)
println(result)
}

Anonymous Function
An anonymous function is quite similar to a regular function except for
the omission of the function’s name from the declaration. The anonymous
function’s body can be either an expression or a block.

First Example: Function body as an expression

fun(x: Int, y: Int) : Int = x * y

Second Example: Function body as a block

fun(x: Int, y: Int): Int {
val mul = x * y
return mul
}

Return Type and Parameters

The return type and parameters are also supplied in the same way as
regular functions, although the parameters can be omitted if they can be
deduced from the context.
If the function is an expression, the return type can be deducted auto-
matically from the function; otherwise, the anonymous function must
explicitly provide a body block.

Distinction between Lambda Expressions and Anonymous Functions

The only difference is how non-local returns behave. A return statement
without a label always returns from the function declared function.
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    189

This implies that a return within a lambda expression returns from the
enclosing function, but a return within an anonymous function returns
from the anonymous function itself.
Program to call the anonymous function:

// the anonymous function with body as an expression

val anonymous1 = fun(a: Int, b: Int): Int = a + b

// the anonymous function with body as a block

val anonymous2 = fun(x: Int, y: Int): Int {
val mul = x * y
return mul
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//invoking functions
val sum = anonymous1(13,4)
val mul = anonymous2(5,6)
println("Sum of two numbers is: $sum")
println("Multiply of two numbers is: $mul")
}

INLINE FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN

Higher-order functions or lambda expressions in Kotlin are all stored as
objects; therefore, memory allocation for both function objects and classes,
as well as virtual calls, may impose runtime costs. By inlining the lambda
expression, we may sometimes reduce the memory overhead. To decrease
the memory cost of such higher-order functions or lambda expressions,
we may use the inline keyword, which instructs the compiler not to create
memory and simply copy the inlined code of that function to the calling
place.

Example:
fun higherfunc( str1 : String, mycall :(String)->
Unit) {
// invokes print() by passing the string str1
mycall(str1)
}

// the main function

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
190   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

print("Huboftutors: ")
higherfunc("A Computer Science portal for
Hub",::print)
}

Bytecode: Because Kotlin, like Java, is a platform-independent lan-

guage, it first translates to bytecode. The bytecode may obtain by select-
ing Tools -> Kotlin -> Show Kotlin Bytecode. Decompile to obtain this
bytecode.
The main part to pay attention to in the preceding bytecode is:

mycall.invoke(str1)

By passing the string as an argument, mycall calls the print function.

Invoking print() would result in an additional call, increasing memory
overhead.
It functions as follows:

mycall(new-Function() {
@Override
public void invoke() {
//the println statement is called here.
}
});

If we call large number of functions as arguments, each of which adds

to the method count, there is a significant impact on memory and
speed.

In the preceding program, what will the inline keyword do?

inline fun higherfunc( str1 : String, mycall :
(String)-> Unit){
// invokes print() by passing the string str1
mycall(str1)
}
// main function
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
print("Hunoftutors ")
higherfunc("A Computer Science portal for
Hub",::print)
}
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    191

The println lambda expression is copied in the main function in the form
of System.out.println with the assistance of the inline keyword, and no
additional calls are necessary.

Non-Local Control Flow

If we want to return from lambda expression in Kotlin, the Kotlin
compiler does not allow it. We may use the inline keyword to return
from the lambda expression and exit the function called the inlined
function.
Program of using return in a lambda expression in Kotlin:

var lambda = { println("Lambda-expression")

return } // normally lambda
expression doesn't allow return
// statement, so gives
compile-time error
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
lambda()
}

Normally, it does not permit returning from lambda and returns an

error.

var lambda1 = { println("Lambda-expression")}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
lambda1()
}

Normally, everything functions great without it, and the statement is

printed.
Kotlin program for using return in lambda and passing as an argu-
ment to an inlined function:

fun main(args: Array<String>){

println("The Main function starts")
inlinedFunc({ println("Lambda-expression 1")
return }, // inlined function allows return
// statement in the lambda
expression
// so, doesn't give the compile
time error
192   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

{ println("Lambda expression 2")} )

println("The Main function ends")

}
// The inlined function
inline fun inlinedFunc( lmbd1: () -> Unit, lmbd2: ()
-> Unit ) {
lmbd1()
lmbd2()
}

Explanation: We called the inlinedFunc() method with two lambda

phrases as parameters. We send both as parameters to the inlined function
when we call it from the main function. In the inlined code, lmbd1() called
the first expression, and the return keyword causes the lambda expression
and the main function from which it was called to depart.

Crossline Keyword
Return in lambda in the preceding program exits both the inline function
and enclosing function. To stop the lambda expression from returning,
we can use the crossline. If it encounters a return statement in the lambda
expression, it will generate a compiler error.

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>){
println("The Main function starts")
inlinedfunc({ println("Lambda-expression 1")
return }, // It gives the compiler
error
{ println("Lambda-expression 2")} )

println("The Main function ends")

}
inline fun inlinedfunc( crossinline lmbd1: () ->
Unit, lmbd2: () -> Unit ) {
lmbd1()
lmbd2()
}
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    193

Noinline
If we want part of the lambdas passed to an inline function to inline, we
may use the noinline modifier on some of the function arguments.

fun main(args: Array<String>){

println("The Main function starts")
inlinedFunc({ println("Lambda-expression 1")
return }, // It doesn't compiler time
error
{ println("Lambda-expression 2")
return } ) // It gives the compiler
error
println("The Main function ends")
}
inline fun inlinedFunc( lmbd1: () -> Unit, noinline
lmbd2: () -> Unit ) {
lmbd1()
lmbd2()
}

Reified Type Parameters

Sometimes we need to know what parameter was passed during the call.
We pass the argument when calling the function, and we can obtain the
parameter type using a reified modifier.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

genericFunc<String>()
}
inline fun <reified D> genericFunc() {
print(D::class)
}

Properties of Inline
Inlined functions copy the code to the calling location, while inline key-
words copy the inline property accessor methods to the calling location.
The inline modifier can use to property accessors that do not have a back-
ing field.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

print(flag)
}
194   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

fun foo(x: Int ): Int{

var c = x
return c
}
inline var flag : Boolean
get() = foo(10 ) == 10
set(flag) {flag}

INFIX FUNCTION NOTATION IN KOTLIN

In this topic, we’ll go over the infix notation that’s utilized in Kotlin
functions. A function tagged with the infix keyword in Kotlin can also
be called using infix notation, which implies calling without the need of
parentheses and dots.
In Kotlin, there are two forms of infix function notation:

• Standard library infix function notation

• User-defined infix function notation

Standard Library Infix Function Notation

When we use operators, like and, or, shr, shl, and so on, the compiler looks
for the function and calls the one we want. There are other standard library
infix notation methods; however, we will cover a few of them here.
Let’s go over some of the infix notations one by one.

1. Kotlin program that uses bitwise and operator:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var x = 14
var y = 11
var z = 10
// call using dot & parenthesis
var result1 =(x > y).and(x > z)
println("The Boolean result1 = $result1")
// call using infix notation
var result2 =(x > y) and (x > z)
println("The Boolean result1 = $result2")
}
Explanation: We used infix to call the x.and(y) method here
(x and y).
In the standard output, both provide the same result.
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    195

2. Kotlin program that employs the signed shift right (shr)

operator:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var x = 8
// // call using infix notation
var result1 = x shr 2
println("Signed shift right by 2 bit:
$result1")
// call using the dot and parenthesis
var result2 = x.shr(1)
println("The Signed shift right by 1 bit:
$result2")
}

Explanation: In the preceding program, we utilized a signed shift

operator. First, use infix notation to operate, followed by dot and
parentheses.
If we signed shift the value by two bits, we get 2(3−2=1) =2.
3. A Kotlin program that employs the increment and decrement
operators:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var x = 8
var y = 4

println(++x) // call using the infix

notation
println(x.inc()) // call using the dot and
parenthesis
println(--y) // call using the infix
notation
println(y.dec()) // call using the dot and
parenthesis
}

Explanation: We utilized increment and decrement operators in

infix notation in this case.
++x signifies x(8) + 1, resulting in a print of 9.
x.inc() also represents x(9) + 1; therefore, it outputs 10, whereas y
represents y(4) – 1 = 3.
y.dec() represents y(3) – 1 = 2 as well.
196   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Notation for User-Defined Infix Functions

We can write our own functions in infix notation if they meet the follow-
ing criteria:

• It must be a member or extension function.

• It must only take one argument.
• The parameter cannot take a variable number of inputs and has a
default value.
• It must be prefixed with the keyword infix.

Program to create a square function in Kotlin using infix

notation:

class maths {
// the user defined infix member function
infix fun square(x : Int): Int{
val num = x * x
return num
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val y = maths()
// the call using infix notation
val result = y square 3
print("The square of a number is: "+result)
}

Explanation: In the preceding program, we constructed our own infix

notation function (y square 3).

1. First and foremost, we defined the infix notation function within a

maths class since it must be a member function.
2. The infix keyword is used to identify the function.
3. It has one parameter and no default value, and the function return
type is similarly integer.
square(x : Int):Int
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    197

Then, we created an object for the class maths() and invoked the method
using infix notation.

y square 3

It squares the number and returns the result 9.

Kotlin program to verify the data type of a variable using infix
notation:

class checks{
// the user defined infix member function
infix fun dataType(a: Any):Any{
var x = when(a){
is String -> "String"
is Int -> "Integer"
is Double -> "Double"
else -> "invalid"
}
return x
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>){
var chk = checks()
// call using infix notation
var results = chk dataType 3.3
println(results)
}

Explanation: To determine the data type of a variable, we constructed an

infix notation function.
The data type was supplied as a parameter in the infix call:

chk dataType 3.3

when the data type of the passing argument is checked, and the required
result is returned.
It returns double to the standard output in this case.

Infix Function Precedence over Operators

When it comes to the execution of an instruction, precedence is essential.
Infix function calls come after arithmetic operators, type casts, and the
rangeTo operator.
198   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

The following expressions are equivalent:

2 shr 1 + 2 and 2 shr (1 + 2)

1 until m * 2 and 0 until (m * 2)
xs union ys as Set<*> and xs union (ys as Set<*>)

On the other hand, Infix function calls take priority over the Boolean
operators && and ||, is- and in-checks, and several other operators.
The following expressions are also equivalent:

x xor y || z and a xor (y || z)

x in y xor z and a in (y xor z)

HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS IN KOTLIN

The Kotlin programming language provides excellent support for func-
tional programming. Kotlin functions can be kept in variables and data
structures, and they can be passed as parameters to and returned from
higher-order functions.

Higher-Order Function
Higher-Order functions in Kotlin are functions that can receive a function as
an argument or return a function. We shall pass anonymous functions or lamb-
das instead of passing integer, string, or array as function parameters. Lambdas
are frequently passed as parameters in Kotlin functions for simplicity.
The lambda expression is passed as an argument to the higher-order
function: A lambda expression can be passed as a parameter to higher-
order function.
There are two kinds of lambda expressions that may be passed:

• A lambda expression returns a unit.

• Lambda expression returns any of the values integer, string, and so on.

Kotlin lambda expression program that returns Unit:

// lambda expression
var lambda = {println("Huboftutors: A Computer Science
portal for Hub") }
//the higher-order function
fun higherfunc( lmbd: () -> Unit ) { // accepting
lambda as parameter
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    199

lmbd() //invokes the

lambda expression
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//invoke higher-order function
higherfunc(lambda) // passing the
lambda as parameter
}

Explanation: Let’s go over the above program step by step.

In the top, we define a lambda expression that includes print() to print
a string to standard output.

var lambda = {println("Huboftutors: A Computer Science

portal for Hub") }

After that, we define a higher-order function with one parameter.

lmbd: () -> Unit

• The receiving lambda parameter is known locally as lmbd.

• The symbol () indicates that the function does not accept any
parameters.
• The unit symbol symbolizes that the function does not return any
value.
• We called the higher-order function in the main function by supply-
ing the lambda expression as a parameter.

higherfunc(lambda)

Kotlin lambda expression program that returns an integer value:

// lambda expression
var lambda = {x: Int, y: Int -> x + y }
// the higher order function
fun higherfunc( lmbd: (Int, Int) -> Int) { //
accepting the lambda as parameter

var results = lmbd(2,4) // invokes lambda

expression by passing parameters
200   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println("Sum of two numbers is: $results")

}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

higherfunc(lambda) //passing lambda as
parameter
}

Explanation: Let’s go over the program above step by step.

At the top, we define a lambda expression that returns an integer value.

var lambda = int x, int y -> x + y

Then we defined a higher-order function that takes the lambda expression

as an argument.

lmbd: (Int, Int) -> Int

• The receiving lambda argument is known locally as lmbd.

• (Int,Int) indicates that the function accepts two integer parameters.
• Int indicates that the function returns an integer value.

We called the higher-order function in the main function by passing the

lambda as a parameter.

higherfunc(lambda)

Passing a function as a parameter to a higher-order function: a function

can be passed as a parameter to a higher-order function.
There are two kinds of functions that may be passed:

• method that returns Unit 

• function that returns any of the values integer, string, and so on.

Kotlin function passing program that returns Unit:

// the regular function definition

fun printMe(s1:String): Unit{
println(s1)
}
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    201

// the higher-order function definition

fun higherfunc( str1 : String, myfunc: (String) ->
Unit){
// invoke the regular function using local name
myfunc(str1)
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// invoke the higher-order function
higherfunc("Huboftutors: A Computer Science portal
for Hub",::printMe)
}

Explanation: At the top, we build a normal method printMe(), which

receives a string parameter and returns a Unit.

fun printMe(s1:String): Unit

• (s1: String) is the only parameter

• Unit represents the return type

The higher-order function is thus defined as:

fun higherfunc( str1 : String, myfunc: (String) ->

Unit)

It is given two parameters. One is the string type, and the other is the
function.

• Str1: String denotes a string parameter.

• myfunc: (String) -> Unit indicates that it accepts function as a
parameter and returns Unit.

The higher function is invoked from the main function by supplying the
string and function as arguments.

higherfunc("Huboftutors: A Computer Science portal for

Hub",::printMe)
202   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Program of passing function which returns integer value:

// the regular function definition

fun add(x: Int, y: Int): Int{
var sums = x + y
return sums
}
//the higher-order function definition
fun higherfunc(addfunc:(Int,Int)-> Int){
// invoke the regular function using local name
var results = addfunc(13,6)
print("The sum of two numbers is: $results")
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// invoke the higher-order function
higherfunc(::add)
}

Returning a Function from a Higher-Order Function

A function can return from a higher-order function. When returning the
function, we must define the normal function’s argument types and return
type in the higher-order function’s return type.
Program of a function in Kotlin that returns another function:

// the function declaration

fun mul(x: Int, y: Int): Int{
return x*y
}
//the higher-order function declaration
fun higherfunc() : ((Int,Int)-> Int){
return ::mul
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// invoke the function and store the returned
function into a variable
val multiply = higherfunc()
// invokes the mul() function by passing arguments
val results = multiply(12,4)
println("Multiplication of two numbers is:
$results")
}
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    203

JAVA INTEROPERABILITY – USING JAVA TO CALL KOTLIN

Kotlin was designed to function alone on the JVM; therefore, it has a compre-
hensive set of features that make calling Kotlin from Java. Kotlin class objects,
for example, can be readily generated, and their methods may call from Java
methods. However, there are certain guidelines for using Kotlin code in Java.

Properties of Kotlin
In Java, a property is defined as a private field with the same name as the
property and a getter and setter method, with get and set prefixed to the
property name. This private field may be found in the java class created
from the Kotlin file.
In Java, for example, the property var age: Int is compiled to the follow-
ing code:

private int ages;

public int getAge(){
return ages;
}
public void setAge(int ages){
this.ages = value;
}

These attributes may be accessed via the class’s object, much like in Java.
If the property name begins with is, the get keyword is skipped from the
getter function’s name.

Package-Level Functions
All Kotlin functions declared within a package are compiled into static
Java methods within a class whose classname is a mixture of the package
name and the filename.
For example, suppose there is a package named kotlinPrograms and a
Kotlin file called firstex.kt that has the following code.

// The Kotlin file

package kotlinPrograms
class myprogram {
fun add(val x:Int, val y:Int): Int {
return x+y;
}
}
204   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

In Java, use the following syntax to call this function:

// Java
new kotlinPrograms.firstex.myClass()
kotlinPrograms.Firstexkt.add(3, 5);

Using the @JvmName annotation, we may alter the name of the pro-
duced Java class:

// Kotlin file
@file : Jvmname("Samples")
package kotlinPrograms

class myclass {
fun add(val x:Int, val y:Int): Int {
return x+y;
}
}

In Java, use the following syntax to call this function:

// Java
new kotlinPrograms.firstex.myClass()
kotlinPrograms.Samples.add(3, 5);

Having numerous files with the same name, on the other hand, is a logical
mistake. To overcome this limitation, Kotlin gives its compiler the ability
to generate a façade class with a specific name containing all declarations
from all files with the same name. To develop such a facade class, provide
the annotation @JvmMultiFileClass in all files.

Example:
// Kotlin code
@file:JvmName("Samples")
@file:JvmMultiFileClass
package samples.example
fun print(){.......}

Another Kotlin file:

// Kotlin code
@file:JvmName("Samples")
@file:JvmMultiFileClass
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    205

package samples.example
fun printString(){.......}

In Java, both of these methods may be called using the following

syntax:

// Java calling statements

samples.example.Samples.print()
samples.example.Samples.printString()

Static Fields
In Java, static fields are properties specified within a named object or a
companion object in Kotlin. To access these fields in Java, they must be
annotated with the @JvmField annotation, defined with the lateinit modi-
fier, or annotated with the const modifier.

Example:
// filename Example.kt
// Property in companion object
class xyz{
companion object{
@JvmField
val a = 4;
}
}
// A constant property
const val b = 4;

Static Methods
Methods declared at the package level are always created in the Java code
as static methods. Methods specified in named objects and companion
objects annotated with @Jvm are also included. Static annotations are cre-
ated in the same way as static methods are. This annotation indicates that
the following method is a class function.

Example:
// filename Example.kt
class xyz {
companion object {
206   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

@JvmStatic fun add(val x:Int, val y:Int):Int{

return x+y;
}
fun sub(val x:Int, val y:Int):Int{
return x-y;
}
}
}

//Java usage
xyz.add(); // works fine
xyz.sub(); // error: not a static method
xyz.Companion.add(); // instance method remains
Z.Companion.sub(); // the only way it works

Instance Fields
Kotlin has a feature that allows us to utilize the property as an instance
field in Java. Annotate the property with the @JvmField annotation to do
this. The visibility of these instance fields is the same as that of the Kotlin
property. The property, however, must have a backing field and cannot be
defined with the private, open, const, or override modifiers.

Example:
// Kotlin code
class XYZ(z: Int){
@JvmField val id = z
}

This property is now accessible in Java as:

XYZ obj = new XYZ(5);

System.out.println(obj.id);

Checked Exceptions
In Kotlin, all exceptions are unchecked. As a result, the Java signatures of
Kotlin functions never declare nor handle the exceptions that are thrown.
To address this issue, the Kotlin function must be annotated with the
@Throws annotation, which specifies the exception that will be thrown.
The Java signature will also declare the function that will throw in this
instance.
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    207

Example:
// samples Kotlin function
// filename example.kt
package Samples
fun print(){
throws IOException()
}

// Java code trying to call the above function

try {
Samples.Example.print();
}
// This statement causes error because it does
not declare IOexception in throws list
catch(IOException e) {
}

So, in order to address the error, we declare the @Throws annotation at the
beginning.

// Overcoming problem with @Throws annotation

package Samples
@Throws(IOException::class)
fun print()
{
throws IOException()
}

JAVA INTEROPERABILITY – USING KOTLIN TO CALL JAVA

Kotlin was designed with interoperability with Java in mind. It facilitates
the usage of Java code from within itself. In a simple way, a Kotlin class or
function can relate to Java classes and methods.

Getters and Setters in Java

In Kotlin, the getters and setters of all types declared within the Java class
are represented as properties. As a result, to access the getters and setters
of a Java class’s data members, it must be referenced as a property within
Kotlin.
208   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

example.java is a Java file that has been declared:

// the Java class

public class example {
private int values;
public int getValue(){
return values;
}
public void setValue(int values){
this.values = values;
}
}

Kotlin file declared as kotlinexample.kt

// Kotlin file
fun main(){
val ob = example()
ob.values = 5 // This will call the setter function
println(ob.values) // This will call the getter
function
}

Methods
Calling Java methods from within Kotlin is a simple idea. The arguments
to be given are the same in both Java and Kotlin, as is the function’s return
type. The void return type is the lone exception to this rule. In Kotlin,
functions with a void return type in Java return a Unit type. Because Unit
is a type in Kotlin, this value may store.
Java file declared as example.java:

// Java code
public class program {
public int add(int c, int d){
return c+d;
}
}

Kotlin file declared as kotlinexample.kt:

// Kotlin file
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    209

val ob = myjava()
val ans = ob.add(14, 4)
println("Sum of two numbers is "+ans)
}

Note: Some Kotlin keywords may be used as valid identifiers in Java. For
instance, any, sealed, object, and so on. If this is the case, use identifiers in
Kotlin, enclosing them in a backtick character (’).
For instance, if a Java class ABC has a method named any, the method
may be invoked in Kotlin as:

ob.'any'() // ob is the instance of the class ABC

Static Members
In Kotlin, the static class members become the members of a compan-
ion object. These companion objects, however, cannot be utilized directly
in expressions. To gain access to its members, utilize the member’s fully
qualified name as defined in Java.
Java file declared as example.java:

// Java Code
package mypackage;
public class example {
public static void display() {
System.out.println("Call-successful")
}
}

Kotlin file declared as kotlinexample.kt:

// declare kotlin package

package myktpackage
// import java class using java package
import mypackage.example
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// calling the static member of java class
val str1 = example.display()
println(str1)
}
210   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Java Arrays
In contrast to Java arrays, which may be assigned to an array of type
Object, Kotlin offers an invariant form of arrays, which means that arrays
of a certain type cannot give to an array of type Any.
Furthermore, arrays of subclass types cannot be assigned to arrays of
superclass types in Kotlin.
Because Kotlin does not provide arrays for primitive types, it offers
numerous specialized classes in Java to represent an array of primi-
tive kinds. These classes are unrelated to the Array class, and they are
compiled into simple java arrays for optimum speed. This conversion
to bytecode adds no additional cost, regardless of how the arrays are
utilized.
Java file declared as example.java:

// Java Code
public class example {
int results = 0;
public int compute(int[] array)
{
for(int x: array){
results = result + x;
}
return results;
}
}

Kotlin file declared as kotlinexample.kt:

// Kotlin-code
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// Kotlin-code
val ob = example()
val array = intArrayOf(11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66)
var sum1 = ob.compute(array)
println("The sum of an array is "+sum1)
}

Java Varargs
In functions, Java supports the concept of variable-length arguments,
which means that when the number of arguments to a function is unknown
but their type is known, we define a varargs parameter. Kotlin does not
 Arrays and Strings, Functions, and Java Interoperability   ◾    211

accept varargs arguments but, in order to be completely functional with

Java, it offers a specific spread operator (*) to call methods that do.
Java file declared as example.java:

// Java code
public class example {
public void myfunc(String str1,int... numbers) {
System.out.println("Passed string is " +
str1);
for (int nu : numbers) {
System.out.print(" "+nu);
}
}
}

Kotlin file declared as kotlinexample.kt:

// Kotlin code
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val ob = example()
val array = intArrayOf(12, 21, 13)
ob.myfunc("Peeks", *array)
}

Types in Java and Kotlin Are Not the Same

Types in Kotlin are not the same as types in Java. Kotlin, on the other
hand, offers a mapping from Java types to Kotlin types in order to main-
tain interoperability. This mapping occurs at build time, and no noticeable
difference in speed is observed at runtime.
The following primitive types are mapped to Java primitive types:

Java Type Kotlin Type

Byte kotlin.Byte
Short kotlin.Short
Java Type Kotlin Type
Int kotlin.Int
Long kotlin.Long
Char kotlin.Char
Float kotlin.Float
Double kotlin.Double
Boolean kotlin.Boolean
212   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Some of the java.lang package’s built-in classes are also mapped to Kotlin
classes:

Java Type Kotlin Type

java.lang.Object kotlin.Any!
java.lang.Cloneable kotlin.Cloneable!
java.lang.Comparable kotlin.Comparable!
java.lang.Enum kotlin.Enum!
java.lang.annotation kotlin.Annotation!
java.lang.CharSequence kotlin.CharSequence
java.lang.String kotlin.String!
java.lang.Number kotlin.Number!
java.lang.Throwable kotlin.Throwable!

In Kotlin, the boxed types of Java’s primitive data types are mapped to
nullable types:

Java Type Kotlin Type

java.lang.Byte kotlin.Byte?
java.lang.Short kotlin.Short?
java.lang.Integer kotlin.Int?
java.lang.Long kotlin.Long?
java.lang.Character kotlin.Char?
java.lang.Float kotlin.Float?
java.lang.Double kotlin.Double?
java.lang.Boolean kotlin.Boolean?

CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we covered array and string in Kotlin, functions where we
also covered inline, infix function, tail recursion, and lambda expressions.
Moreover, we covered Java interoperability.
 Chapter 6

Collections in Kotlin

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢➢ Collection
➢➢ ArrayList, listOf, setOf
➢➢ HashSetOf
➢➢ Map, HashMap
➢➢ Annotations, Reflection, Overloading
➢➢ Tuple in Kotlin

In Chapter 5, we covered array and string, function, and Java interoperability.

This chapter will cover collection with ArrayList, listOf, setOf, and MutableSet.

COLLECTIONS IN KOTLIN
Kotlin, like Java Collections, introduces the idea of collections. A collec-
tion often comprises a number of objects of the same type, referred to as
elements or items in the collection. The Kotlin Standard Library provides
a complete set of utilities for managing collections.

Types of Collections
Collections in Kotlin are classified into two types:

1. Immutable Collection
2. Mutable Collection
DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-6 213
214   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Immutable Collection
It signifies that it only provides read-only functionality and that its ele-
ments cannot edit. Immutable collections and their associated techniques
are as follows:

• List: listOf() and listOf<T>()

• Set: setOf()
• Map: mapOf()

List  It is an ordered collection in which we may access elements or objects

by utilizing indices – integer numbers that determine each element’s posi-
tion. Elements in a list can be repeated an unlimited number of times. We
can’t add or remove items from the immutable list. The following Kotlin
program demonstrates the immutable list:

// example for the immutable list

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val immutableLists =
listOf("Mahi","Nikita","Ruhi")
// gives the compile-time error
// immutableLists.add = "Praniti"
for(item in immutableLists){
println(item)
}
}

Set  It is an unordered collection of elements that does not support dupli-

cate elements. It is a collection of one-of-a-kind components. In general,
the order of set components has no major influence. Because it is an
immutable Set, we cannot execute add or remove operations. The follow-
ing Kotlin program demonstrates the immutable set:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// initialize with the duplicate values
// but the output with no repetition
var immutableSets = setOf(7,8,8,1,0,"Mahi",
"Nikita")
// gives the compile time error
// immutableSets.add(7)
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    215

for(item in immutableSets){
println(item)
}
}

Map  Each key in a Map is unique and holds just one value; it is a set of
key-value pairs. Each key corresponds to a single value. Values can dupli-
cate, but keys must be distinct. Maps are used to store logical link between
the two things such as a student’s ID and name. Its size is fixed since it
is immutable, and its methods provide read-only access. The following
Kotlin application demonstrates the immutable Map:

// example for immutable map

fun main(args : Array<String>) {
var immutableMaps = mapOf(9 to "Mahi",8 to
"Nikita",7 to "Ruhi")
// gives compile time error
// immutableMaps.put(9,"Praniti")
for(key in immutableMaps.keys){
println(immutableMaps[key])
}
}

Mutable Collection
It has both read and write capabilities. Mutable collections and their asso-
ciated techniques are as follows:

• List: mutableListOf(), arrayListOf(), and ArrayList

• Set: mutableSetOf() and hashSetOf()
• Map: mutableMapOf(), hashMapOf(), and HashMap

List  Because mutable lists may be read and written to, defined elements
in the list can be deleted or added. The following Kotlin program demon-
strates the mutable list:

fun main(args : Array<String>) {

var mutableLists = mutableListOf("Mahl","Nikita","
Ruhi")
// we can modify the element
216   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

mutableLists[0] = "Praniti"
// add one more element in list
mutableLists.add("Abhi")
for(item in mutableLists){
println(item)
}
}

Set  The mutable Set allows for both read and write operations. We may
simply add or delete elements from the collections, and the order of the
components is preserved. To show the mutable set, write the following
Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var mutableSets = mutableSetOf<Int>(6,10)
// adding elements in the set
mutableSets.add(4)
mutableSets.add(5)
for(item in mutableSets){
println(item)
}
}

Map  Because it is changeable, it can do operations such as put, remove,

and clear. To show the mutable Map, write a Kotlin application.

fun main(args : Array<String>) {

var mutableMaps = mutableMapOf<Int,String>(1 to
"Mahi",2 to "Nikita",3 to "Ruhi")
// we can modify the element
mutableMaps.put(1,"Praniti")
// add one more element in the list
mutableMaps.put(4,"Abhi")
for(item in mutableMaps.values){
println(item)
}
}

ARRAYLIST IN KOTLIN
In Kotlin, the ArrayList class is used to generate a dynamic array. The term
“dynamic array” refers to the ability to grow or reduce the size of an array
based on the needs. It also has read and write capabilities. ArrayList is
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    217

non-synchronized and may include duplicates. We use ArrayList to get

the index of a specific member, convert an ArrayList to a string or another
array, and for various other purposes.
Constructors:

1. ArrayList<E>(): It creates an empty ArrayList.

2. ArrayList(capacity: Int): It creates an ArrayList of the specified size.
3. ArrayList(elements: Collection<E>): It create an ArrayList filled by
collection elements.

Most Important Methods

add(index:Int, element: E): Boolean: It is used to add a specific element to
the ArrayList. The second input includes the element to be added, which
is required, and the first parameter is the index to which want to add ele-
ment, which is optional and defaults to 1 + the last index of the array.

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// creation of an empty arraylist using
constructor
var arraylists = ArrayList<String>()
//adding String elements in the list
arraylists.add("Peeks")
arraylists.add("Peeks")
// iterating the list
println("Array list ---->")
for(i in arraylists)
println(c)
arraylists.add( 1, "of")
println("Arraylists after insertion:")
for(i in arraylists)
println(c)
}

addAll(index: Int, elements: Collection): Boolean: It is used to add all

elements of the provided collection at the specified index into the current
list. The first parameter is the index value, which is also optional.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creating empty arraylist using constructor
218   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

var arraylist=ArrayList<String>()
//adding String elements in the list
arraylists.add("Peeks")
arraylists.add("of")
arraylists.add("Peeks")
// creating the new arraylist1
var arraylists1=ArrayList<String>()
//adding all elements from arraylists to arraylists1
println("Elements in arraylist1:")
arraylist1.addAll(arraylists)
for(c in arraylists1)
println(c)
}

get(index: Int): E: It is used to return the element in the list at the provided
index.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creating thr empty arraylists using constructor
var arraylists=ArrayList<Int>()
// adding elements
arraylists.add(20)
arraylists.add(40)
arraylists.add(90)
arraylists.add(70)
arraylists.add(60)

// iterating through the elements

for(c in arraylists)
print("$c")
println()
println("Accessing the index 2 of arraylists:
"+arraylists.get(3))
}

set(index: Int, element: E):E: It is used to replace element at the given

position in the current list with the elements passed as arguments.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creating the empty arraylist using constructor
var arraylists=ArrayList<String>()
// adding the elements
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    219

arraylists.add("Peeks")
arraylists.add("of")
arraylists.add("Peeks:")
arraylists.add("Portal")
// iterating through elements
for(i in arraylists)
print("$c")
println()
// set element at index 3 with new string
arraylist.set(3,"A computer Science portal for
students")
// iterating through the elements
for(i in arraylist)
print("$c")
}

indexOf(element: E): Int: It is used to return the index of the first occur-
rence of the specified element in the list, or –1 if the specified element does
not appear in the list.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creating empty arraylists using constructor
var arraylists=ArrayList<String>()
// adding the elements
arraylists.add("Peeks")
arraylists.add("of")
arraylists.add("Peeks")

// iterating through the elements

for(c in arraylists)
print("$c ")
println()
println("Index of the element is: "+arraylist
.indexOf("Peeks"))
}

remove(element: E): Boolean: If available, it is used to delete the first

occurrence of the particular element from the current collection. Similarly
for removing the element at index c we use removeAt(index).

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creating empty arraylists using constructor
220   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

var arraylists=ArrayList<String>()
// adding the elements
arraylists.add("Peeks")
arraylists.add("for")
arraylists.add("Peeks")
arraylists.remove("of")
// iterating through elements
for(c in arraylists)
print("$c ")
}

clear(): It is used to eliminate all of list’s items.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// creating empty arraylists using constructor
var arraylists=ArrayList<Int>()
// adding the elements
arraylists.add(10)
arraylists.add(20)
arraylists.add(30)
arraylists.add(40)
arraylists.add(50)

// iterating through the elements

for(c in arraylist)
print("$c")
arraylist.clear()
println()
println("Size of arraylist after clearing all
elements: "+arraylists.size)
}

LISTOF() IN KOTLIN
A list is a collection of elements sorted in a specific way. Kotlin provides
two types of lists: immutable (non-modifiable) and mutable (modifiable)
(can be modified).
Read-only lists are produced using listOf(), and their items cannot edit,
but mutable lists are generated with the mutableListOf() function and
their elements may be altered or modified.
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    221

Integers are used in the Kotlin program list:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val x = listOf('1', '2', '3')
println(x.size)
println(x.indexOf('2'))
println(x[2])
}

Strings are used in a Kotlin program that has a list:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

//creating list of strings
val x = listOf("Ramesh", "Shivay", "Rajat",
"Raqesh")
println("The size of the list is: "+x.size)
println("The index of the element Rajat is:
"+x.indexOf("Rajat"))
println("The element at index "+x[2])
for(i in x.indices){
println(x[i])
}
}

Indexing List Elements in Kotlin

Each list element has an index. The first entry has an index of zero (0), and
the last element has an index of len – 1, where “len” is the list’s length.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
val numbs = listOf(11, 33, 27, 72, 0, 22, 21, 46, 10)
val numb1 = numbs.get(0)
println(numb1)
val numb2 = numbs[7]
println(numb2)
val index1 = numbs.indexOf(1)
println("first index of number is $index1")
val index2 = numbs.lastIndexOf(1)
println("last index of number is $index2")
val index3 = numbs.lastIndex
println("last index of the list is $index3")
}
222   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

The First and Last Elements

The first and last elements of the list may retrieve without utilizing the
get() function.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
val numbs = listOf(11, 55, 37, 31, 0, 23, 15, 46,
17)
println(numbs.first())
println(numbs.last())
}

Iteration Methods for Lists

This is the process of accessing the elements of a list one by one.
In Kotlin, there are various ways to accomplish this.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
val names1 = listOf("Gopi", "Asim", "Shubhi",
"Aditi",
"Dinesh", "Nikita", "Gautam")
// method-1
for (name in names1) {
print("$name, ")
}
println()
// method-2
for (x in 0 until names1.size) {
print("${names1[x]} ")
}
println()
// method-3
names.forEachIndexed({x, y -> println("names1[$x]
= $y")})
// method 4
val it: ListIterator<String> = names1.
listIterator()
while (it.hasNext()) {
val x = it.next()
print("$x ")
}
println()
}
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    223

Explanation:
for (name in names1) {
print("$name, ")
}

The for loop iterates across the list. The variable “name” points to the next
member in the list in each cycle.

for (x in 0 until names1.size) {

print("${names[x]} ")
}

This approach takes advantage of the list’s size. The till keyword creates a
range of list indexes.

names1.forEachIndexed({x, y -> println("names1[$x] =

$y")})

We loop over the list with index and value available in each iteration using
the forEachIndexed() method.

val it: ListIterator = names1.listIterator()

while (it.hasNext()) {
val x = it.next()
print("$x ")
}

Here we use a ListIterator to iterate through the list.

Sorting the List’s Elements

The examples below demonstrate how to sort a list in ascending or descend-
ing order.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
val lists = listOf(83, 24,17, 31,42, 33, 0, 55, 67 )
val asc1 = lists.sorted()
println(asc1)
val desc1 = lists.sortedDescending()
println(desc1)
}
224   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Explanation:
val asc1 = list.sorted()

The list is sorted in the ascending order via the sorted() function.

val desc1 = lists.sortedDescending()

The list is sorted in descending order using the sortedDescending()

function.

Contains() and ContainsAll() Functions

This method determines whether or not an element exists in the list.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
val lists = listOf(8, 4, 7, 1, 2, 3, 0, 5, 6 )

val res1 = lists.contains(0)

if (res1)
println("list contains 0")
else
println("list does not contain 0")
val results = lists.containsAll(listOf(3, -1))
if (results)
println("list contains 3 and -1")
else
println("list does not contain 3 and -1")
}

Explanation:
val res = lists.contains(0)

Checks if the lists include 0 and return true or false (her true), saved in
res1.

val result = list.containsAll(listOf(3, -1))

Checks whether the list contains the values 3 and −1.

 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    225

SetOf () in Kotlin
The Kotlin Set interface is a general unordered collection of items that
includes duplicates. Kotlin recognizes two kinds of sets: mutable and
immutable.

setOf() is immutable, which implies it only provides

read-only functionality.
SetOf() is mutable, implying both read and write
functionality.

Syntax:
fun <D> setOf( vararg elements: D): Set<D>

Description: This method returns a new read-only set of the elements

given.
The items are iterated over in the order in which they are stored.
setOf() function Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring set of strings
val seta1 = setOf("Peeks", "of", "Peeks")
//declaring a set of characters
val setb1 = setOf( "P", "o", "P" )
//declaring set of integers
val setc1 = setOf( 11, 12, 13, 14 )
//traversing through set of strings
for(item in seta1)
print( item )
println()
//traversing through set of characters
for(item in setb1)
print( item )
println()
//traversing through set of integers
for(item in setc1)
print( "$item ")
}
226   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Set Indexing
The index of the specified element can be obtained using the index func-
tions indexOf() and lastIndexOf(). We may also use the elementAt()
method to find elements at a given index.
Index-using Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val captain = setOf("Kamal","Smridhi","Ruhi","Maya
nk","Ridhi","Daman")
println("element at index 2 is: "+captain.
elementAt(2))
println("index of element is: "+captain.
indexOf("Smridhi"))
println("last index of element is: "+captain.
lastIndexOf("Ruhi"))
}

Set the first() and last() element: The first() and last() methods may be
used to obtain the first and last element of a set.

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>){
val captain = setOf(1,2,3,4,"Kanika",
"Smridhi",
"Ruhi","Mayank","Ridhi","Daman")

println("first element of the set is:

"+captain.first())
println("last element of the set is:
"+captain.last())
}

Set Basics
We will go over fundamental methods such as count(), max(), min(),
sum(), and average().
Basic functions are used in a Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val nums = setOf(11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88)
println("number of element in the set is:
"+nums.count())
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    227

println("maximum element in the set is: "+nums.

max())
println("minimum element in the set is: "+nums.
min())
println("sum of the elements in the set is:
"+nums.sum())
println("average of elements in the set is:
"+nums.average())
}

Contains() and ContainsAll() Functions

Both approaches are used to determine whether or not an element exists
in the set.
Kotlin program that use the contains() and containsAll() functions:

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val captain = setOf(1,2,3,4,"Kanika","Smridhi",
"Ruhi","Mayank","Ridhi","Daman")
var names = "Daman"
println("set contains the element $name or not?" +
" "+captain.contains(names))
var nums = 5
println("set contains the element $nums or not?" +
" "+captain.contains(nums))
println("set contains the given elements or not?" +
" "+captain.containsAll(setOf(1,3,
"Ruhi")))
}

Checking the equality of empty sets and employing the isEmpty()

functions:

fun <D> setOf(): Set <D>

This syntax returns an empty set of the specified type.

Kotlin program that use the isEmpty() function:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

//creation of an empty set of strings
val seta1 = setOf<String>()
//creation of an empty set of integers
val setb1 =setOf<Int>()
228   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

//the checking if set is empty or not

println("seta1.isEmpty() is ${seta1.isEmpty()}")
// Since the Empty sets are equal
//checking if the two sets are equal or not
println("seta1 == setb1 is ${seta1 == setb1}")
println(seta1) //printing first set
}

MUTABLESETOF() METHOD IN KOTLIN

The Kotlin Set interface is a general unordered collection of elements that
includes duplicates. Kotlin recognizes two kinds of sets: changeable and
immutable.
SetOf() is immutable, which implies it only provides read-only
functionality.
SetOf() is mutable, implying both read and write operations.

Syntax:
fun <D> mutableSetOf( vararg elements: D): MutableSet
<D>

Description:

• This method returns a collection of provided items that can be read

and written.
• The iteration order of the elements is preserved in the returned set.

The following Kotlin code implements the mutableSetOf() function:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring mutable set of integers
val mutableSetA1 = mutableSetOf<Int>( 11, 22,
33, 44, 33);
println(mutableSetA1)
//declaring mutable set of strings
val mutableSetB1 = mutableSetOf<String>("Peeks","o
f", "Peeks");
println(mutableSetB1)
//declaring empty mutable set of integers
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    229

val mutableSetC1 = mutableSetOf<Int>()

println(mutableSetC1)
}

Adding and Deleting Elements from a Set

We may use the add() method to add elements to a mutable set, and the
remove () function to remove elements.

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
//declaring mutable set of integers
val seta1 = mutableSetOf( 11, 22, 33,
44, 33);
println(seta1);
//adding the elements 66 & 77
seta1.add(66);
seta1.add(77);
println(seta1);
//removing the 33 from the set
seta1.remove(33);
println(seta1);
//another way to add the elements is by using
listOf() function
seta1 += listOf(88,99)
println(seta1)
}

Set Indexing
The index of the specified element may be obtained using the index meth-
ods indexOf() and lastIndexOf(). We may also use the elementAt() method
to find elements at a given index.
Index-using Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val captain = mutableSetOf("Kanika","Smridhi",
"Ruhi","Mayank","Ridhi","Daman")
println("The element at index 2 is: "+captain.
elementAt(2))
230   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

println("The index of element is: "+captain.

indexOf("Smridhi"))
println("The last index of element is: "+captain.
lastIndexOf("Ridhi"))
}

Set the First and Last Element

The first() and last() methods may use to obtain the first and last element
of a set.

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>){
val captain = mutableSetOf(11,22,33,44,"Kanika
","Smridhi",
"Ruhi","Mayank","Daman","Ridhi")
println("first element of the set is:
"+captain.first())
println("last element of the set is:
"+captain.last())
}

Traversal in a MutableSet
In a MutableSet, we can perform for loop using an iterator to traverse all
the elements in the set.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring a mutable set of integers
val seta1 = mutableSetOf( 11, 22, 33, 44, 33);
//traversal of the seta1 using an iterator 'item'
for(item in seta1)
println( item )
}

Contains() and ContainsAll() Methods

Both approaches are used to determine whether or not an element exists
in the set.
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    231

Kotlin program that use the contains() and containsAll() functions:

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val captain = mutableSetOf(11,22,33,44,"Kanika","S
mridhi",
"Ruhi","Mayank","Ridhi","Daman")
var names = "Daman"
println("set contains the element $names or not?" +
" "+captain.contains(names))
var nums = 5
println("set contains the element $nums or not?" +
" "+captain.contains(nums))
println("set contains the given elements or not?" +
" "+captain.containsAll(setOf(1,3,
"Root")))
}

Checking the equality of empty sets and employing the isEmpty()

functions:

fun <D> mutableSetOf(): mutableSet <D>

This syntax returns an empty set of the specified type.

Kotlin program that use the isEmpty() function:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

//creating empty set of strings
val seta1 = mutableSetOf<String>()
//creating empty set of integers
val setb1 = mutableSetOf<Int>()

//checking if the set is empty or not

println("seta1.isEmpty() is ${seta1.isEmpty()}")
// Since empty sets are equal
//checking if the two sets are equal or not
println("seta1 == setb1 is ${seta1 == setb1}")
println(seta1) //printing first set
}
232   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

HASHSETOF() IN KOTLIN
Kotlin HashSet is a generic unordered collection of elements that contains
no duplicates. It is responsible for implementing the set interface. hashSe-
tOf() is a function that returns a mutable HashSet that may be read as well
as written. The HashSet class uses hashing to store all of the elements.

Syntax:
fun <D> hashSetOf(vararg elements: T): HashSet <D>

It returns a new HashSet containing the requested elements but makes no

guarantees regarding the order sequence indicated at the time of storing.

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
//declaring hash set of integers
val seta1 = hashSetOf(11,22,33,33);
//printing the first set
println(seta1)
//declaring hash set of strings
val setb1 = hashSetOf("Peeks","of","peeks");
println(setb1);
}

Adding and Deleting Elements from a HashSet

• The add() and addAll() methods can use to add elements to a HashSet.
• Using the remove() method, we may delete an element.

Program of using the add() and remove() method:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring a hash set of integers
val seta1 = hashSetOf<Int>();
println(seta1)
//adding elements
seta1.add(11)
seta1.add(22)
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    233

//making extra set to add it in seta

val newsets = setOf(44,55,66)
seta1.addAll(newsets)
println(seta1)
//removing 22 from the set
seta1.remove(22)
println(seta1)
}

HashSet Traversal
We can traverse HashSet using an iterator in a loop.

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring hash set of integers
val seta1 = hashSetOf(11,22,33,55);
//traversing in set using a for loop
for(items in seta1)
println(items)
}

Indexing in a HashSet
Using the index methods indexOf() and lastIndexOf(), we may get the
index of the specified element. We may also use the elementAt() method
to find elements at a given index.
Index-using Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

val captain = hashSetOf("Kanika","Sumit","Ruhi","M
ayank","Ridhi","Daman")
println("element at index 2 is: "+captain.
elementAt(3))
println("index of element is: "+captain.
indexOf("Smridhi"))
println("last index of element is: "+captain.
lastIndexOf("Ridhi"))
}

Contains() and ContainsAll() Functions

Both methods are used to determine whether or not an element exists in
the HashSet.
234   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Kotlin program that use the contains() and containsAll() functions:

fun main(args: Array<String>){

val captain = hashSetOf(1,2,3,4,"Kanika","Smridhi",
"Ruhi","Mayank","Ridhi","Daman")
var names = "Ridhi"
println("set contains the element $name or not?" +
" "+captain.contains(names))
var nums = 5
println("set contains the element $nums or not?" +
" "+captain.contains(nums))
println("set contains the given elements or not?" +
" "+captain.containsAll(setOf(11,33,"Dam
an","Waner")))
}

Checking the equality of empty hash sets and employing the isEmpty()
functions:

fun <D> hashSetOf(): hashSet <D>

This syntax returns an empty hash set of a given type.

Kotlin program that use the isEmpty() function:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

//creating empty hash set of strings
val seta1 = hashSetOf<String>()
//creating empty hashset of integers
val setb1 =hashSetOf<Int>()
//checking if the set is empty or not
println("seta1.isEmpty() is ${seta1.isEmpty()}")
// Since Empty hashsets are equal
//checking if the two hash sets are equal or not
println("seta1 == setb1 is ${seta1 == setb1}")
}

MAPOF() in Kotlin
A Kotlin Map is a collection of pairings of objects. The data in a Map
is stored in the form of pairs, each of which consists of a key and a
value. Map keys are one-of-a-kind, and the Map only stores one value
for each key.
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    235

Kotlin makes a distinction between immutable and mutable Maps.

Immutable Maps generated with mapOf() are read-only, but mutable
Maps made with mutableMapOf() may be read and written.

Syntax:
fun <X, Y> mapOf(vararg pairs: Pair<X, Y>): Map<X, Y>

• The pair’s first value is the key, and the second is the value of the
associated key.
• If many pairs have the same key, the Map will return the last pair’s
value.
• The Map entries are traversed in the order indicated.

mapOf() Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring map of integer to string
val map1 = mapOf(1 to "Peeks", 2 to "of",
3 to "Peeks")
//printing map
println( map1)
}

Map keys, values, and entries:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//declaring map of integer to string
val map1 = mapOf(1 to "One", 2 to "Two", 3 to
"Three", 4 to "Four")
println("Map Entries : "+map1)
println("Map Keys: "+map1.keys )
println("Map Values: "+map1.values )
}

Map Size
There are two ways to determine the size of a Map. By using the Map’s size
property and the count() method.
236   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

fun main() {
val ranks1 = mapOf(1 to "London",2 to "Africa",3
to "Germany",4 to "Canada")
//method 1
println("size of the map is: "+ranks1.size)
//method 2
println("size of the map is: "+ranks1.count())
}

Empty Map
Using mapOf, we may generate an empty serializable map ().
MapOf() Example:

fun main(args: Array<String>)

{
//created an empty map using mapOf()
val map = mapOf<String, Int>()
println("Entries: " + map.entries) //entries of
the map
println("Keys:" + map.keys) //keys of the map
println("Values:" + map.values) //values of the map
}

Get Map Values

We may retrieve values from a Map using the various ways outlined in the
following program:

fun main() {
val ranks1 = mapOf(1 to "London",2 to "Africa",3
to "Germany",4 to "Canada")
//method 1
println("The Team having rank #1 is: "+ranks1[1])
//method 2
println("The Team having rank #3 is: "+ranks1.
getValue(3))
//method 3
println("The Team having rank #4 is: "+ranks1.
getOrDefault(4, 0))
// method 4
val teams = ranks1.getOrElse(2, { 0 })
println(teams)
}
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    237

Map Contains Keys or Values

Using the containsKey() and containsValue() methods, we can detect if a
Map contains a key or a value.

fun main() {
val colorsTopToBottom = mapOf("green" to 1,
"yellow" to 2, "pink" to 3,
"white" to 4, "brown" to 5, "blue" to 6,
"purple" to 7)
var colors = "yellow"
if (colorsTopToBottom.containsKey(colors)) {
println("Yes, it contains the color
$colors")
} else {
println("No, it does not contain the color
$colors")
}
val values = 8
if (colorsTopToBottom.containsValue(values)) {
println("Yes, it contains the value
$values")
} else {
println("No, it does not contain the value
$values")
}
}

Two Values and the Same Key

If two values have the same key value, the Map will include the latest value
of those numbers.

Example:
fun main(args: Array<String>)
{
//lets make the two values with same key
val map1 = mapOf(1 to "peeks1",2 to "of", 1
to "peeks2")
// return map entries
println("Entries of map: " + map1.entries)
}
238   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Explanation: In this case, key value 1 has been set with two values: peeks1
and peeks2, but because mapOf() may only have one value for one key
item, the Map only stores the last value, and peeks1 is removed.

HASHMAP IN KOTLIN
Kotlin HashMap is a collection that includes object pairs. MutableMap imple-
mentation in Kotlin using Hash Tables. It keeps data in the form of a key and
value pair. Map keys are one-of-a-kind, and the Map only stores one value for
each key. It’s represented as HashMapkey, value> or HashMapK, V>.
HashMap’s hash table-based implementation makes no guarantees
regarding the order of given data of key, value, and collection elements.
Kotlin HashMap class constructors are available: Kotlin HashMap
has four constructors, each with a public access modifier:

• HashMap(): The default constructs that create an empty HashMap

object.
• HashMap(initialCapacity: Int, loadFactor: Float = 0f): This func-
tion is used to create a HashMap with the provided capacity. If ini-
tialCapacity and loadFactor are not utilized, they will disregard.
• HashMap(initialCapacity: Int): This method creates a HashMap
with the supplied capacity. If initialCapacity is not utilized, it will be
disregarded.
• HashMap(original: Map <out K, V>): This method generates a
HashMap instance with the same mappings as the supplied Map.

Uses of HashMap functions: Kotlin program that uses the func-

tions HashMap(), HashMap(original: Map), Traversing HashMap, and
HashMap.get():

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

//example of HashMap class define
// with the empty "HashMap of <String, Int>"
var hashMap1 : HashMap<String, Int>
= HashMap<String, Int> ()
//printing empty hashMap
printHashMap(hashMap1)
//adding elements to the hashMap1 using
// put() function
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    239

hashMap1.put("IronMan", 3200)
hashMap1.put("Thor", 100)
hashMap1.put("SpiderMan", 1300)
hashMap1.put("NickFury", 1100)
hashMap1.put("HawkEye", 1400)
//printing the non-Empty hashMap1
printHashMap(hashMap1)
//using overloaded print function of
//Kotlin language to get same results
println("hashMap1 : " + hashMap1 + "\n")

//hashMap1 traversal using a for loop

for(key in hashMap1.keys){
println("Element at key $key :
${hashMap1[key]}")
}
//creating another hashMap1 object with
// the previous version of hashMap1 object
var secondHashMap : HashMap<String, Int>
= HashMap<String, Int> (hashMap1)
println("\n" + "Second HashMap : ")
for(key in secondHashMap.keys){
//using hashMap1.get() function to fetch the
values
println("The Element at key $key : ${hashMap1.
get(key)}")
}
//this will clear whole map and make it empty
println("hashMap1.clear()")
hashMap1.clear()
println("After Clearing : " + hashMap1)
}
//function to print hashMap1
fun printHashMap(hashMap1: HashMap<String, Int>){
// isEmpty() function to check whether
// the hashMap1 is empty or not
if(hashMap1.isEmpty()){
println("hashMap1 is empty")
}else{
println("hashMap1: " + hashMap1)
}
}
240   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

HashMap initial capacity, HashMap.size – Kotlin program:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

//HashMap can also be initializing
// with initial capacity.
//The capacity can be changed by
// adding and replacing element.
var hashMap1 : HashMap<String, Int>
= HashMap<String, Int> (4)

//adding elements to the hashMap1 using put()

function
hashMap1.put("Iron-Man", 3300)
hashMap1.put("Thor", 200)
hashMap1.put("Spider-Man", 1500)
hashMap1.put("Nick-Fury", 1300)

for(key in hashMap1.keys) {
println("Element at key $key :
${hashMap1[key]}")
}
//return the size of hashMap1
println("\n" + "hashMap1.size : " + hashMap1.size )

//adding a new element in the hashMap

hashMap1["Black-Widow"] = 3300;
println("hashMap1.size : " + hashMap1.size + "\n")

for(key in hashMap1.keys) {
println("Element at key $key :
${hashMap1[key]}")
}
}

Kotlin program that employs the HashMap.get(key), HashMap.

replace(), and HashMap.put() functionalities:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

var hashMap1 : HashMap<String, Int>
= HashMap<String, Int> ()
//adding elements to the hashMap1
// using put() function
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    241

hashMap1.put("Iron-Man", 3200)
hashMap1.put("Thor", 120)
hashMap1.put("Spider-Man", 1300)
hashMap1.put("Cap", 1400)
for(key in hashMap1.keys) {
println("Element at the key $key :
${hashMap1[key]}")
}
//the hashMap1's elements can be accessed like
this
println("\nhashMap1[\"Iron-Man\"] : "
+ hashMap1["Iron-Man"])
hashMap1["Thor"] = 2000
println("hashMap1.get(\"Thor\") : "
+ hashMap1.get("Thor") + "\n")
//replacing some value
hashMap1.replace("Cap", 989);
hashMap1.put("Thor", 2200);
println("hashMap1.replace(\"Cap\", 989)" +
" hashMap1.replace(\"Thor\", 2200)) :")
for(key in hashMap1.keys) {
println("Element at key $key : ${hashMap1
[key]}")
}
}

HashMap Time Complexity

If the hash function is designed correctly and the items are appropriately
dispersed, Kotlin HashMap gives constant time or O(1) complexity for
fundamental operations like get and put. When searching in a HashMap,
containsKey() is merely a get() that throws away the received result; there-
fore, it’s O(1) (assuming the hash function works properly).
Other features of the Kotlin HashMap class include:

• Boolean consistsKey(key: K): This function returns true if the Map

consists of the specified key.
• Boolean containsValue(value: V): If the Map maps one or more keys
to the supplied value, it returns true.
• void clear(): It eliminates all Map elements.
• remove(key: K): It deletes the provided key and associated value
from the Map.
242   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

ANNOTATIONS IN KOTLIN
Annotations are a Kotlin feature that allows the programmer to embed
additional information in the source file. This information, however, does
not affect the program’s activities. A variety of tools utilizes this data dur-
ing both development and deployment.
The following arguments are typically included in annotations and
must be compile-time constants:

• Primitive types (Int, Long etc.)

• Strings
• Enumerations
• Class
• Other annotations
• Arrays of the types mentioned above

Using Annotation
We may use annotation by placing its name in front of a code element and
prefixing it with the @ symbol. For example, if we want to use the annota-
tion Positive, we should write the following. If we want to use the annota-
tion Pos, we should write the following:

@Positive val x: Int

Similar to a function call, an argument can be passed to an annotation in

parentheses.

@Allowedlanguage("Kotlin")

The @ symbol should be omitted when an annotation is used as a param-

eter in another annotation, the @ symbol should be omitted. We’ve used
the Replacewith() annotation as a parameter here.

@Deprecated("function is deprecated, use = = =

instead", ReplaceWith("this = = = other"))

When an annotation parameter is a class object, we should add::class to

the class name as:

@Throws(IOException::class)
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    243

Declaring Annotation
An annotation is declared by prefixing the class keyword with the anno-
tation keyword. Annotation declarations, by definition, cannot include
code. When we declare our annotations, we must describe which code
components they may apply to and where they should be kept.
The most basic annotation has no parameters:

annotation class Myexample

Annotation with a parameter is similar to a class with a main constructor:

annotation class Suffix(val s1: String)

Annotate a Constructor
We may also annotate the constructor of a class. It is possible to accom-
plish this by utilizing the constructor keyword for constructor declaration
and inserting the annotation before it.

class Myexample@Inject constructor(dependency:

MyDependency) {
//....
}

Annotate a Property
We may annotate the class’s properties by adding annotations to the prop-
erties. We assume that a Lang instance is valid if the name value is either
Kotlin or Java in the following example.

class Lang (
@Allowedlanguages(["Java","Kotlin"]) val name:
String)
}

Several Built-in Annotations

Kotlin has some built-in annotations that may provide extra attributes to
user-defined annotations. These annotations, to be more specific, are used
to annotate annotations.

@Target
This annotation indicates where the annotated annotation can be used,
such as classes, functions, constructors, type parameters, and so on. The
244   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

constructor’s keyword comes before the constructors when an annotation

is given to a class’s primary constructors.
To explain the @Target annotation, consider the following example:

@Target(AnnotationTarget.CONSTRUCTOR,
AnnotationTarget.LOCAL_VARIABLE)
annotation class AnnotationDemo2
class XYZ @AnnotationDemo2 constructor(val count:Int){
fun display(){
println("Constructor-annotated")
println("Count is $count")
}
}
fun main(){
val obj = XYZ(5)
obj.display()
@AnnotationDemo2 val message: String
message = "Hellooo"
println("Local-parameter-annotated")
println(message)
}

@Retention
This annotation indicates the availability of the annotated annotation, i.e.,
whether it remains in the source file or is available at runtime, and so on.
Its mandatory argument must be an instance of the AnnotationRetention
enumeration with the following elements:

• SOURCE
• BINARY
• RUNTIME

To explain the @Retention annotation, consider the following

example:

//Specifying annotation with the runtime policy

@Retention(AnnotationRetention.RUNTIME)
annotation class AnnotationDemo3
@AnnotationDemo3 fun main(){
println("Main-function-annotated")
}
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    245

@Repeatable
This annotation allows an element to have applied the same annotation
numerous times. This annotation can only use with the Retention Policy
set to SOURCE in the present version of Kotlin 1.3.

Example:
@Repeatable
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.SOURCE)
annotation class AnnotationDemo4 (val value: Int)
@AnnotationDemo4(4)
@AnnotationDemo4(5)
fun main(){
println("The Repeatable Annotation applied on
main")
}

REFLECTION IN KOTLIN
Reflection is a set of the language and library capabilities that enable run-
time introspection of a particular program. Kotlin reflection is used at
runtime to access a class and its members, such as properties, functions,
constructors, etc.
Along with the Java reflection API, Kotlin has its own set of reflection
API, which is written in a simple, functional manner. The standard Java
Reflection constructs are likewise accessible in Kotlin and are fully com-
patible with its code.
Kotlin reflections are accessible in the following languages:

kotlin.reflect package

Reflection of Kotlin.
246   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Kotlin reflection characteristics:

• Kotlin reflection provides access to properties and nullable types.

• Kotlin reflection differs from Java reflection in a few ways.
• Kotlin reflection facilitates access to JVM code created by a language.

Class References
Use the class reference operator to acquire a statically known class refer-
ence at runtime. In addition, a reference to a class can be derived from its
instances; such references are known as bounded class references. In the
case of inheritance, you may gain a reference to the specific type to which
the object adheres by using instances.
As an example of class references, consider the following:

//sample empty class

class DemoReflection {
}
fun main()
{
// Reference obtained using classname
val xyz = DemoReflection::class
println("This is a class reference $xyz")
// the reference obtained using object
val obj = DemoReflection()
println("This is bounded class reference
${obj::class}")
}

Function References
We may retrieve a functional reference for each named function defined
in Kotlin. This is accomplished by using the :: operator before the function
name. These functional references can subsequently be passed to other func-
tions as arguments. In the case of overloaded functions, we may either explic-
itly provide the function type or be determined automatically from the text.
As an example of functional references, consider the following:

fun add(x: Int,y: Int) : Int{

return x+y;
}
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    247

fun add(x: String,y: String): String{

return """$x$y"""
}

fun isDivisibleBy3(x: Int): Boolean{

return x%3 == 0
}
fun main(){
// the function reference obtained using ::
operator
val ref1 = ::isDivisibleBy3
val array = listOf<Int>(11,2,34,46,5,64,7,82,91)
println(array.filter(ref1))
// The function reference obtained for an
overloaded function
// By explicitly specifying type
val ref2: (String,String) -> String = ::add;
println(ref2)
// Function reference obtained implicitly
val c = add(13,2)
println(c)
}

Property References
We can get property references in the same way we get function refer-
ences by using the :: operator. If the property is part of a class, the class-
name must also be given using the :: operator. These property references
enable us to treat a property as an object, retrieving its values using the get
method and editing it using the set function.
As an example of a property reference, consider the following:

class Example(var x: Float){

}
val a = 10;
fun main(){
// Property Reference for package level property
val b = ::a
println(b.get())
println(b.name)

// Property Reference for class property

val c = Property::x
println(c.get(Property(5.899f)))
}
248   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Constructor References
A class’s constructor references can access the same way as method and
property references. These references can use to point to a function that
returns an object of the same type. These applications, however, are
uncommon.
As an example of constructor references, consider the following:

class Example(var x: Float){

}
fun main(){
// The Constructor Reference
val a = ::Property
println(a.name)
}

OVERLOADING OF THE KOTLIN OPERATOR

Because Kotlin supports user-defined types, it also can overload standard
operators, making it easier to deal with user-defined types. Overloading
is possible for all unary, binary, and relational operators. The operators
are overloaded using either member functions or extension functions. The
operator modifier comes before these functions. Every operator has stan-
dard functions that can be overloaded based on use.

Unary Operators
The following table shows the different functions that can define for unary
operators. These functions make changes to the caller instance.

Operator Expression Corresponding Function

+y y.unaryPlus()
−y y.unaryMinus()
!y y.not()

In this case, y represents the type for which the operator is defined. The
overloaded functionality is defined inside the functions themselves.
The following Kotlin program demonstrates unary operator
overloading:

class OverloadUnary (var str:String) {

// overloading function
operator fun unaryMinus() {
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    249

str1 = str1.reversed()
}
}
// the main function
fun main(args : Array<String>) {
val obj1 = OverloadUnary ("HELLOOO")
println("Initial string is ${obj1.str}")y
//calling overloaded function unaryMinus()
-obj1
println("String after applying unary operator
${obj1.str1}")
}

Increment and Decrement Operators

The increment and decrement operators for type can be defined using the
following functions. These functions return a new instance with the result
of the expression.

Operator Expression Corresponding Function

++y y.inc()
––y y.dec()

When used in either postfix or prefix notation, these functions perform

well in both cases, producing the same expected output.
Program using Kotlin to show operator overloading:

class OverloadIncDec(var str:String) {

// overloading the increment function
operator fun inc():OverloadIncDec {
val obj1 = IncDecOverload(this.str)
obj.str1 = obj1.str1 + 'a'
return obj1
}
// overloading the decrement function
operator fun dec(): IncDecOverload {
val obj1 = IncDecOverload(this.str)
obj.str1 = obj1.str1.substring(0,obj1.str1.
length-1)
return obj1
}
override fun toString(): String {
250   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

return str1
}
}
// the main function
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
var obj1 = OverloadIncDec("Helloo")
println(obj1++)
println(obj1--)
println(++obj1)
println(--obj1)
}

Binary Operators
The following table lists the binary operators and their equivalent
functions. All of these functions have an effect on the calling instance.

Operator Expression Corresponding Function

y1 + y2 y1.plus(y2)
y1 – y2 y1.minus(y2)
y1 * y2 y1.times(y2)
y1/ y2 y1.div(y2)
y1% y2 y1.rem(y2)
y1..y2 y1.rangeTo(y2)

Program to overload the plus function:

class Objects(var objName: String) {

// Overloading function
operator fun plus(x: Int) {
objNames = "Name is $objNames and data is $x"
}
override fun toString(): String {
return objNames
}
}
//the main function
fun main() {
val obj1 = Objects("Chairs")
// Calling overloaded function
obj1+9
println(obj1)
}
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    251

Note that the relational operators have no specified functions; neverthe-

less, the type must implement the comparable interface to utilize relational
operators on instances of a user-defined type.

Other Operators
Because Kotlin provides a diverse set of operators, specifying each for a
type is not a good programming practice. The following table lists some of
the additional useful operators in Kotlin that may be overloaded.

Operator Expression Corresponding Function

y1 in y2 y2.contains(y1)
y1 !in y2 !y2.contains(y1)
y[i] y.get(i)
y[i, j] y.get(i, j)
y[i] = b y.set(i, b)
y[i, j] = b y.set(i, j, b)
y() y.invoke()
y(i) y.invoke(i)
y(i, j) y.invoke(i, j)
y1 += y2 y1.plusAssign(y2)
y1 −= y2 y1.minusAssign(y2)
y1 *= y2 y1.timesAssign(y2)
y1 /= y2 y1.divAssign(y2)
y1%= y2 y1.remAssign(y2)

KOTLIN DESTRUCTURING DECLARATIONS

In the form of destructuring declarations, Kotlin gives the programmer
a one-of-a-kind technique to interact with class instances. A destruc-
turing declaration generates and initializes many variables at the same
time.

Example:
val (emps_id,salary) = employees

These several variables relate to a class’s attributes connected with an

instance. We may utilize these variables separately in any way we choose.

println(emps_id+" "+salary)
252   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

The destructing declaration is based on the component() function notion.

The class provides the number of component functions that correspond
to the number of variables that a destructing declaration can declare,
beginning with component1(), component2(), and continuing up to com-
ponentN(). In Kotlin, the data class is used by default to implement com-
ponent functions.
The following code was generated from the destructuring declaration:

val emps_id = employees.component1()

val salary = employees.component2()

Program of returning the two values from a function:

data class Datas(val name:String,val age:Int)

// A function returning two values
fun sendData():Datas{
return Datas("Jackie",32)
}

fun main(){
val obj1 = sendData()
// Using instance to access the properties
println("Name is ${obj1.name}")
println("Age is ${obj1.age}")

// Creating two variables using the destructing

declaration
val (names,ages) = sendData()
println("Name is $names")
println("Age is $ages")
}

If used in a destructuring declaration, the component function definitions

must be preceded by the operator keyword.
Underscore for unneeded variables: We may wish to disregard a vari-
able in a destructuring declaration at times. To do so, substitute an under-
score for its name. The component function for the provided variable is not
called in this scenario.

Destructuring Declaration in Lambdas

As of Kotlin 1.1, the destructing declaration syntax may also use for
lambda arguments. If a lambda argument has a Pair or another type that
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    253

defines component functions, we can add extra parameters by placing

them in parentheses. The regulations are the same as they were previously
specified.
Program with lambda arguments that use destructuring declaration:
fun main(){
val map = mutableMapOf<Int,String>()
map.put(1,"Ishaan")
map.put(2,"Kamini")
map.put(3,"Kasika")
map.put(4,"Minalv")
map.put(5,"Nita")
map.put(6,"Pratyushi")
map.put(7,"Shama")
map.put(8,"Subhash")
map.put(9,"Udit")
map.put(10,"Vidhi")
println("The Initial map is")
println(map)
// Destructuring a map entry into key and values
val newmap = map.mapValues { (key,value) -> "Hello
${value}" }
println("Map after appending the Hello")
println(newmap)
}

EQUALITY EVALUATION
Kotlin includes comparing instances of a specific type in two separate
ways. This characteristic distinguishes Kotlin from other programming
languages.
There are two sorts of equality:

• Structural Equality
• Referential Equality

Structural Equality
Structural equality is tested using the = = operator and its opposite, the ! =
operator. By default, the phrase x= =y is converted into a call to the type’s
equals() method.

x?.equals(y)? : (y = = = null)
254   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Specifies that if x is not equal to null, the function equals(y) is called;

otherwise, if x is determined to be null, it tries to see whether y is referen-
tially equal to null.
Note: When (x = = null), it is immediately translated to referential
equality (x = = = null); therefore, no code optimization is required.
As a result, to use = = on instances of a type, the type must override the
equals() method.
The structural equality of a string compares its contents.

Referential Equality
In Kotlin, referential equality is tested using the === operator and its
opposite, the !== operator. This equality returns true only if two instances
of the same type refer to the same memory address. When used on types
that are transformed to primitives at runtime, the === check is converted
to == check, and the !== check is converted to != check.
Program using Kotlin to illustrate structural and referential
equality:
class Squares(val side: Int) {
override fun equals(other: Any?): Boolean {
if(other is Squares){
return other.side == side
}
return false
}
}
//the main function
fun main(args :Array<String>) {
val squares1 = Square(4)
val squares2 = Square(7)
// structural equality
if(squares1 == squares2) {
println("The Two squares are structurally
equal")
}
// the referential equality
if(squares1 !== squares2) {
println("The Two squares are not referentially
equal")
}
}
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    255

KOTLIN COMPARATOR
When a new type is required in a programming context, the problem of
arranging the instances of that type becomes a crucial one. We implement
the comparable interface to compare two instances of a type. However,
since they must be compared automatically in ordering instances, and
because the order might vary depending on numerous criteria, Kotlin
offers a basic comparator interface. This interface compares and organizes
two items of the same type.

Function
compare: This function compares two instances of the same type and
returns zero if they are equal, a negative integer if the second instance is
larger, and a positive number otherwise.

abstract fun compare(x: T, y: T): Int

Functions of Extension
reversed: This function accepts a comparator as an input and returns the
comparator with the same ordering as the passed comparator.

fun <D> Comparator<D>. reversed(): Comparator<D>

then: This function combines two comparator, and the second one is uti-
lized only when the values in the first comparator are equal.

infix fun <D> Comparator<D>.

then(
    comparator: Comparator<in D>
): Comparator<D>

As an example, consider the compare, then, and reversed functions:

class Names(val firstNames: String,val lastNames:

String){
override fun toString(): String {
return """$firstNames $lastNames"""
}
}
256   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

// comparator to compare the first names of Names

class ComparatorOne: Comparator<Names>{
override fun compare(o1: Names?, o2: Names?): Int
{
if(o1 == null || o2 == null){
return 0;
}
return o1.firstNames.compareTo(o2.firstNames)
}
}

// comparator to compare last names of Names

class AnotherComparator: Comparator<Names>{
override fun compare(o1: Name?, o2: Name?): Int {
if(o1 == null || o2 == null)
return 0
return o1.lastNames.compareTo(o2.lastNames)
}
}

fun main(){
val lists = ArrayList<Name>()
lists.add(Names("Stev","Wau"))
lists.add(Names("Stev","Smiti"))
lists.add(Names("Virati","Sohli"))
lists.add(Names("Kani","Will"))
lists.add(Names("Joti","Ruhan"))

println("The lists is:")

println(lists)

val comparatorOne = ComparatorOne()

// Sorting the list according to first names
lists.sortWith(comparatorOne)
println("The List sorted according to first name")
println(lists)

val anotherComparator = AnotherComparator()

val finalComparator = comparatorOne.
then(anotherComparator)
// Sorting the list according to first name then
by last name
list.sortWith(finalComparator)
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    257

println("The List sorted according to first name

and last name")
println(lists)

val reverseComparator = finalComparator.reversed()

// Reverse sorting the lists
lists.sortWith(reverseComparator)
println("Lists reverse sorted")
println(lists)
}

thenBy: This function converts the type instances to comparable instances

and then compares them with these instances.

fun <D> Comparator<D>.thenBy(

selector: (D) -> Comparable<*>?
): Comparator<D>

thenByDescending: This method returns a descending comparator that

transforms a value into a comparable instance before comparing the
instances.

inline fun <D> Comparator<D>.

thenByDescending(
    crossinline selector: (D) -> Comparable<*>?
): Comparator<D>

Example to describe the thenBy and thenByDescending functions:

class Human(val height: Int,val weight: Int){

override fun toString(): String {
return "Height = ${height}, Weight =
${weight}"
}
}

fun main() {
val comparators = compareBy< Human > { it.height }
val list = listOf< Human >(
Human (6, 14),
Human(2, 15),
Human(5, 55),
258   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

Human(4, 35),
Human(6, 85),
Human(5, 55)
)

println("The Sorted first according to height then

by weight")
val anotherComparator = comparators.thenBy {
it.weight }
println(list.sortedWith(anotherComparator))

println("Sorted first according to weight then by

descending order in height")
val comparator2 = compareBy< Human > { it.weight
}.thenByDescending { it.height }
println(list.sortedWith(comparator2))
}

thenComparator: This function returns a comparator that performs a

comparison using the primary comparator and a function.

fun <D> Comparator<D>.thenComparator(

comparison: (x: D, y: D) -> Int
): Comparator<D>

thenDescending: This function combines two comparator, the second of

which is used only when the values according to the first comparator are
equal, and sorts the elements in descending order.

infix fun <D> Comparator<D>.thenDescending(

comparator: Comparator<in D>
): Comparator<D>

Example of thenComparator and thenDescending functions:

fun main(){
val lists = listOf<Pairs<String,Int>>(
Pairs("D",3),
Pairs("C",1),
Pairs("E",345),
Pairs("P",20),
Pairs("S",0),
 Collections in Kotlin   ◾    259

Pairs("B",0)
)

val comparators = compareBy<Pair<String,Int>>

{ it.first }
.thenComparator({x,y -> compareValues
(x.second,y.second)})
println("The Pairs sorted by String then by
Integers")
println(lists.sortedWith(comparators))
val anotherComparator =
compareBy<Pairs<String,Int>> { it.second }
val anotherComparator2 =
compareBy<Pairs<String,Int>>{it.first}
println("The Pairs sorted by Integers then by
Strings in Descending order")
println(list.sortedWith(anotherComparator.thenDesc
ending(anotherComparator2)))
}

CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we covered collections where we learned what collection is,
including ArrayList, listOf, and setOf, and we also covered mutableSetOf,
HashSet, and Map in Kotlin. Moreover, we covered annotations, reflec-
tion, operator overloading, and destructing declaration. Also, we learned
about the equality equation and comparator.
 Chapter 7

Android Development
with Kotlin

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢➢ Create a project in Android Studio using Kotlin

➢➢ Install AVD
➢➢ Android animation
➢➢ Fade In/Out
➢➢ Menus

We covered collection with ArrayList, listOf, setOf, mutableSet, and Map

in Chapter 6. Moreover, we covered annotations, reflection, overload-
ing, and comparator. This chapter will discuss installing Android Studio,
installing AVD, animation, and menus.

KOTLIN FOR ANDROID

Kotlin is a cross platform programming language that may use as an alter-
native to Java for developing Android apps. When compared to Java, Kotlin
is significantly easier for novices to learn, and this Kotlin Android Tutorial
may also be used as an “entry point” for Android App Development.
Google sponsors Kotlin, which was introduced as one of the official lan-
guages for Android development in 2017. Kotlin is a multiplatform pro-
gramming language that can readily execute on a Java Virtual Machine.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-7 261
262   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

How to Install and Configure Android Studio for Kotlin Development

To create an Android application with Kotlin, we’ll need an Android
application development IDE like Android Studio. Android Studio is an
IDE that lets us create applications on a single platform. We can get the
Android Studio package from the official Android Studio website: https://
developer.android.com/studio/index.html

• Java must be installed on our PC before we can install Android

Studio.
• After downloading Android Studio, launch it and install it. Follow
the installation instructions.
• Select Next to proceed.
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    263

• Browse the JDK path and click Next.

• Analyze the component that we wish to install.
• Indicate the location of the Android SDK installation.
• To utilize emulator instances, set the maximum RAM size.
264   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• Android Studio has been installed successfully on our machine.

How to Make an Android Studio Project Using Kotlin

Because the Kotlin plugin is included with Android Studio versions higher
than 3.0, we can create Android applications with Kotlin rather than Java.
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    265

The procedures for creating a new project in the Kotlin programming

language are discussed below:

• Step 1: From the Welcome to Android Studio page, choose to Start a

New Android Studio Project.
• Step 2: Click the Next button after selecting Empty Activity.
• Step 3: Here, we write the name of our application and choose Kotlin
as the language for the project. Then, to begin the project, click the
Finish button.
• Step 4: Finally, our newly created project with a variable number of
files opens.

HELLOO WORLD APP IN KOTLIN

• Let’s create our helloo world app in Android Studio using the
Kotlin programming language. Run Android Studio and choose the
“Start a new Android Studio project” option to create an Android
application.
• Provide a name for our application (“Helloo World” in my instance)
and click the “Include Kotlin support” and proceed.
• Click Next after selecting the API level for the Android application.
• Select the Activity type and then click the Next button.
• activities_main.xml
Add the following code to the activities_main.xml file in the lay-
out folder.
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<android.support.constraint.ConstraintLayout
xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/
android"
xmlns:app="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res-auto"
xmlns:tools="http://schemas.android.com/tools"
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
tools:context="example.app.javatpoint.
hellooworld.MainActivity">
266   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

<TextView
android:layout_width="wrap_content"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:text="Hellooo World!"
app:layout_constraintBottom_toBottomOf=
"parent"
app:layout_constraintLeft_toLeftOf=
"parent"
app:layout_constraintRight_toRightOf=
"parent"
app:layout_constraintTop_toTopOf=
"parent" />

</android.support.constraint.ConstraintLayout>

• MainActivities.kt
In the example.app.javatpoint.helloworld package, create a
MainActivities.kt file, and add the following code.
package example.app.javatpoint.hellooworld

import android.support.v7.app.AppCompatActivity
import android.os.Bundle

class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {

override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState:

Bundle?) {
super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(R.layout.activity_main)
}
}

• Now run our app.

HOW TO SET UP AN ANDROID VIRTUAL DEVICE (AVD)

To execute the program in android development, we need an android
smartphone. As a result, Android Studio’s developers give the option to
install an AVD to operate it. This part will go through how to set up an
AVD.
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    267

To install AVD, follow the following steps:

• Step 1: Select Tools > AVD Manager from the Menu.

• Step 2: Next, select Create Virtual Device.
• Step 3: Popup window will appear, and we will pick the category
Phone since we are making an android app for a mobile phone and
the model of mobile phone we wish to install.
• Step 4: Here, we pick the Android version to download, such as Q,
Pie, Oreo, and so on, and then click the Next button.
• Step 5: To complete the installation, click the Finish button.
• Step 6: Now, we can pick the virtual device we wish to use as an emu-
lator and press the run button.
• Step 7: Our virtual device is finally ready to execute our Android
app.

KOTLIN ANIMATIONS FOR ANDROID

Animation is a technique in which a group of images is mixed in a certain
way and processed to look like moving images. Building animations pro-
vide the appearance that on-screen things are living. Android includes a
plethora of tools that can assist us in creating animations with reasonable
simplicity. So, in this section, we’ll learn how to make animations using
Kotlin. The following are some properties that we use when developing
xml code.
Attributes Table:

XML Attributes Description

android:duration It is used to determine the length of the animation to run.
android:fromAlpha It is the initial alpha value for the animation, where 1.0 indicates
entirely opaque, and 0.0 implies fully transparent.
android:toAlpha It is the final alpha value.
android:id Sets the view’s unique id.
android:fromYDelta The Y coordinate modification will be applied at the start of the
animation.
android:toYDelta The Y coordinate modification will be applied at the conclusion
of the animation.
(Continued)
268   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

XML Attributes Description

android:startOffset There is a delay when an animation runs (in milliseconds) after
the start time is achieved.
android:pivotX It denotes the X-axis coordinates for zooming out from the
starting point.
android:pivotY It denotes the Y-axis coordinates for zooming out from the
starting location.
android:fromXScale Offset of the starting X size.
android:fromYScale Offset of the starting Y size.
android:toXScale X size offset at the end.
android:toYScale Y size offset at the end.
android:fromDegrees In degrees, the starting angular position.
android:toDegrees In degrees, the final angular position.
android:interpolator An interpolator defines rate of change of an animation.

To begin, we will develop a new Android application. Then we’ll make

some animations.
If we have previously established the project, skip step 1.

Make a New Project

• Open Android Studio.

• Go to File => New => New Project to start a new project.
• Then, pick Empty Activity and press the next button.
• DynamicEditTextKotlin is the name of the program.
• Select the minimal SDK that we require; in this case, we have
chosen 21 as the minimum SDK.
• Select Kotlin as the language and click the Finish button.

If we performed the steps above correctly, we should have a newly created

project.
Following the creation of the project, we will alter the XML files. In the
XML file, we will build one TextView in which all of the animations will
be done and eight Buttons for each of the eight animations.

Change the activity_main.xml File

Add code to the res/layout/activity_main.xml file.
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    269

XML:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<RelativeLayout xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.
com/apk/res/android"
xmlns:tools="http://schemas.android.com/tools"
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
tools:context=".MainActivity">
<TextView
android:id="@+id/textView"
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_above="@+id/linearLayout"
android:gravity="left"
android:text="Peeks for Peeks"
android:textSize="33sp"
android:textColor="@color/colorPrimaryDark"
android:textStyle="bold" />
<LinearLayout
android:id="@+id/linearLayout"
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:layout_alignParentBottom="true"
android:orientation="horizontal">
<LinearLayout
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:orientation=" vertical "
android:weightSum="3">
<Button
android:id="@+id/fade_in"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="2"
android:text="Fade In"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
<Button
android:id="@+id/fade_out"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="2"
270   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

android:text="Fade Out"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
</LinearLayout>
<LinearLayout
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:orientation="horizontal"
android:weightSum="1">
<Button
android:id="@+id/zoom_in"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="3"
android:text="Zoom In"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
<Button
android:id="@+id/zoom_out"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="2"
android:text="Zoom Out"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
</LinearLayout>
<LinearLayout
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:orientation=" vertical "
android:weightSum="3">
<Button
android:id="@+id/slide_down"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="2"
android:text="Slide Down"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
<Button
android:id="@+id/slide_up"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="2"
android:text="Slide Up"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
</LinearLayout>
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    271

<LinearLayout
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:orientation="vertical"
android:weightSum="1">
<Button
android:id="@+id/bounce"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="3"
android:text="Bounce"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
<Button
android:id="@+id/rotate"
android:layout_width="0dp"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
android:layout_weight="3"
android:text="Rotate"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
</LinearLayout>
</LinearLayout>
</RelativeLayout>

We will develop XML files for animations when we have modified the layout.
So, initially, we’ll make a folder called anim.
In this folder, we place the XML files that will utilize to generate the
animations. To accomplish this, go to app/res, right-click, and then pick
Android Resource Directory, and name it anim.

bounce.xml
XML: The text in this animation bounces like a ball.
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<set
xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/
android"
android:interpolator="@android:anim/
linear_interpolator"
android:fillAfter="true">
<translate
android:fromYDelta="90%"
android:toYDelta="-25%"
android:duration="320" />
<translate
272   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

android:startOffset="550"
android:fromYDelta="-30%"
android:toYDelta="20%"
android:duration="140" />
<translate
android:startOffset="1100"
android:fromYDelta="15%"
android:toYDelta="0"
android:duration="120" />
</set>

fade in.xml
The text will appear from the background in the Fade In motion.
XML:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android"
android:interpolator="@android:anim/
linear_interpolator">
<alpha
android:duration="1200"
android:fromAlpha="0.2"
android:toAlpha="2.0" />
</set>

fade_out.xml
The color of text gets faded out for a set period of time in the Fade Out
animation.
XML:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android"
android:interpolator="@android:anim/
linear_interpolator">
<alpha
android:duration="1200"
android:fromAlpha="2.0"
android:toAlpha="0.2" />
</set>
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    273

rotate.xml
The text is rotated for a certain period of time in rotate animation.
XML:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<rotate xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android"
android:duration="1200"
android:fromDegrees="0"
android:interpolator="@android:anim/
linear_interpolator"
android:pivotX="60%"
android:pivotY="60%"
android:startOffset="0"
android:toDegrees="320" />

slide_down.xml
The text in this animation will come from top to bottom.
XML:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android">
<translate
android:duration="1200"
android:fromYDelta="-90%"
android:toYDelta="0" />
</set>

slide_up.xml
The text in this animation will go from bottom to the top.
XML:

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android">
<translate
android:duration="1200"
android:fromYDelta="0"
android:toYDelta="-90%" />
</set>
274   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

zoom_in.xml
The text in this animation will seem larger for a certain amount of time.
XML:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android"
android:fillAfter="true">
<scale xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/
apk/res/android"
android:duration="1200"
android:fromXScale="2"
android:fromYScale="2"
android:pivotX="60%"
android:pivotY="60%"
android:toXScale="2.5"
android:toYScale="2.5">
</scale>
</set>

zoom_out.xml
The text in this animation will seem smaller for a certain length of time.
XML:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android"
android:fillAfter="true" >
<scale
xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android"
android:duration="1200"
android:fromXScale="2.0"
android:fromYScale="2.0"
android:pivotX="60%"
android:pivotY="60%"
android:toXScale="0.7"
android:toYScale="0.7" >
</scale>
</set>

Following the creation of all xml animations, we’ll make MainActivity.

 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    275

Create MainActivity.kt File

Open app/src/main/java/peeksforpeeks. AnimationsInKotlin/Main
Activity.kt file and add the below code into it.

package peeksforpeeks.animationsinkotlin
import androidx.appcompat.app.AppCompatActivity
import android.os.Bundle
import android.os.Handler
import android.view.View
import android.view.animation.AnimationUtils
import kotlinx.android.synthetic.main.activity_main.*

class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {

override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {
super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(C.layout.activity_main)
fade_in.setOnClickListener {
textView.visibility = View.VISIBLE
val animationFadeIn = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.fade_in)
textView.startAnimation(animationFadeIn)
}
fade_out.setOnClickListener {
val animationFadeOut = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.fade_out)
textView.startAnimation(animationFadeOut)
Handler().postDelayed({
textView.visibility = View.GONE
}, 1200)
}
zoom_in.setOnClickListener {
val animationZoomIn = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.zoom_in)
textView.startAnimation(animationZoomIn)
}
zoom_out.setOnClickListener {
val animationZoomOut = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.zoom_out)
textView.startAnimation(animationZoomOut)
}
slide_down.setOnClickListener {
val animationSlideDown = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.slide_in)
276   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

textView.startAnimation(animationSlideDown)
}
slide_up.setOnClickListener {
val animationSlideUp = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.slide_out)
textView.startAnimation(animationSlideUp)
}
bounce.setOnClickListener {
val animationBounce = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.bounce)
textView.startAnimation(animationBounce)
}
rotate.setOnClickListener {
val animationRotate = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.rotate)
textView.startAnimation(animationRotate)
}
}
}

Because the AndroidManifest.xml file is so vital in Android applications,

the code for the manifest file is provided here.

AndroidManifest.xml File
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<manifest xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/
apk/res/android"
package="peeksforpeeks.animationsinkotlin">

<application
android:allowBackup="true"
android:icon="@mipmap/ic_launcher"
android:label="@string/app_name"
android:roundIcon="@mipmap/ic_launcher_round"
android:supportsRtl="true"
android:theme="@style/AppTheme">
<activity android:name=".MainActivity">
<intent-filter>
<action android:name="android.intent.
action.MAIN" />
<category android:name="android.
intent.category.LAUNCHER" />
</intent-filter>
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    277

</activity>
</application>
</manifest>

KOTLIN ANDROID FADE IN/OUT

Animations in Android are graphics that are introduced to make the user
interface more dynamic, clear, and appealing. Fade-in and fade-out ani-
mations are used to change the appearance of any view over a specific
period of time so that the user is alerted to changes in our program.
In this post, the section we will look at how to make a Fade In/Out ani-
mation in Kotlin.

XML Attributes Description

android:duration It is used to specify the length of the animation.
android:fromAlpha It is the initial alpha value for the animation, with 1.0
indicating complete opacity and 0.0 indicating complete
transparency.
android:toAlpha It is the final alpha value.
android:id Sets the view’s unique id.

The first step is to open Android Studio and create a new project.
Follow these steps to accomplish this:

• Click File, then New, then New Project, then name it whatever we like.
• Then, choose Kotlin language support and press the next button.
• Choose the minimum SDKs we need.
• Choose Empty activity, and then click Finish.
• Following that, we must create our layout. We’ll need to use the XML
file for this. Navigate to app > res > layout and copy the following code:

Modify activity_main.xml File

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<RelativeLayout xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.
com/apk/res/android"
xmlns:app="http://schemas.android.com/
apk/res-auto"
xmlns:tools="http://schemas.android.com/
tools"
278   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
tools:context=".MainActivity" android:or
ientation="vertical">
<TextView
android:id="@+id/textView"
android:layout_width="wrap_content"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:text="PeeksofPeeks"
android:layout_centerInParent="true"
android:textSize="33sp"
android:textStyle="bold" />

<Button
android:id="@+id/fade_in"
android:layout_width="90dp"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:text="Fade In"
android:layout_marginTop="150dp"
android:layout_marginLeft="90dp" />
<Button
android:id="@+id/fade_out"
android:layout_width="120dp"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:layout_marginTop="130dp"
android:layout_toRightOf="@+id/fade_in"
android:text="Fade Out"
android:textAllCaps="false" />
</RelativeLayout>

Add an anim Folder

In this folder, we’ll put the XML files that will utilize to generate the
animations. To accomplish this, go to app/res, right-click, and then pick
Android Resource Directory, and name it anim.
Right, click this anim folder again, this time selecting Animation
resource file and naming it fade_in. Similarly, create fade_out.xml and
paste the code below.
fade_in.xml:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android">
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    279

android:interpolator="@android:anim/
linear_interpolator">
<alpha
android:duration="2300"
android:fromAlpha="0.2"
android:toAlpha="2.0" />
</set>

fade_out.xml:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<set xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android">
android:interpolator="@android:anim/
linear_interpolator">
<alpha
android:duration="2200"
android:fromAlpha="2.0"
android:toAlpha="0.2" />
</set>

Change the MainActivity.kt File

Make the following modifications to app/src/main/java/ourPackageName/
MainActivity.kt:
package com.peeksforpeeks.myfirstapp
import androidx.appcompat.app.AppCompatActivity
import android.os.Bundle
import android.os.Handler
import android.view.View
import android.view.animation.AnimationUtils
import kotlinx.android.synthetic.main.activity_main.*
class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {

override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {

super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(R.layout.activity_main)
//setting the button onClickListener
fade_in.setOnClickListener {
textView.visibility = View.VISIBLE
//loading custom made animations
val animations = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.fade_in)
280   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

//starting the animations

textView.startAnimation(animations)
}
fade_out.setOnClickListener {
val animations = AnimationUtils.
loadAnimation(this, C.anim.fade_out)
textView.startAnimation(animations)
//textview will be invisible after specified
amount
// of time elapses, here it is 1200
milliseconds
Handler().postDelayed({
textView.visibility = View.GONE
}, 1200)
}
}
}

AndroidManifest.xml File
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<manifest xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/
apk/res/android"
package="x.apps.fadeinout">

<application
android:allowBackup="true"
android:icon="@mipmap/ic_launcher"
android:label="@string/app_name"
android:roundIcon="@mipmap/
ic_launcher_round"
android:supportsRtl="true"
android:theme="@style/AppTheme">
<activity android:name=".MainActivity">
<intent-filter>
<action android:name="android.intent.
action.MAIN"/>
<category android:name="android.
intent.category.LAUNCHER"/>
</intent-filter>
</activity>
</application>
</manifest>
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    281

MENUS FOR ANDROID

The menu is an essential UI component in Android that provides certain
common functions throughout the application. The Menu allows the user
to have a smooth and consistent experience across the program.
To use a menu, we must define it in a separate XML file and then use
that file in our program based on our needs. In addition, we can utilize
menu APIs to represent user actions and other options in our Android app
activities.

How Can We Define a Menu in an XML File?

Android Studio provides a standard XML format for kinds of menus to
specify menu elements. Instead of writing code, we can describe the menu
and its items in an XML menu resource and load the menu resource as a
menu object in the activity or fragment used in our Android application.
To define the menu, we need to create a new folder within our proj-
ect directory (res/menu) and add a new XML file with the following
components.
The example of defining a menu in an XML file (menu example.xml)
is shown below:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<menu xmlns:android="http:// schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android">
<item android:id="@+id/mail"
android:icon="@drawable/ic_mail"
android:title="@string/mail" />
<item android:id="@+id/upload"
android:icon="@drawable/ic_upload"
android:title="@string/upload"
android:showAsAction="ifRoom" />
<item android:id="@+id/share"
android:icon="@drawable/ic_share"
android:title="@string/share" />
</menu>

• <Menu>: The XML file’s root element that helps define the Menu
and holds various items.
• <item>: It is used to generate a single menu item. It also has nested
Menu> elements to form a submenu.
282   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

• <group>: It is optional and unnoticed for item> elements to classify

menu items so that they can share features such as active status and
visibility.

activity_main.xml: If we wish to include a submenu in a menu item, we

must consist of a menu> element as child of an item>.
The following is an example of defining a submenu in a menu item:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<menu xmlns:android="http:// schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android">
<item android:id="@+id/file"
android:title="@string/file" >
<!-- "file"submenu -->
<menu>
<item android:id="@+id/create_new"
android:title="@string/create_new" />
<item android:id="@+id/open"
android:title="@string/open" />
</menu>
</item>
</menu>

Different Sorts of Menus in Android

There are three types of menus accessible in Android for defining a collec-
tion of options and actions in our android applications.
The Android application’s menus are as follows:

• Android Options Menu: In an Android application, a menu is a pri-

mary collection of menu items that is important for activities that
have a worldwide impact on the searching application.
• Android Context Menu: Android Context Menu is a floating menu
that shows only when the user clicks on an element for an extended
period of time. It is ideal for components that affect the chosen con-
tent or context frame.
• Android Popup Menu: The Android Popup Menu shows a list
of items in a vertical list to the view that activated the Menu and
is handy for providing an overflow of actions connected to specific
content.
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    283

Kotlin Progress Alerts for Android

This section will teach us how to use Kotlin to develop a simple Progress
Notification (Indeterminate progress indicator and Fixed-duration prog-
ress indicator) for Android.
Before we begin, let us define the components of an Android
notification:

• Small Icon: This is required and may be set using setSmallIcon ().
• Application Name: The system provides the application name.
• Time Stamp: This is the provided by system but can be changed.
• Large Icon: This is optional, may be configured with setLargeIcon ().
• Title: This is an optional title, which may be specified using setCon-
tentTitle ().
• Text: This is optional and may be set using setContentText ().

Take Note of Notification Channels

Since the release of Android version 8 (Android Oreo), it has been man-
datory to categorize all alerts into “channels” for the convenience of both
users and developers.
Because we only need to construct a channel once, we’ll utilize a helper
class called “App.kt” to accomplish the work.
App.kt:

package com.gfg.progressnotificationdemo
import android.app.Application
import android.app.NotificationChannel
import android.app.NotificationManager
import android.os.Build
class App : Application(){
val channelId = "Progress Notification" as String
override fun onCreate(){
super.onCreate()
createNotificationChannels()
}
//Check if Android version is greater than 8.
private fun createNotificationChannels(){
if (Build.VERSION.SDK_INT >= Build.VERSION_
CODES.O) {
284   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

val channel1 = NotificationChannel(

channelId,
"Progress Notification",
//IMPORTANCE_HIGH = shows notification as peek
notification.
//IMPORTANCE_LOW = shows notification in the
status bar.
NotificationManager.IMPORTANCE_HIGH
)
channel1.description = "Progress
Notification Channel"
val manager = getSystemService(
NotificationManager::class.java
)
manager.createNotificationChannel(chan
nel1)
}
}
}

MainActivity.kt:

package com.gfg.progressnotificationdemo
import android.app.PendingIntent
import android.content.Intent
import android.os.Bundle
import android.os.SystemClock
import android.view.View
import androidx.appcompat.app.AppCompatActivity
import androidx.core.app.NotificationCompat
import androidx.core.app.NotificationManagerCompat
import com.gfg.progressnotificationdemo.R.drawable
class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity(){
private lateinit var notificationManager:
NotificationManagerCompat
val channelId = "Progress Notification" as String
override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?){
super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(R.layout.activity_main)
//Create a Notification Manager
notificationManager =
NotificationManagerCompat.from(this)
}
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    285

//Start() is called when buttons is pressed.

public fun start(view: View){

val intent = Intent(this, MainActivity::class.

java).apply{
flags = Intent.FLAG_ACTIVITY_NEW_TASK or
Intent.FLAG_ACTIVITY_CLEAR_TASK
}
val pendingIntent: PendingIntent =
PendingIntent.getActivity(
this, 0, intent, 0)
//Sets maximum progress as 90
val progressMax = 90
//Create notification and setting its various
attributes
val notification =
NotificationCompat.Builder(this,
channelId)
.setSmallIcon(drawable.
ic_file_download)
.setContentTitle("GeeksforGeeks")
.setContentText("Downloading")
.setPriority(NotificationCompat.
PRIORITY_LOW)
.setOngoing(true)
.setOnlyAlertOnce(true)
.setProgress(progressMax, 0, true)
.setContentIntent(pendingIntent)
.setAutoCancel(true)
//the Initial Alert
notificationManager.notify(1, notification.
build())
Thread(Runnable{
SystemClock.sleep(2100)
var progress = 0
while (progress <= progressMax) {
SystemClock.sleep(
1200
)
progress += 20
//Use this to make it Fixed-duration progress
indicator notification
286   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

//notification.setContentText(progress.
toString()+"%")
//.setProgress(progressMax, progress, false)
//notificationManager.notify(1, notification.
build())
}
notification.setContentText("Download
complete")
.setProgress(0, 0, false)
.setOngoing(false)
notificationManager.notify(1,
notification.build())
}).start()
}
}

STRUCTURE OF THE ANDROID PROJECT FOLDER

Android Studio is the official IDE developed by the JetBrains community
and freely given by Google to develop Android apps.
After completing the Android Architecture setup, we may construct an
Android application in the studio. We must establish a new project for
each sample application and comprehend the folder structure.
The Android project includes several app modules, source code files, and
resource files. We will look at all of the folders and files in the Android app.

1. Manifests Folder
2. Java Folder
3. Resources (res) Folder
• Drawable Folder
• Layout Folder
• Mipmap Folder
• Values Folder
4. Gradle Scripts

Manifests Folder
The Manifests folder includes AndroidManifest.xml, which we will use
to create the Android application. This file provides information about
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    287

our app, such as the Android version, metadata, the states package for the
Kotlin code, and other app components. It functions as a bridge between
the Android operating system and our application.
AndroidManifest.xml:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<manifest xmlns:android="http:// schemas.android.com/
apk/res/android"
package="peeksforpeeks.myapplication">
<application
android:allowBackup="true"
android:icon="@mipmap/ic_launcher"
android:label="@string/app_name"
android:roundIcon="@mipmap/ic_launcher_round"
android:supportsRtl="true"
android:theme="@style/AppTheme">
<activity android:name=".MainActivity">
<intent-filter>
<action android:name="android.intent.
action.MAIN" />

<category android:name="android.
intent.category.LAUNCHER" />
</intent-filter>
</activity>
</application>
</manifest>

Java Folder
The Java folder holds all of the Java and Kotlin source code (.java) files that
we write throughout app development and additional test files. When we
start a new Kotlin project, the class file MainActivity.kt is created auto-
matically under the package name “peeksforpeeks.myfirstkotlinapp,” as
seen below.
MainActivity.kt:

package peeksforpeeks.myapplication
import androidx.appcompat.app.AppCompatActivity
import android.os.Bundle
class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {
override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?)
288   ◾    Mastering Kotlin: A Beginner’s Guide

{
super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(C.layout.activity_main)
}
}

Resource (res) Folder

The resource folder is the most crucial since it holds all of our android
application’s non-code sources like as images, XML layouts, and UI
strings.
folder for res/drawables: It comprises the various types of images uti-
lized in the application’s development. For the application development,
we must place all photos in the drawable folder.
Folder res/layout: The layout folder includes all of the XML layout files
that we utilized to define our application’s user interface. It contains the
file activity main.xml.

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<androidx.constraintlayout.widget.ConstraintLayout
xmlns:android="http:// schemas.android.com/apk/
res/android"
xmlns:app="http:// schemas.android.com/apk/res-auto"
xmlns:tools="http:// schemas.android.com/tools"
android:layout_width="match_parent"
android:layout_height="match_parent"
tools:context=".MainActivity">
<TextView
android:layout_width="wrap_content"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:text="Helloo World!"
app:layout_constraintBottom_toBottomOf=
"parent"
app:layout_constraintLeft_toLeftOf="parent"
app:layout_constraintRight_toRightOf="parent"
app:layout_constraintTop_toTopOf="parent" />
</androidx.constraintlayout.widget.ConstraintLayout>

res/midmap folder: This folder contains launcher.xml files that specify

the icons that appear on the home screen. It has multiple density types of
icons depending on the device size, such as hdpi, mdpi, and xhdpi.
 Android Development with Kotlin   ◾    289

res/values folder: The values folder contains number of XML files that
define strings, dimensions, colors, and styles. The strings.xml file, which
includes the resources, is one of the most crucial.

<resources>
<string name="app_name">NameOfTheApplication</
string>
<string name="checked">Checked</string>
<string name="unchecked">Unchecked</string>
</resources>

Gradle Scripts Folder

Gradle is an automated build system that includes several files that cre-
ate a build configuration that can apply to all modules in our application.
Buildscripts are used in build.gradle (Project), and plugins and implemen-
tations are used in build.gradle (Module) to create settings that can apply
to all of our application modules.

CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we covered Android development in Kotlin where we also
covered how to create the project in Android Studio and install AVD. We
also learned Kolin’s animation, menus, progress notification, and project
folder structure.
Appraisal

Kotlin is a programming language released in 2011 by JetBrains, the offi-

cial creator of the most intelligent Java IDE, Intellij IDEA. This general-
purpose programming language is heavily statically typed and runs on
the JVM. Google declared Kotlin to be an official language for Android
development in 2017. Kotlin is an open-source programming language
that mixes object-oriented programming with functional capabilities to
provide a one-of-a-kind platform.

KOTLIN ONLINE COMPILER

We have created a Kotlin Online Compiler that allows us to modify and
execute code straight from our browser using our simple editor. Try click-
ing the icon run button to execute the following Kotlin code to produce
the standard “Helloo, World!” message.

fun main() {
var string: String1 = "Helloo, World!" //
defining variable
println("$string1")
}

KOTLIN VS. JAVA

The subject of whether to use Kotlin versus Java for new develop-
ment has been a hot topic in the Android community since the Google
I/O announcement. The issue goes back to February 2016, when Kotlin
1.0 was released. The quick answer is that Kotlin code is safer and uses
fewer resources than Java code. Because Kotlin and Java files may coex-
ist in Android apps, Kotlin is beneficial not just for new apps but also for
expanding existing Java apps.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003311904-8 291

292   ◾    Appraisal

The only compelling justification we’ve seen for using Java over Kotlin is
for total Android programming novices. Given that most Android docu-
mentation and examples have historically been written in Java, they might
be challenging. Converting Java to Kotlin with Android Studio, on the
other hand, is as simple as putting the Java code into a Kotlin file.
The benefits of Kotlin are compelling for practically everyone else
undertaking Android programming. A Java developer will typically spend
a few hours learning Kotlin – a modest price to pay to remove null refer-
ence issues, enable extension functions, support functional programming,
and add coroutines. The standard rough estimate implies a 40% reduction
in the number of lines of code when switching from Java to Kotlin.

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF KOTLIN?

Kotlin was created due to Lead Developer Dmitry Jemerov’s search for
functionality that he couldn’t find in Java. Scala is another language that
runs on the JVM; it came close, but compiling took too long.
Jemerov desired a language with all of the characteristics of more recent
programming languages, which could operate on the JVM and compile as
quickly as Java. As a result, he developed his language, Kotlin.
Kotlin was supposed to be a substitute for Java on the Android oper-
ating system. In 2019, Google ultimately agreed with Jemerov and most
Android developers and proclaimed that Kotlin was the ideal language for
Android app development eight years after it was launched.
Here are some of the reasons why developers choose Kotlin over Java:

• Kotlin is succinct, which saves time spent creating boilerplate code

in Java.
• A script may use to convert a Java file to a Kotlin file.
• There is no runtime overhead with Kotlin. Adding features to a lan-
guage can sometimes result in increased overhead, which reduces
efficiency. Not the case with Kotlin.
• Kotlin has a sizable user base. If we get stuck, we may obtain support
from other developers on coding forums and social networks.
• Kotlin makes asynchronous programming more accessible. Making
asynchronous network and database calls in Java is clunky and
inconvenient. Coroutines in Kotlin make asynchronous program-
ming efficient and straightforward.
 Appraisal   ◾    293

• Nulls are handled in Kotlin. If we don’t plan for a null in Java, it

might cause a program to crash. To avoid these problems, we may
add a simple operator to variables’ null field in Kotlin.
• Kotlin can operate on a variety of systems. Kotlin can run every-
where Java can, allowing you to create cross-platform programs.
• It is simple to transition to Kotlin. Because Kotlin is entirely compat-
ible with Java, we do not need to replace all of our code at once. We
may gradually move an application to Kotlin.

WHAT IS THE USE OF KOTLIN?

Kotlin is intended to operate on a Java Virtual Machine and can coexist
alongside Java. Although Kotlin began as a language for Android develop-
ment, its features soon expanded beyond the Java community, and it is
now utilized for a wide range of applications.

Android Development
Kotlin is the recommended language for Android development because
it allows developers to write more concise, expressive, and secure code.
Android Studio, the official IDE for Android development, fully supports
it, so we can receive the same sort of code completion and type checking
to assist us in creating Kotlin code as we can with Java.
Because more people now access the Internet via mobile phones, most
companies must have a mobile presence. Because Android accounts for
more than 70% of the mobile phone market, Kotlin developers would be in
great demand even if Kotlin was solely used for Android development. It
may, however, be used for much more.

Back-End Web Development

Back-end web development in Java is standard, with popular frameworks
such as Spring. However, since it was simpler to work with, Kotlin made
inroads into server-side web development.
The language’s contemporary capabilities enable web developers to cre-
ate apps that expand fast on commodity hardware. Because Kotlin and
Java are compatible, we may gradually migrate an application to use Kotlin
one file at a time while the remainder of the program continues to use Java.
Kotlin also works with Spring and other frameworks, so migrating to
Kotlin does not need a complete overhaul of our existing code. Google,
294   ◾    Appraisal

Amazon, and many more organizations have already replaced Java in their
server-side code with Kotlin.

Full-Stack Web Development

Kotlin makes sense for server-side web development. After all, Java has
been around since the beginning. We may still use Kotlin for front-end
programming using Kotlin/JS.
Kotlin/JS gives developers type-safe access to a sophisticated browser
and online APIs. Full-Stack developers need to be familiar with Kotlin.
They can create front-end code in the same language as back-end code,
and it will be compiled to JavaScript to execute in the browser.

Data Science
Data scientists have long used Java to crunch information, discover pat-
terns, and make predictions, so it seems to reason that Kotlin will find a
home in this field as well.
Data scientists can utilize all of the standard Java libraries that they are
accustomed to using in Java projects, but they must develop their code in
Kotlin. Jupyter and Zeppelin, two tools that many data scientists regularly
utilize for data visualization and exploratory study, support Kotlin.

MULTI-PLATFORM MOBILE DEVELOPMENT

Kotlin multi-platform mobile is a software development kit for building
cross-platform mobile applications. This implies that we’ll be able to gen-
erate apps that operate not only on Android phones but also on iPhones
and the Apple Watch from a single Kotlin codebase.

WHY SHOULD WE LEARN KOTLIN NOW?

Everyone desires their app. However, getting it off the ground might be a
complex undertaking if we don’t know-how. There are about 2.55 million
applications on the Google Play store, and the number is growing all the
time. We should all study Kotlin whether we’re just starting or seeking
to increase our knowledge. You may wonder why we should study Kotlin
instead of investing in other programming languages. So, let us break
it down.
The creation of Android apps is not going away anytime soon. With
fewer entry points to the ecosystem than iOS, Android OS users have
consistently increased over the last decade. Android has maintained and
increased its dominant market share of smartphone operating systems for
 Appraisal   ◾    295

the previous decade, which now stands at 73%. The reasons for learning
Kotlin over Java, for example, are self-evident.

Simple to Grasp
One of the significant considerations when learning a new language is its
complexity. Understanding and mastering Kotlin will be almost straight-
forward for anyone with prior development expertise. Kotlin’s syntax and
design are simple to grasp while still quite powerful. This is one of the
critical reasons why Kotlin has surpassed Java as the preferred language
for creating Android apps.

Interoperable with Java

One of the most challenging elements of learning a new language is that
there will be a lot of migration if we have an established project or work
as part of a team. The beauty of Kotlin is that it is entirely compatible with
Java. We don’t have to quit using Java right now or change all of our code;
we may utilize both. While doing so, add more and more Kotlin progres-
sively to ensure a seamless conversion.

Extensions
Extension methods allow for adding functionality to existing classes with-
out completely rewriting them in Kotlin. This means we can use Kotlin’s
rich features without having to lose all of the skills we’ve acquired while
developing current apps. It enables the recovery of views from Activities,
Fragments, and Views in an incredibly smooth manner. It also generates
a local view cache.

Null Pointer Exceptions Are No Longer an Issue

One of the biggest concerns with Java was the Null Pointer Exception,
which caused Android apps to break regularly. This is a problem that
almost every developer has encountered. Kotlin, on the other hand, is
null safe; hence, this error does not occur. This benefit alone has per-
suaded many developers to make the transition, and if we’ve seen it, we’ll
understand.

Dependable and Secure

Not only is there no Null Pointer Exception, but Kotlin is considerably
more secure and stable than Java. Because of avoidable issues, the likeli-
hood of faults and mistakes in Kotlin is much smaller. And any problems
296   ◾    Appraisal

that do arise are identified during the compilation process, giving it a sig-
nificant reliability advantage over Java.

Strong Support
Kotlin has been around for a long time despite its current popularity, and
developers have made the most of this. Support has been available, and
Kotlin is prospering with the flood of new developers, not to mention that
Google officially endorses it. Google announced formal Kotlin support at
Google I/O in May 2017. And the community is there to assist you in mak-
ing the most of it.

There Are Several Tools Available to Help Improve Your Skills

Aside from the fact that Kotlin is typically relatively easy to pick up and
learn, there are many helpful resources to get us started.

Multiplatform Kotlin
JetBrains just announced Kotlin Multiplatform in 2020, which is an exten-
sion of the language that allows it to be used for more than just Android
app development. Kotlin Multiplatform allows developers to create apps
for both iOS and Android using a single codebase. This has the potential
to be a game changer, propelling Kotlin to the forefront of programming
languages.

KOTLIN MULTIPLATFORM ADVANTAGES

1. Modular integration: Probably the most significant advantage of
Kotlin is that it is an SDK rather than a framework. This implies that
teams with current apps may add a module or move a small portion
to test its potential without making a significant investment. This
significantly aids Kotlin in addressing the most significant barrier to
migrating to a new codebase.
2. Ease of learning: Kotlin is already a popular programming lan-
guage, and its syntax is remarkably similar to those of other popu-
lar languages such as Swift and Java. This also lowers the entrance
hurdle and encourages developers to use Kotlin as an alternative.
3. A unified codebase for business logic: Cross-platform development
solutions, by definition, enable you to use a single code base across
 Appraisal   ◾    297

several systems, and Kotlin Multiplatform is no exception. The ben-

efit of using Kotlin is that it allows you to share functionality and
libraries underneath the UI layer. This allows developers to interact
directly with their native environment (iOS/Android).
4. Native UI experience: Unlike other cross-platform choices such as
Flutter, Kotlin Multiplatform does not require developers to adhere
to its UI. It enables you to fully leverage native UI components as
though you were building natively.
5. Improved performance: The use of native components allows
Kotlin-written apps to perform as well as natively produced apps.
This is a highly sought-after benefit for many developers wanting to
create an MVP.

JOBS IN KOTLIN
Kotlin is in great demand, and all big corporations are using it to construct
online and mobile apps.
A Kotlin developer’s yearly compensation is roughly $130,000. However,
it varies depending on where you live. The following are some of the top
firms that use Kotlin:

• Google
• Amazon
• Netflix
• Pinterest
• Uber
• Trello
• Coursera
• Basecamp
• Corda
• JetBrains
298   ◾    Appraisal

WHAT ARE THE DUTIES OF A KOTLIN DEVELOPER?

• Using Kotlin, you can plan, create, and construct apps and software.
• Participating at all stages of the development cycle.
• When necessary, features are tested and modified.
• Ensure that designs adhere to the specifications specified.
• Writing code that is well-designed and efficient.
• Analyzing, testing, and aiding with application integration.
• Performing software analysis.
• Application and software troubleshooting.
• Managing the development of applications.
• Assisting in the continuous enhancement of apps.
• Investigating and recommending technologies.
• Optimizing apps and systems.
• Identifying areas for improvement.
• Code optimization.
• Introducing new features.
• Assisting with software upgrades.
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Index

A structure of Android project folder, 286

gradle scripts folder, 289
Abstract class, 78
Java folder, 287–288
multiple derived classes, 81–82
manifests folder, 286–287
Activity_main.xml file, modifying,
resource (res) folder, 288–289
277–278
AndroidManifest.xml file, 280
add() function, 68, 229
Android Options Menu, 282
add(index:Int, element: E): Boolean, 217
Android Popup Menu, 282
addAll(index: Int, elements: Collection):
Android virtual device (AVD), 266–267
Boolean, 217–218
Animations, 267
Android, Kotlin for, 11–12
activity_main.xml file, changing,
Android Context Menu, 282
268–271
Android development with Kotlin, 261,
AndroidManifest.xml File, 276–277
293
bounce.xml, 271–272
Android virtual device (AVD),
Create MainActivity.kt File, 275–276
266–267
fade in.xml, 272
animations, 267–277
fade_out.xml, 272
fade-in/fade-out animations, 277
making a new project, 268
activity_main.xml file, modifying,
rotate.xml, 273
277–278
slide_down.xml, 273
AndroidManifest.xml file, 280
slide_up.xml, 273
anim folder, adding, 278–279
zoom_in.xml, 274
MainActivity.kt file, changing,
zoom_out.xml, 274
279–280
Animations in Android, 277
helloo world app in Kotlin, 265–266
Anim folder, adding, 278–279
installing and configuring Android
Annotations in Kotlin, 242
Studio, 262–264
built-in annotations, 243
making Android Studio Project using
@Repeatable, 245
Kotlin, 264–265
@Retention, 244
menus for Android, 281
@Target, 243–244
defining a menu in XML file,
constructor, annotating, 243
281–282
declaring annotation, 243
different sorts of menus in Android,
property, annotating, 243
282
using annotation, 242
Kotlin progress alerts, 283
Anonymous function, 188
notification channels, taking note
lambda expressions and, 188–189
of, 283–286
return type and parameters, 188

303
304   ◾    Index

Apache Zeppelin, 14 equality evaluation, 253

Architecture in Kotlin, 6–7 referential equality, 254
Arithmetic exception, 98 structural equality, 253–254
Arithmetic operator, 22 HashMap in Kotlin, 238–241
Array accessing and modification, HashMap time complexity, 241
164–165 hashSetOf() in Kotlin, 232
Array constructor, making use of, 163–164 adding and deleting elements from
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, 98 a hashset, 232–233
ArrayList in Kotlin, 216–220 contains() and containsAll()
ArrayOf() function, making use of, 162–163 functions, 233–234
Array traversal, 165–167 empty map, 236
Assignment operator, 23–24 get map values, 236
AVD, see Android virtual device hashSet traversal, 233
indexing in a hashset, 233
map contains keys or values, 237
B
mapOf() in Kotlin, 234–235
Back-end web development, 293–294 map size, 235–236
Basic, 5 two values and the same key,
Benefits of Kotlin, 292–293 237–238
Binary operators, 250–251 listOf() in Kotlin, 220
Bitwise operator, 25 contains() and containsAll()
Block in Kotlin, 30, 32, 97, 104 functions, 224, 227
Boolean data type, 20 first and last elements, 222
indexing list elements in Kotlin, 221
iteration methods for lists, 222–223
C
set basics, 226–227
CalculatedParameters, 70 set indexing, 226
Character data type, 20 setOf in Kotlin (), 225
Characteristics of Kotlin, 2–5 sorting the list’s elements, 223–224
Checked exception, 98 mutableSetOf() method in Kotlin, 228
Class, 36–37 adding and deleting elements from
Class property, 47–48 a set, 229
Class references, 246 contains() and containsAll()
clear(), 220 methods, 230–231
Code security, 12 set indexing, 229–230
Collections, 213 set the first and last element, 230
annotations in Kotlin, 242 traversal in a mutableSet, 230
annotate a constructor, 243 overloading of Kotlin operator, 248
annotate a property, 243 additional useful operators, 251
built-in annotations, 243–245 binary operators, 250–251
declaring annotation, 243 increment and decrement
using annotation, 242 operators, 249–250
ArrayList in Kotlin, 216–220 unary operators, 248–249
comparator, 255 reflection in Kotlin, 245
function, 255 class references, 246
functions of extension, 255–259 constructor references, 248
destructuring declarations, 251 function references, 246–247
in lambdas, 252–253 property references, 247
 Index   ◾    305

types of, 213 in for loop, 159

immutable collection, 214–215 in while loop, 157–158
mutable collection, 215–216 nested if expression, 132–134
Command line, Kotlin environment unlabeled break in Kotlin, 146
on, 15 in do-while loop, 147–148
Companion object extensions, 89–90 in for loop, 148–149
Comparator, 255 in while loop, 146–147
function, 255 unlabeled continue
functions of extension, 255–259 in do-while loop, 154–155
Compare function, 255 in for loop, 155–156
compareTo() function, 172 in while loop, 152–154
Competitive programming, Kotlin for, when expression, 141
14–15 input value, 144
Compilation time, 5 as a replacement for if-else-if chain,
Constructor in Kotlin, 48 145
annotating, 243 using as a statement in the absence
primary constructor, 49 of an else branch, 142
with initializer block, 50–51 using as a statement with else,
secondary constructor, 51–54 141–142
Constructor references, 248 variable, verifying type of, 145
Constructor visibility, 58 verifying if a string includes a
Contains() and containsAll() functions, certain prefix or suffix,
224, 227, 230–231, 233–234 145–146
containsMatchIn(), 119 ways to use when block in Kotlin,
Contracovariance, 94 143–144
Control flow statements, 127 when used as an expression,
do-while loop, 135 142–143
working of, 136–137 while loop, 134–135
for loop, 137 Copy(), 73–74
iterate across the range using, Covariance, 94
138–139 Crossline keyword, 192
iterate over the collection Customer accessors, 48
using, 141 Custom parameters, setter and getter
iterate through a string using, with, 45–46
140–141
using, 139–140
D
if-else expression in Kotlin as ternary
operator, 130 Data class creation rules, 72
if-else-if ladder expression, Data Classes in Kotlin, 2, 71
130–132 copy(), 73–74
if-else statement, 129–130 data class creation rules, 72
if statement, 128–129 equals() function, 75–76
labeled break in Kotlin, 149 hashCode() method, 75–76
in do-while loop, 150–151 toString(), 72–73
in for loop, 151–152 Data science, 14, 294
in while loop, 149–150 Data types in Kotlin, 18
labeled continue, 157 Boolean data type, 20
in do-while loop, 158 character data type, 20
306   ◾    Index

floating-point data type, 19 Exceptions in Kotlin, 98–99

integer data type, 18–19 Explicit type casting in Kotlin, 116
Default arguments in Kotlin, 176 safe cast operator: as?, 117–118
all arguments passed while calling a unsafe cast operator: as, 116–117
function, 178–179 Expression in Kotlin, 30–31
no arguments passed while calling a Expressivity, 10
function, 176–177 Extended library class using extension
partial arguments passed while calling function, 87–88
a function, 177–178 Extension methods, 295
Destructuring declarations, 251
in lambdas, 252–253
F
Developer of Kotlin, duties of, 298
Doodle, 13 Fade-in/fade-out animations, 277
(..) operator, 122–123 activity_main.xml file, modifying,
do-while loop, 135, 154, 155 277–278
labeled break in, 150–151 AndroidManifest.xml file, 280
labeled continue in, 158 anim folder, adding, 278–279
unlabeled break in, 147–148 MainActivity.kt file, changing,
unlabeled continue in, 154–155 279–280
working of, 136–137 Features of Kotlin, 2
downTo() function, 124 Finally block, 102–104
Dynamic array, 216 find() method, 119
findAll() method, 119
Floating-point data type, 19
E
For loop, 137
Elvis operator(?:), 112 iterate across the range using, 138–139
EmployeeDetails() function, 80 iterate over the collection using, 141
Empty map, 236 iterate through a string using, 140–141
Empty string, creation of, 167 labeled break in, 151–152
Encapsulation, 46 labeled continue in, 159
Enum classes, 82 unlabeled break in, 148–149
properties and functions of, 84–85 unlabeled continue in, 155–156
usage of when expression with, 86 using, 139–140
Enums fritz2, 13
as anonymous classes, 85 Full-stack web development, 294
initializing, 83 Functional and object-oriented
properties and methods, 83–84 capabilities, 4
Equality evaluation, 253 Function references, 246–247
referential equality, 254 Functions in Kotlin, 171
structural equality, 253–254 standard library function, 172
Equals() function, 75–76 user-defined function, 173–174
Escape characters, 170 calling, 174
Escaped string, 169
Exceptional handling in Kotlin, 97, 99
G
avoiding NullPointerException,
100–101 Generics, 91–92
throwing an exception in Kotlin, Get() function, 164
99–100 get(index: Int), 218
 Index   ◾    307

Get map values, 236 Infix function notation in Kotlin, 194

Gradle plugins, 12 infix function precedence over
Gradle scripts folder, 289 operators, 197–198
standard library infix function
notation, 194–195
H
user-defined infix functions, notation
HashCode() method, 75–76 for, 196–197
HashMap in Kotlin, 238 Infix function precedence over operators,
HashMap time complexity, 241 197–198
HashSetOf() in Kotlin, 232 Inheritance in Kotlin, 58
adding and deleting elements from a overriding member functions and
hashset, 232–233 properties, 64–65
contains() and containsAll() functions, primary constructor for, 62–63
233–234 secondary constructor for, 63–64
empty map, 236 superclass implementation, calling,
get map values, 236 65–66
hashSet traversal, 233 use, 60–62
indexing in hashSet, 233 Initializer block, primary constructor
map containing keys or values, 237 with, 50–51
mapOf() in Kotlin, 234–235 In keyword, 93
map size, 235–236 InlinedFunc() method, 192
two values and same key, 237–238 Inline functions in Kotlin, 189
Hello Everyone program, 16–18 crossline keyword, 192
Helloo world app in Kotlin, 265–266 noinline, 193
Higher-order functions in Kotlin, 4, non-local control flow, 191–192
198–202 properties of, 193–194
returning a function from, 202 reified type parameters, 193
History of Kotlin, 2 Inner-class Kotlin program, 41–42
http4k, 11 Input of Kotlin, 27
Input/output operations, of Kotlin, 25
input of Kotlin, 27
I
println() and print(),distinction
If-else expression in Kotlin, 127 between, 26
if-else expression in Kotlin as ternary readline() function, taking user input
operator, 130 with, 27
if-else-if ladder expression, scanner class, taking user input
130–132 without using, 28
if-else statement, 129–130 user using scanner class, taking input
if statement, 128–129 from, 27–28
nested if expression, 132–134 variables and literals print,
If expression, 31 26–27
Immutable collection, 214–215 Integer data type, 18–19
Immutable using val keyword, 21 Intellij IDEA, 10, 15–16, 26, 291
Increment and decrement operators, Interfaces in Kotlin, 66
249–250 creating, 66
Indexing in hashSet, 233 default methods and default values,
indexOf(element: E): Int, 219 67–68
Inference in lambdas types, 186 inheritance, 69–70
308   ◾    Index

multiple interfaces, implementation of, Android, Kotlin for, 11–12

70–71 command line, Kotlin environment
properties, 68–69 on, 15
Internal modifier, 56–57 competitive programming, Kotlin for,
Interoperability, 10 14–15
Interoperability of Kotlin with Java, 295 data science, Kotlin for, 14
!is operator, use of, 115–116 Hello Everyone program, 16–18
It (implicit name of a single-parameter), Intellij IDEA, 15–16
187 JavaScript, Kotlin for, 12–13
Kotlin/Native, 13
language applications of Kotlin, 15
J
platforms that are supported, 9
Java, 5 server-side apps, using Kotlin to
interoperability with, 4 deploy, 11
Kotlin vs., 7–9, 40, 291–292, 295–296 server-side development, Kotlin
Java Development Kit (JDK), 7 frameworks for, 10–11
Java folder, 287–288 Kotlin/Native, 13
Java interoperability Kotlin Online Compiler, 291
using Java to call Kotlin, 203 Kotlinx.html, 11
checked exceptions, 206–207 Ktor, 11
instance fields, 206 KVision, 12–13
package-level functions, 203–205
properties of Kotlin, 203
L
static fields, 205
static methods, 205–206 Labeled break in Kotlin, 149
using Kotlin to call Java, 207 in do-while loop, 150–151
getters and setters in Java, 207–208 in for loop, 151–152
Java arrays, 210 in while loop, 149–150
Java varargs, 210–211 Lambda expression, 184
methods, 208–209 and anonymous functions, 188–189
static members, 209 inference in lambdas types, 186
types in Java and Kotlin, 211–212 it (implicit name of a single-
Javalin, 11 parameter), 187
JavaScript, Kotlin for, 12–13 returning a value from, 187–188
Java Virtual Machine (JVM), 1 type declaration in lambdas,
JDK, see Java Development Kit 186–187
JetBrains, 15, 296 Language applications of Kotlin, 15
Jobs in Kotlin, 297 Learning curve, 10
Jupyter Notebook, 14 ListOf() in Kotlin, 220
JVM, see Java Virtual Machine contains() and containsAll() functions,
224, 227
first and last elements, 222
K
indexing list elements in Kotlin, 221
Key characteristics of Kotlin, 2–5 iteration methods for lists, 222–223
KMM, see Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile set basics, 226–227
Kotlin Multiplatform, 296 set indexing, 226
advantages, 296–297 setOf in Kotlin (), 225
Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile (KMM), 9 sorting the list’s elements, 223–224
 Index   ◾    309

Literals print, variables and, 26–27 Non-local control flow, 191–192

Logical operator, 24–25 Non-nullable sorts in Kotlin, 108–109
Normal function call, 180–181
NoSQL databases, 11
M
Notebooks, 14
MainActivity.kt file, changing, 279–280 Notification channels, taking note of,
Manifests folder, 286–287 283–286
MapOf() in Kotlin, 234–235 Not null assertion (!!) operator, 113
matchEntire() method, 120 Nullable and non-nullable sorts in Kotlin,
matches() method, 120 108–109
Menus for Android, 281 Nullable receiver, 89
defining a menu in XML file, 281–282 NullPointerException, 98, 107
different sorts of menus in Android, avoiding, 100–101
282 Null pointer exceptions, 295
Kotlin progress alerts, 283 Null safety, 107
notification channels, taking note of, checking for the null in conditions, 109
283–286 Elvis operator(?:), 112
Micronaut, 11 not null assertion (!!) operator, 113
Multiline string, 170 run() method, 111–112
Multiplatform development, 12 safe call operator(?.), 110–111
Multiplatform Gradle plugins, 12
Multiplatform in Kotlin, 5–6
O
Multi-platform mobile development, 294
Multiple catch block, 105–107 Object, 37–38
Multiple derived classes, 81–82 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP),
Multiple interfaces, implementation of, 1, 35
70–71 abstract class, 78
Multiple statements in Kotlin, 32 multiple derived classes, 81–82
Mutable collection, 215–216 class property, 47–48
mutableListOf() function, 220 constructor in Kotlin, 48
MutableSetOf() method in Kotlin, 228 primary constructor, 49–51
adding and deleting elements from a secondary constructor, 51–54
set, 229 contracovariance, 94
contains() and containsAll() methods, covariance, 94
230–231 customer accessors, 48
set indexing, 229–230 data classes in Kotlin, 71
set the first and last element, 230 copy(), 73–74
traversal in mutableSet, 230 data class creation rules, 72
equals() function, 75–76
hashCode() method, 75–76
N
toString(), 72–73
Named arguments in Kotlin, 179–180 enum classes, 82
Naming convention, 22 properties and functions of, 84–85
Nested blocks, variable scope in, 33 usage of when expression with, 86
Nested class, 39–40 enums
Nested if expression, 132–134 as anonymous classes, 85
Nested try block, 104–105 initializing, 83
Noinline, 193 properties and methods, 83–84
310   ◾    Index

extension function, 86 arithmetic operator, 22

companion object extensions, assignment operator, 23–24
89–90 bitwise operator, 25
extended library class using, 87–88 logical operator, 24–25
nullable receiver, 89 relation operator, 23
statically resolved, 88–89 unary operator, 24
generics, 91–92 OutClass class, 93
inheritance in Kotlin, 58 Out keyword, 93
overriding member functions and Overloading of Kotlin operator, 248
properties, 64–65 additional useful operators, 251
primary constructor for, 62–63 binary operators, 250–251
secondary constructor for, 63–64 increment and decrement operators,
superclass implementation, calling, 249–250
65–66 unary operators, 248–249
use, 60–62 Overriding member functions and
inner-class Kotlin program, 41–42 properties, 64–65
interfaces in Kotlin, 66
creating, 66–68
P
inheritance, 69–70
multiple interfaces, implementation Platform-agnostic, Kotlin as, 5
of, 70–71 Platform-specific Kotlin versions, 6
properties, 68–69 Primary constructor, 49
Java, Kotlin vs., 40 with initializer block, 50–51
language for object-oriented Primary constructor for Kotlin
programming, 35 inheritance, 62–63
class, 36–37 print() function, 68, 172
object, 37–38 printLength() function, 100
Nested class, 39–40 Println() and print() functions,
private modifier, 44 distinction between, 26
setter and getter with custom Private modifier, 44, 56
parameters, 45–46 custom parameters, setter and getter
sealed classes, 76 with, 45–46
with when clause, 77–78 Property, annotating, 243
setter and getter Kotlin program, Property references, 247
43–44 Protected modifier, 57
star projections, 95 constructor visibility, 58
type projections, 95 overriding of, 57–58
values and fields, identifiers for, 44 Public modifier, 55
variance, 92
in keyword, 93
R
out keyword, 93
visibility modifiers, 54 Ranges in Kotlin, 122
internal modifier, 56–57 (..) operator, 122–123
private modifier, 56 downTo() function, 124
protected modifier, 57–58 rangeTo() function, 123
public modifier, 55 range using forEach loop, 124–126
OOP, see Object-Oriented Programming rangeTo() function, 122, 123
Operators in Kotlin, 22 Range using forEach loop, 124–126
 Index   ◾    311

Raw string, 170 Set basics, 226–227

readline() function, 172 Set indexing, 226, 229–230
taking user input with, 27 SetOf(), 225, 228
Recursion in Kotlin, 180 Setter and getter Kotlin program, 43–44
normal function call, 180–181 Simplicity of Kotlin, 295
recursive function call, 181–182 Smart casting, 114–115
Recursive function call, 181–182 split() function, 122
Referential equality, 171, 254 Spring, 10
Reflection in Kotlin, 245 sqrt() function, 172
class references, 246 StackOverflowError, 183
constructor references, 248 Standard library function in Kotlin, 172
function references, 246–247 Standard library infix function notation,
property references, 247 194–195
Regex functions, 119–122 Star projections, 95
Regular expressions in Kotlin, 118 Statement in Kotlin, 31–32
Reified type parameters, 193 Statically typed language, 2
Relation operator, 23 String equality, 170
rem() function, 172 referential equality, 171
remove () function, 229 structural equality, 171
remove(element: E): Boolean, 219–220 String in Kotlin, 167
@Repeatable, 245 empty string, creation of, 167
replace() function, 121 escape characters, 170
replaceFirst() function, 121 templates and string elements, 167–169
Resource (res) folder, 288–289 String literals, 169
@Retention, 244 escaped string, 169
reverse() method, 125 raw string – multiline string, 170
Reversed function, 255 String template expressions, 168
Run() method, 111–112 Structural equality, 171, 253–254
students() function, 176–177
Superclass implementation, calling, 65–66
S
Support, Kotlin, 296
Safe call operator(?.), 110–111
Salary() function, 60
T
Scalability, 10
Scanner class Tail recursion in Kotlin, 183
taking input from user using, 27–28 benefits of employing, 183–184
taking user input without using, 28 @Target, 243–244
Sealed classes, 76 Templates and string elements, 167–169
with when clause, 77–78 thenByDescending method, 257
Secondary constructor, 51–54 thenBy function, 257
for Kotlin inheritance, 63–64 thenComparator function, 258
SecurityException, 98 thenDescending function, 258
Server-side apps, using Kotlin to deploy, then function, 255–257
11 Throw keyword, 104
Server-side development, Kotlin toInt() function, 172
frameworks for, 10–11 Tooling, 10
Set() function, 164 ToString() method, 72–73, 93
set(index: Int, element: E):E, 218–219 Traversal in mutableSet, 230
312   ◾    Index

Try-catch block, 101 Variables and literals print, 26–27

as an expression, 102 Variable scope, 21
finally block, 102–104 Variable scope in nested blocks, 33
throw keyword, 104 Variables in Kotlin, 20
Type casting, see Type conversion immutable using val keyword, 21
Type checking, 113–114 naming convention, 22
Type conversion, 29–30 variable scope, 21
Type declaration in lambdas, 186–187 Variance, 92
Type projections, 95 in keyword, 93
out keyword, 93
Vert.x, 10
U
Visibility modifiers, 54
UI, see User interface internal modifier, 56–57
Unary operators, 24, 248–249 private modifier, 56
Unchecked exception, 98 protected modifier, 57
Unlabeled break in Kotlin, 146 constructor visibility, 58
in do-while loop, 147–148 overriding of, 57–58
in for loop, 148–149 public modifier, 55
in while loop, 146–147
Unlabeled continue
W
in do-while loop, 154–155
in for loop, 155–156 When clause, sealed class with, 77–78
in while loop, 152–154 When expression, 141
Use of Kotlin, 293 input value, 144
Android development, 293 as a replacement for if-else-if
back-end web development, 293–294 chain, 145
data science, 294 using as a statement in the absence of
full-stack web development, 294 an else branch, 142
User-defined function in Kotlin, 173–174 using as a statement with else, 141–142
User-defined infix functions, notation for, variable, verifying type of, 145
196–197 verifying if a string includes a certain
User input, taking prefix or suffix, 145–146
using scanner class, 27–28 ways to use when block in Kotlin,
with readline() function, 27 143–144
without using scanner class, 28 when used as an expression, 142–143
User interface (UI), 9 When expression, using, 114
While loop, 134–135
labeled break in, 149–150
V
labeled continue in, 157–158
Val keyword, immutable using, 21 unlabeled break in, 146–147
valueOf() function, 83 unlabeled continue in, 152–154
Values and fields, identifiers for, 44 withIndex() library function, 140