Solid Tumours
Solid Tumours
TUMORS IN CHILDREN
• BRAIN TUMORS
The second most common malignancy in childhood
and adolescence.
The aetiology of paediatric brain tumours is not well
defined. A male predominance is noted in the
incidence of medulloblastoma and ependymoma
Signs and symptoms are related to obstruction of
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage paths by the
tumour, leading to increased intracranial pressure
(ICP) or causing focal brain dysfunction.
Subtle changes in personality, mentation, and
speech may precede these classic signs and
symptom such changes often occur with
supratentorial (cortical) lesions.
Disorders of equilibrium, gait, and coordination
occur with infratentorial tumours. Torticollis may
occur in cases of cerebellar tonsil herniation.
Blurred vision, diplopia, and nystagmus also are
associated with infratentorial tumours
Infants with supratentorial tumours may present
with premature hand preference.
For primary brain tumours, MRI with and without
gadolinium is the neuroimaging standard.
Tumours in the pituitary/ suprasellar region, optic
path, and infratentorium are better delineated with
MRI than with CT.
Patients with tumours of the midline and the
pituitary/suprasellar/optic chiasmal region should
undergo evaluation for neuroendocrine dysfunction
Formal ophthalmologic examination is beneficial in
patients with optic path region tumours to
document the impact of the disease on oculomotor
function, visual acuity, and fields of vision.
Neuroblastomas are embryonal cancers of the
peripheral sympathetic nervous system with
heterogeneous clinical presentation and course,
ranging from tumours that undergo spontaneous
regression to very aggressive tumours unresponsive
to very intensive multimodal therapy
Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial
solid tumor in children and the most commonly
diagnosed malignancy in infants.
They can be primarily undifferentiated small round
cells (neuroblastoma) to tumours consisting of
mature and maturing Schwannian stroma with
ganglion cells (ganglioneuroblastoma or
ganglioneuroma).
The signs and symptoms of neuroblastoma reflect
the tumor site and extent of disease, and the
symptoms of neuroblastoma can mimic many other
disorders, a fact that can result in a delayed
diagnosis.
Metastatic disease can cause a variety of signs and
symptoms, including fever, irritability, failure to
thrive, bone pain, cytopenias, bluish subcutaneous
nodules, orbital proptosis, and periorbital
ecchymoses
IAP UG Teaching slides 2015-16 13
Approximately half of neuroblastoma tumours arise
in the adrenal glands, and most of the remainder
originate in the paraspinal sympathetic ganglia.
The most common sites of metastasis are the
regional or distant lymph nodes, long bones and skull,
bone marrow, liver, and skin. Lung and brain
metastases are rare, occurring in >3% of cases.
The usual treatment for children with low‐risk
neuroblastoma is surgery for stages 1and 2 and
observation for stage 4S with cure rates generally
>90% without further therapy.
Stage 4S neuroblastomas have a very favourable
prognosis, and many regress spontaneously without
therapy
Children with high‐risk neuroblastoma have long‐
term survival rates between 25% and 35% with
current treatment that consists of intensive
chemotherapy, high‐dose chemotherapy with
autologous stem cell rescue, surgery, radiation, and
13‐cis‐retinoic acid
Wilms tumor (WT), also known as nephroblastoma,
is the most common primary malignant renal tumor
of childhood
The most common initial clinical presentation for WT
is the incidental discovery of an asymptomatic
abdominal mass by parents while bathing or clothing
an affected child or by a physician during a routine
physical examination
Hypertension is present in approximately 25% of
tumours at presentation and has been attributed to
increased renin activity.
Abdominal pain, gross painless haematuria, and
fever are other frequent findings at diagnosis
An abdominal mass in a child should be considered
malignant until diagnostic imaging, laboratory
findings, and pathology can define its true nature
Abdominal ultrasonography helps differentiate solid
from cystic masses. WT might show focal areas of
necrosis or haemorrhage and hydronephrosis caused
by obstruction of the renal pelvis by the tumor.
Early surgery provides accurate diagnosis and staging,
and can facilitate risk‐adapted therapy.
Preoperative chemotherapy can make surgery easier
and reduces the risk of intraoperative tumor rupture
and haemorrhage.
Surgery entails a radical nephrectomy with
meticulous dissection to avoid rupture of the tumor
capsule and lymph node sampling despite the
absence of abnormal nodes on preoperative imaging
studies or intraoperative assessment.
Prognostic factors for risk‐adapted therapy include
age, stage, tumor weight, and loss of heterozygosity
at chromosomes 1p and 16q
Histology plays a major role in risk stratification of
WT.Absence of anaplasia is considered a favourable
histologic finding
Osteosarcoma is the most common primary
malignant bone tumor in children and adolescents,
followed by Ewing sarcoma
In children younger than 10 yr.. of age, Ewing
sarcoma is more common than osteosarcoma. Both
tumor types are most likely to occur in the second
decade of life.
Pain, limp, and swelling are the most common
presenting manifestations of osteosarcoma.
Because these tumours occur most often in active
adolescents, initial complaints may be attributed to a
sports injury or sprain
Any bone or joint pain not responding to
conservative therapy within a reasonable time
should be investigated thoroughly
With chemotherapy and surgery, the 5‐yr disease‐
free survival rate of patients with non metastatic
extremity osteosarcoma is 65‐75%.
Complete surgical resection of the tumor is
important for cure.
Try preoperative chemotherapy in an attempt to
facilitate limb salvage operations and to treat micro
metastatic disease immediately.
Retinoblastoma is an embryonal malignancy of the
retina and the most common intraocular tumor in
children
Knudson’s “two‐hit” model of oncogenesis, In the
hereditary form of retinoblastoma, the first mutation
in the RB1 gene is inherited through germinal cells
and a second mutation occurs subsequently in
somatic retinal cells.
Second mutations that lead to retinoblastoma often
result in the loss of the normal allele and
concomitant loss of heterozygosity
Retinoblastoma classically presents with leukocoria,
a white pupillary reflex, which often is first noticed
when a red reflex is not present at a routine new‐
born or well‐child examination or in a flash
photograph of the child.
Strabismus often is an initial presenting complaint.
• The diagnosis is established by the characteristic
ophthalmologic findings of a chalky, white‐grey
retinal mass with a soft, friable consistency
• Orbital ultrasonography, CT, or MRI is used to
evaluate the extent of intraocular disease and
extraocular spread.
MRI allows for better evaluation of optic nerve
involvement
Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous
Coats disease
Vitreous haemorrhage
Cataract
Endophthalmitis from Toxocara canis
Choroidal coloboma
Retinopathy of prematurity
Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
Most unilateral disease presents with a solitary, large
tumor. Enucleation is performed if there is no
potential for the salvage of useful vision.
With bilateral disease, chemo reduction in
combination with focal therapy (laser
photocoagulation or cryotherapy)
Most malignant tumours of the gonads in children
are GCTs.
Sacrococcygeal tumours occur predominantly in
infant girls.
Testicular GCTs occur predominantly before age 4 yr.
and after puberty
Ovarian tumours often are quite large by the time
they are diagnosed.
Extra gonadal GCTs occur in the midline, including
the suprasellar region, pineal region, neck,
mediastinum, and retroperitoneal and
sacrococcygeal areas
Symptoms relate to mass effect, but the intracranial
GCTs often present with anterior and posterior
pituitary deficits
The serum α‐fetoprotein (AFP) level is elevated with
endodermal sinus tumours and may be minimally
elevated with teratomas.
Elevation of the β subunit of human chorionic
gonadotropin, which is secreted by
Syncytiotrophoblasts, is seen with choriocarcinoma
and germinomas
Complete surgical excision of the tumor usually is
indicated, except for patients with intracranial
tumours, where the primary therapy consists of
radiation therapy and chemotherapy.
For testicular tumours, an inguinal approach is
indicated, and complete resection should include the
entire spermatic cord. When complete excision
cannot be accomplished, preoperative
chemotherapy is indicated, with second‐look surgery.
For ovarian tumours, unless the contralateral ovary
is obviously also involved by tumor, a fertility‐sparing
surgery should be performed