Slum Networking

An Innovative Approach to Urban

Development

Building and Social Housing Foundation

i
 © Building and Social Housing Foundation, 1997

Extracts from this publication may be reproduced without further permission, provided that the source is fully
acknowledged.

Written by

Diane Diacon

Published by

Building and Social Housing Foundation

Memorial Square
Coalville
Leicestershire
LE67 3TU
UNITED KINGDOM

Tel: 01530 510444

Fax: 01530 510332
Email: [email protected]
Website www.bshf.org

ISBN 0 9522278 6 X

Charity Number 270987

ii
Contents

Foreword by Rt. Hon. Baroness Chalker of Wallasey, Former Minister of Overseas v

Development, United Kingdom.

List of photographs, figures and tables vii

ix
Introduction

1. Urbanisation and slum housing in India 1

1.1 Population increase and urbanisation 1

1.2 Growth of slums 2
1.3 Slum living conditions 3
1.4 Approaches to slum improvement 5
1.5 General guidance for infrastructure provision in slums 6

2. The Slum Networking approach to urban development 9

2.1 Main features of the Slum Networking approach 9

2.2 Physical improvements in the Slum Networking approach 12
. roads and footpaths 13
. storm drainage 16
. sanitation and sewerage 17
. water supply 18
. earthworks and soft landscaping 18
. street lighting 19
. solid waste management 19
2.3 Community development 21
. social aspects 22
. economic activities / income generation 23
. education 24
. health 25
2.4 Organisation and finance 26
2.5 Long term project continuity 28

3. Slum Networking in practice 31

3.1 The Indore Habitat Project 31

. Indore City profile 31
. Information gathering 33
. Physical improvements 33
. Community development 36
. City wide impact 37
. Organisation and implementation 41
. Monitoring and management 42
. Financing and costs 42

iii
 3.2 Baroda - an example of increased community control 43
. Baroda City profile 44
. Project scope and components 45
. Implementation framework 45
. Phasing and costs 45
. Ramdevnager pilot project 49

3.3 Ahmedabad - an example of financial self sufficiency 52

. Ahmedabad City profile 52
. Project scope and components 53
. Project implementation 54
. Phasing and costs 57

4. Replication of the Slum Networking approach 59

4.1 Project or process? 59

4.2 Opportunities for further expansion 60
4.3 Role of government in encouraging replication 61
4.4 An external perspective 62

5. Reference and further information 65

5.1 Contacts in India for further information 65

5.2 Building and Social Housing Foundation 66
5.3 Participants attending the Study Visit 67
5.4 Engineering drawings 72
. Manhole details 72
. Main sewers 73
. Community hall 74
. Water supply 75
. Storm drainage 76
. Sewerage 76

iv
Foreword

It gives me great pleasure to introduce this work and are prepared to fund it themselves.

volume on Slum Networking. Successive In Ahmedabad the city's industrial enterprises

British Governments have long been concerned are also contributing to the cost of the Slum

Networking programme since they recognise

with the sustainable processes that can be
that it is in their long term commercial
adopted in the improvement of living conditions
interests for the city to eradicate slum
for the poorest and most marginalised groups
conditions.
within the cities of countries where our aid

programme is assisting the local government

The story is told of the far-reaching impact of
initiatives.
the project - health and education standards

Slum Networking is an innovative city-wide are increasing as a result of the community

approach to urban improvement that enables development programmes being carried out in

people to help each other from the experience the slum areas. In addition slum dwellers now

gained in up-grading projects. The community have much better links into the mainstream

development runs alongside the physical education and health systems, which previously

works. Much of this is also innovative and can had not been the case. The work is a tribute

be carried out at a fraction of the cost of to the Indore Development Authority, its

conventional city infrastructure development. Director Mr C M Dagaonkar and its Engineer Mr

Himanshu H Parikh, who pioneered this

In this respect the British Government grant approach to city development at the local level.

aided the first project that used the Slum

Networking approach in Indore, India - a major Although the approach does not directly fund

city in the state of Madhya Pradesh with a housing improvements, this book shows that

population of 1.4 million. It is pleasing to note there has been a dramatic improvement in the

from this account of subsequent events that quality of housing in the slum areas. This is

the approach is now being replicated in other due to the fact that once the area

cities in India - for example, Baroda and improvements have been carried out and

Ahmedabad - due to the success in Indore. services brought into the area, slum dwellers

are prepared to invest their own limited

What is interesting to observe in this context is resources, together with their time and labour,

that the Slum Networking projects described in improving their homes.

here no longer rely on grant aid for funding.

City authorities are realising the value of such After nearly eight years as Minister for

v
 Overseas Development I feel that this book is a

fitting marker in the catalogue of successes

that has shown how disadvantaged people can

achieve for themselves the much needed

improvements in their lives and how this has

been enabled through the dedicated work of

the various partners in the aid programmes in

these cities.

I thank all who have been involved.

The Rt. Hon The Baroness Chalker of Wallasey

Consultant on Development,

Former Minister of Overseas Development

British Government

vi
Photographs
1 Slum conditions prior to improvement under the Slum Networking programme 4
2 Sewage in open channels in unimproved slums 4
3 Unpaved roads and open gutters in unimproved slums 4
4 Road edges eroding in unimproved slums 15
5 Concrete roads provide all-weather access after Slum Networking 15
6 Wider access road in improved slum in Indore 15
7 Narrow road in an improved slum in Indore 15
8 Downward sloping road after improvement 16
9 Individual household toilet in an improved slum in Indore 18
10 Conventional tree guards achieve 10 per cent survival rate 20
11 Community tre guards achieve 70 per cent survival rate 20
12 Typical community hall in an improved slum in Indore 22
13 A small shop in an improved slum in Indore 23
14 A kindergarten class in a community hall in an improved slum in Indore 24
15 8 year old girl working 7 hours a day to supplement family income 24
16 Regular health checks on children under health programme 26
17 Improved access in Indore’
s slums 34
18 Multi-use of improved roadways in Indore 34
19 Slum Networking provides an improved quality of life for all 34
20 River Khan in centre of Indore prior to cleansing 40
21 River Khan in Indore after cleansing 40
22 Attractive walkways alongside clean rivers 40
23 Sewage-free rivers provide a healthy and attractive leisure facility 40
24 Mr John Major, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom visiting the slum improvement work 43
done in Indore

Figures
1 Urban and rural population levels in India for 1991 and for the year 2001 (projected) 1
2 Population growth rates in India 2
3 Association of slums and water courses 12
4 Principals of topography management 13
5 Locations of Indore, Baroda, Jodhpur and Ahmedabad 31
6 Components of Indore Habitat project 32
7 Physical survey of the Ekta Indira Nagar slum 35
8 Physical survey of Musakhedi Balai Mohalla slum 35
9 Creating road linkages through Slum Networking 38
10 Proposed and implemented river front improvement 39
11 Indore Habitat Project team 41

vii
 Tables
1 Comparative costs of piped and open storm drains 16

2 Costs of individual infrastructure components per family 27

3 Comparatative costs of networking and conventional sewerage systems 28

4 The aggregate impact of Slum Networking in Indore 36

5 Pre-primary education programme in Indore 37

6 Health progress report for Indore slums 37

7 Summary of Indore project phasing and costs 46

8 Key elements of Baroda 2000 proect 47

9 Baroda 2000 - cost estimates 48

10 Costs and contributions for the Ramdevnagar pilot project 51

11 Ahmedabad project costs and contributions 54

viii
Introduction

The World Habitat Awards were established in to the indignity of human beings living in

1985 in order to identify imaginative and subhuman conditions. Slums are seen as an

sustainable housing solutions around the world. eyesore and slum dwellers, at best, a nuisance.

The Indore Habitat Project in India won the The Slum Networking approach turns this

Award in 1993 for its pioneering work in attitude upside down. The growth of slums is

developing an innovative and successful not seen as an inevitable part of city

approach to slum improvement. This Slum development. The main obstacles to slum

Networking approach was devised and improvement are seen to be lack of will,

pioneered in the city of Indore by Mr Himanshu inappropriate priorities, inadequate institutions

H. Parikh, an eminent consulting engineer. He and unsuitable delivery mechanisms, not a lack

was also responsible for ensuring its successful of resources. The Slum Networking approach

transfer to other Indian cities and its long-term shows what can be achieved when these

sustainability by bringing communities, obstacles are removed. Rather than being a

governments, NGOs and industry together for blight upon the city, slums provide an

its implementation. opportunity to improve the city as a whole.

The approach also recognises the latent energy

This book has been produced in order to and skills of the slum dwellers and involves

encourage the replication of the Slum them in the improvement and on-going

Networking approach to slum improvement maintenance of their neighbourhoods.

that was so successfully pioneered in the

Indore Habitat Project. It describes in detail all The Slum Networking approach is a city-wide,

elements of the approach as well as providing community-based sanitation and environmental

information on how it is being implemented in improvement programme. It seeks to upgrade

the cities of Indore, Ahmedabad and Baroda. the infrastructure of an entire city using the

It includes contact points for obtaining network of slum settlements as a starting

additional information on the projects and an point. The new infrastructure provided is

independent assessment of the Slum linked to that of the existing city systems. The

Networking approach by visiting housing result is been a dramatic improvement in the

experts. city infrastructure, with a piped sanitation

system, clean rivers and a much improved road

All too often slum dwelling is accepted as an network. Moreover, it has been achieved at a

inevitable fact of life, a problem too large to be fraction of the cost of conventional approaches.

dealt with. A blind eye and deaf ear are turned

ix
 Physical improvements carried out within the In November 1995, a study visit to the Indore

project include a standard package of water Slum Networking project was organised to

supply, sanitation, roads and footpaths, drains, enable representatives of other developing

street lights and community halls. Flood countries to learn from the successful approach

control, storm drainage and environmental being implemented. All those attending the

improvement have been achieved at low cost visit derived tremendous inspiration from what

with innovative and simple engineering they saw, as well as new ideas for dealing with

methods. the problems generated by overburdened city

infrastructures. The Building and Social

Dramatic improvements are also seen in the Housing Foundation extends its most sincere

quality of slum dwellers' homes. These are not thanks to the co-sponsors of the study visit -

funded as part of the programme, but by the the Overseas Development Administration of

slum dwellers themselves. Once their the British Government, The Indore

neighbourhood has been improved they are Development Authority and the Municipality of

prepared to invest their own resources in Indore.

improving their dwelling.

The book draws heavily on documentation

The Slum Networking approach recognises that prepared by Mr Himanshu H. Parikh, initiator of

physical improvements alone are not sufficient the Slum Networking approach and project

to achieve a long-lasting impact on slum consultant. His assistance in the production of

dwellers' lives. Educational, health and this book is much appreciated, together with

livelihood programmes are included alongside that of Mr C. M. Dagaonkar, Director of the

the physical improvement programme. Health Indore Development Authority, for supplying

and literacy standards are steadily increasing the latest figures on the project impact in

and the slum dwellers are better integrated Indore.

into the state health and educational systems.

The experience in Indore and other cities

The Indore Habitat Project was supported by shows that the problems of overburdened city

the British Government with funding and infrastructures can be solved. It shows that

technological support from the Overseas creating safe, healthy and productive human

Development Administration. The success of settlements begins at the neighbourhood or

this initial project however has showed that the community level. It begins with people,

approach is widely capable of adaptation and working together with government support and

replication to meet similar needs in other cities. encouragement, to improve their own

It has since been successively adapted and environment. This book is dedicated to all

over a period of eight years has matured into a those, who by their vision, hard work and

holistic and lasting strategy that can be commitment, have brought this solution into

replicated on a mass scale. Its success is so being.

self-evident that other Indian cities are

increasingly prepared to fund the work

themselves and the reliance upon grant aid to

carry out the improvements is now minimal.

x
 Urbanisation and slum
1 housing in India

1.1 Population The population of India currently stands at 921

increase and million and at an annual simple rate of increase

urbanisation of 1.9 per cent will soon exceed that of China.

The population growth rate is much higher in

Rapid urbanisation is a feature of most
urban areas (4 per cent) than in rural areas
developing countries. In India, as elsewhere,
(1.15 per cent). This is partly due to natural
this has led to an merciless deterioration in the
population increase and partly to in-migration
quality of life. In India 28 per cent of the
from the surrounding countryside. This in-
population currently lives in urban areas, by
migration is fuelled by the attraction of the
the year 2001 this will be 30.5 per cent and in
better employment and education opportunities
thirty years time it will be 42 per cent, i.e. one
in the cities and is compounded by the
and a half times the present population. The
increasing scarcity of land and resources in the
stresses arising from this pressure are already
countryside, which push rural dwellers to the
evident in the collapsing urban infrastructure,
cities. The destination for the vast majority of
environmental degradation, the rapid growth of
these migrants are existing slum colonies,
slums and an increasing disparity between rich
where living is comparatively cheap and
and poor.
accessible.

Figure 1 Urban and rural population levels in India for 1991 and the year 2001

(projected)

Source: Eight National Plan (1992-97), Government of India and Provisional Population Census of India,1991

1
 1.2 Growth of slums growing at between 9 and 10 per cent a year,

compared to the national average for urban

Slum colonies have become an inseparable part
areas of 4 per cent as shown below. At this
of India's urban centres and in most cities with
rate the slum population will double every ten
more than a million inhabitants, over one in
years, mostly as a result of in-migration.
four people are living in such settlements.
Currently 27 per cent of the urban population
Thirty years ago such settlements were
lives in slums. In thirty years time this will
comparatively rare. Almost all of the
increase to over 60 per cent. However, in
population increase in the last decade has been
some cities the slum population is much higher.
in the slum areas and officially sanctioned
In Bombay, for example, 60 per cent of the
housing provision has been unable to cope with
population at present lives in slums and this
this rate of growth. In Delhi for instance, 4
figure is likely to increase to eighty per cent in
million people out of a total population of 10
thirty years time.
million live in slums. This increases by 40,000

new families every year, of whom the state can

Slum colonies fall into two main categories.
at best absorb 10,000 with its slum
Firstly, unauthorised settlements on public or
rehabilitation and upgrading programmes. The
private land and secondly unregulated
real crises are posed by the accelerating
settlements formed by the sub-division and
growth of Indian slums and the increasing
sale for housing of private land (although
divergence of the living standards of the rich
without reference to official planning and
and the poor. There are many extremely
building regulations). The majority of
wealthy people in India and yet whole families
development, in both cases, is initiated by
still live on Rs. 500 per month (£8.75), a sum
land-dealers who do not own the land but who
that would have been considered very low ten
reach agreements with the authorities that
years ago.
sub-divisions will be tolerated and eventually

provided with services. In the unauthorised

Population in the slum areas of Indian cities is
settlements slum dwellers have no legal right

Figure 2 Population growth rates in India

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and environmental Programme: Experiences of Indore,
Baroda and Ahmedabad

2
to occupy the land and could be evicted or Box 2 The house in the slum
have their houses demolished. If the

government legally recognises such a

The house consists of one room no bigger then three
settlement then the slum dwellers have some
by three metres. The entrance, which can hardly be
legal standing although no official claim on
called a door, is constructed of planks and palm
their plots. In the unregulated settlements the
leaves and cannot be locked. In the corner, beside
slum dwellers normally hold documents
the entrance, a small kitchen area has been created
showing they have legally purchased their
with a stove, some kitchen utilities and a couple of
plots. This means that they cannot be
vessels. Susheela replenishes her stock of fuel,
deprived of their land but their houses could
which is piled next to the stove, with some coconut
still be demolished because there was no
shells she found while waste-picking that morning.
official sanction for the development of the
The floor consists of a mixture of cowdung and mud
land.
which, when regularly daubed and dried, forms an

ideal substance. It can be swept easily and provides

protection from the damp in the rainy season.

1.3 Slum living
conditions
Besides, both cowdung and mud are free, which is

very important for families who live in these

Although slum dwellers account for 27 per cent circumstances. On the wall some pictures of her
of the population they only occupy 5 per cent favourite gods are hanging including the image of
of the urban land area. Unimproved slums are Lord Ganesh, the god of prosperity and fertility. There
characterised by overcrowding, dilapidated are no beds in the room: Susheela and her family
structures, unhygenic conditions, grossly sleep on pai ("mats made of straw") and cover
inadequate basic amenities, unplanned layouts themselves, when necessary, with some rags. These
and poor accessibility. Many colonies have are hanging next to some reserve clothes on a rope
existed in this condition for twenty years or which is stretched out in one of the corners.
more, becoming progressively more

overcrowded as time goes by. Boxes 1 and 2

below describe typical slum conditions - the

house and the slum colony of a lady named

SusheelaI living in Cement Line in Bangalore1.

Box 1 The Slum

It is a small slum which consists of two small alleys which are built up with houses packed close to each other on

either side and which have no front or back yard. From the alley, which measures no more than two metres wide, you

enter directly into the one-room houses where whole families live. On their doorsteps some women clean vessels,

clean vegetables or wash their clothes. The water they use and the leftovers from the vegetables go into a small

gutter in the middle of the alley. In this same gutter children not only play but also relieve themselves. Because of the

small size of the houses most of the activities of the slum take place in these two alleys which form what might be

termed the "heart" of the Cement Line.

3
 In India, as elsewhere, economic growth is

closely associated with the level of

urbanisation. The 28 per cent of the population

currently living in urban areas produce over 50

per cent of the national wealth. Urban areas

are thus engines of economic growth and

development and their efficient functioning is of

great importance. Urban growth is however

outstripping the capacity of the infrastructure to

support a functioning city and thus reducing the

productivity of the city. The desired aim is

therefore to harness the urbanisation process,

retaining the benefits but eradicating the

inhuman living conditions associated with it.

Every ten years the slum population of India doubles.

Unimproved slums are characterised by

overcrowding, dilapidated structures, unhygenic

conditions, grossly inadequate basic amenities,

unplanned layouts and poor accessibility. The number

of people living in slum areas of Indian cities is

growing by 9.0 per cent a year, compared tp 4.0 per

cent in urban areas and 1.9 per cent in India as a

whole.

4 3
1.4 Approaches to slum Indian government attempted to provide improved

living conditions for urban slum dwellers. Limitations

improvement
of space and funding meant that this approach could
One of the methods often used to try and limit the only deal with a small part of the problem and the new
slum explosion has been to prevent people migrating flats provided rapidly became slums in their turn, as
to the cities, using a variety of incentives and overcrowding swamped the accommodation provided.
deterrents. These have proved futile and the flood to Socially and physically slum clearances were a failure.
the city continues unabated. There has been a gradual shift over the last ten years

to upgrading and assimilation policies.

A variety of approaches have been used over time to

try and eradicate the slums. These fall broadly into There is a greater awareness in India today of the
three categories: growing problems of the urban poor and the

deterioration in urban environment and infrastructure.

a) Slum redevelopment schemes As in many other developing countries, the Indian

These involve the clearance of existing dwellings and government has not been able to meet the nation's

structures after moving the slum dwellers to an interim housing needs. In recent years it has moved from the

'camp'. Five or six storey flats are then built on the role of provider to that of enabler and has carried out

site and the people moved back. There are many enabling measures such as the improvement of urban

problems associated with this approach, including high infrastructure, the development of serviced land,

capital and maintenance costs, a high incidence of easing of administrative, financial and legal

resale by the dwellers and the destruction of a constraints on self-help housing provision and

community structure established over many years. implementation of socio-economic programmes for the

urban poor. Upgrading and assimilation of slums are

seen now as the most appropriate way of improving

b) Legalisation of unauthorised colonies
the living conditions of slum dwellers, with an
The main feature of this type of scheme is the
increasing realisation of the value of community
legalisation of the settlement. With the security of
involvement in the process.
legal tenure the dwellers themselves usually carry out

improvement works themselves at their own cost.

The urban poor are the people who know most about

urban poverty but until recently played only the

c) Slum Improvement or Upgrading
passive role of beneficiary in any slum improvement
Programmes
programme, acting as 'beneficiaries' rather than

These are primarily infrastructure providing partners in the process to improve their living

programmes, no relocation is involved and the works conditions.

are carried out with the dwellers in situ. The dwellers

are still regarded as occupiers though, even after The advantages of involving the slum communities as

improvements are complete. However, in some active participants in the improvement process, rather

cases, security of tenure is also built into the than simply as beneficiaries, are increasingly being

programmes. recognised. Indeed in 1991 the Government of India

launched a far-reaching programme of Urban Basic

Clearance of slums and rehousing the occupants in Services for the Poor (UBSP) with the aim of

new blocks of flats was the original way in which the improving the quality of life for the urban poor. This

5
 programme brought together a wide range of
1.5 General guidance
individual programmes dealing with the physical,
for infrastructure
provision in slums
social and economic aspects of poverty but with the

difference that it aims to organise these on the basis

of community involvement throughout. The All too often misguided and ineffective approaches are
programme will have more teeth due to a recent used to improve slums, with the result that much effort
change to the Constitution (74th Amendment) which and resources are wasted in providing piecemeal,
devolves decision-making power to ward-level short-term solutions that soon fail because they are
committees. Under this approach the communities poorly designed, planned and executed. The
assess their own needs, initiate development and are following guidance can be applied to all slum
active partners in the development process. Related improvement programmes not just those using the
government programmes are integrated into the slum networking methods.
programme, thus maximising the benefits that can be

achieved. Even greater benefits could be achieved if  Design infrastructure networks to ensure
the state government poverty alleviation programmes that basic services reach the entire population in an
were also incorporated. equitable manner.

Slum networking ties in very well with the UBSP  Infrastructure networks must be easy to
programme which has a similar emphasis upon an maintain, repair and upgrade.
integrated holistic approach and the role and value of

community involvement. The 8th National Plan (1992-  Avoid wasteful overlaps and uncoordinated
1997) clearly sees urbanisation and infrastructure services by using an integrated and holistic approach
deficiencies as issues of serious concern and has to design.
specific chapters devoted to Urban Development,

Housing Water Supply and Sanitation. It recognises  Ensure that the design makes provision for
the strong linkages between the physical future growth and expansion of the slum.
infrastructural environmental, social health, urban

poverty and degradation. Rs. 1,000 million (£17.5  Do not use short-term measures to save
million) was allocated to the UBSP programme. money e.g. the provision of community toilets is

wasted investment when income levels in the slum

become higher. (In any case they are rarely used or

maintained).

 Provide flexibility to enable upgrading

when the resources of the slum dwellers increase e.g.

by making provision for private toilets and house-to

house water supply, the slum dwellers are able to

invest in the option when they can afford it.

 The success of a project depends on the

information available to those designing it. Data

banks and drawing archives must be established prior

6
to design so as to ascertain need and existing and sewerage to natural gradients results in economy

provision, as well as the physical conditions of the and improved function. Simple and inexpensive

site. topography management measures such as cut and

fill, site grading and appropriate landscaping ensure

 Professionalism is needed in all aspects of that gravity based services operate efficiently. In

the work carried out, since slum upgrading is more following the principles outlined above, innovative

complex to plan and implement than conventional methods have been developed in the Slum

engineering projects. Networking approach to slum improvement.

 Consult with the slum dwellers closely in

order to obtain a better understanding of their needs

and lifestyle. This enables a clearer idea of needs to 1 Marijk Huysman, Environment and Urbanisation

be established, as well as preparing communities for Vol. 6, No , October 1994, pp 155-194

the changes to come and increasing willingness to

pay for and maintain the systems.

 Use appropriate and innovative

technologies. For example, conventional expensive

brick manholes will not work in the narrow and twisting

lanes of the slum, but small earthenware chambers

can be used instead.

 Set realistic standards and workable

specifications. For example, there is no point in

designing a water supply system for an ideal

consumption of 250 litres per capita per day, which is

unlikely ever to be achieved and which will only result

in expensive water supply systems and dry sewer

runs.

 Balance the standards adopted with

affordability.

 The costs of infrastructure systems need

to be assessed on the basis of both the capital costs

and continuing maintenance. Looking at capital costs

only can produce a deceptive picture. For example,

the cost of public latrines appears low if only the

capital cost is considered but once maintenance costs

are included a different picture emerges.

 Co-ordinating the roads, storm drainage

7
8
 The Slum Networking
2 approach to urban
development

The idea of Slum Networking was conceived and environment at large. It is not simply a physical

developed by Mr Himanshu Parikh, a consultant solution but rather a community orientated approach

engineer based in Ahmedabad. The approach was to development which incorporates a range of different

initially implemented in Indore where it was highly activities and organisations and which can work on a

successful and has since been adapted and range of scales. Slum Networking builds upon

developed in the two cities of Baroda and existing good practise both in India and other

Ahmedabad. All too often it is taken for granted that countries, incorporating other development options

the growth of slums is inevitable and the scale of the when appropriate e.g. sites and services, land banking

problem is too large to be dealt with. Mr Parikh is and slum reconstruction. It also includes

convinced that there is no need to have slums in India unconventional concepts such as topography

and that India has more than adequate resources to management, earth regradation and constructive

deal with the slums. He sees no good reason why landscaping.

India could not be a slum-free country in ten years'

time.

2.1 Main features of

Lack of will, inappropriate priorities, inadequate the Slum
institutions and inappropriate delivery mechanisms are Networking
the main impediments to improvement, not the lack of
approach
resources. The success of the Slum Networking

approach shows what can be achieved when these As a result of the Slum Networking approach being

impediments are eliminated and the slums themselves carried out in the city of Indore, the slum matrix of the

are seen as a catalyst for positive urban city has been upgraded with high quality

transformation and a resource which can be used for environmental and sanitation improvements. This has

the benefit of both slums and city. brought direct benefit to 450,000 slum dwellers and to

a further 450,000 slum people in the city who benefit

Slum Networking is an integrated upgrading of an from city-wide improvements. The associated health,

entire city using the urban net of slum settlements as education and income generation programmes have

a starting point. More importantly, this net coincides led to considerable improvements in these areas - the

with the natural water courses of a city, which also frequency of epidemics has dramatically reduced,

happens to be the most efficient urban infrastructure many slums are heading towards full literacy and

path for services like sewage, storm drainage and incomes have increased.

water supply. Slums can, therefore, be used to

economically improve the city infrastructure and

9
 The five main features of the Slum Networking primary sewerage network which serves not only the

approach are slums, but the entire city. By providing decent roads

within and on the perimeter of slum areas it becomes

possible to complete linkages within the city's road

 Holistic approach in an entire city
network. This provides a substantially better road
 Costs are reduced significantly
system at comparatively little cost and would normally
 Substantial human and material resources be inconceivable in view of the disruption, costs and
are mobilised non-availability of land.
 Community responsibility and control are

increased

 Overall quality of life is improved with a  Costs are reduced significantly

range of physical, educational, health and
Working at the larger scale enables solutions which
income generation improvements
are uneconomic at the local level to become

economic. For example, a study in Indore showed

that the cost of underground sewerage and

centralised treatment under the Slum Networking

approach was Rs. 1,500 (£26) per slum family for the
 Holistic approach in an entire
on-site provisions and Rs. 1,000 (£18) for the off-site
city
collection and treatment. This total cost of Rs. 2,500

Slum Networking is an holistic approach to urban (£44) is the same as that of a shared UNDP twin pit

improvement in which the slums are seen as an latrine but the advantages are considerably greater,

integral part of the city. Due to their contiguity and i.e. all families have individual facilities and a much

location on the water courses of the city the slums cleaner living environment is created. The grey

form a network which present an opportunity for waters from kitchens and bathrooms are also dealt

change, rather than a problem for the city. with, unlike the UNDP toilets approach.

The approach does not aim to find solutions The piped sewerage system can also be extended to

exclusively for the slum areas of a city but rather to dwellings in the non-slum areas of the city at only the

integrate the slums and the wealthier areas of the city cost of connection, thus bringing city-wide

and provide a better infrastructure and quality of life improvements at marginal cost. Since there is very

for both. The new infrastructure provided in the little existing infrastructure in the slum areas it is

individual slums is linked to that of other slums and to possible to install a range of services without having

the existing city systems in order to bring about to repeatedly dig up roads. Duplication is avoided and

significant improvements to the city as a whole. This a comprehensive linking of the infrastructure can be

creates the opportunity for improvements to be carried planned and carried out. When extended to the entire

out which would have been impossible otherwise. For city, the compound savings are substantial.

example, it would not be possible to clean a city's

rivers unless the discharge from hundreds of gutters in Slums typically cover only 5 per cent of the land area

the slum areas was first sewered in closed pipes. of a city, although they house 27 per cent of its

Until 1991 Indore, like 80 per cent of cities in India, population. It is thus possible to have a massive

had no underground sewerage to speak of. As a by- impact on the city and its infrastructure by working

product of Slum Networking the city now has a only in these very small areas. Concentrating

10
resources in these neediest areas is thus very cost

effective. NGOs play an important part in motivating the

communities involved, mobilising resources from the

slum dwellers and co-ordinating the inputs from the

 Substantial human and material local government and local business with the activities

of the slum dwellers. Health, educational and income

resources are mobilised
generation programmes are developed using the
Resources come into play under the Slum Networking same mechanisms for community interaction.
approach which could not normally be tapped. These

are from the private sector who are willing to pay for

an improved city infrastructure and living environment,

and from the slum dwellers themselves. The  Overall quality of life is improved
resources which the poor can marshal are greatly with a range of physical, educa-
underestimated and experience has shown that once tional, health and income
families feel they have security (not necessarily title to generation improvements
the land) and believe that their locality is going to

improve over time, they will invest large sums in The use of innovative physical upgrading methods
housing and services. The money is generally raised means that the perennial problems of flooding and
by the sale of land or other property in their village,
waterlogging in the slums can be eradicated, as can
sale of jewellery, borrowing from friends or family or
the need for open drains and filthy communal toilet
even from money lenders. It is not uncommon for
blocks. Roads and paths are passable in all seasons.
families to spend up to Rs. 10,000 (£175) on

improving their homes. Physical upgrading cannot of itself improve the overall

quality of life in any sustainable manner unless the

Once the upper income groups realise that the economic, social, educational and health conditions of

benefits of slum upgrading has a positive impact on the people also change. Although the value of

their own lifestyle, there is greater willingness to community development programmes alongside the

cross-subsidise the improvement work in the poorer physical work is recognised, it rarely happens in

parts of their city. practice due to lack of co-ordinating mechanisms. In

Slum Networking this problem is avoided since the

community is actively involved in the planning and

carrying out of the physical improvements.

 Community responsibility and
control are increased
The slum dwellers make a valuable contribution to
Strong community groups are needed for this urban productivity and yet suffer the greatest
approach to succeed, since it can only work with the deprivation. Slum Networking automatically gives a
active co-operation and participation of the slum high priority to meeting their needs.
dwellers. Direct involvement in the development

process increases the public willingness to look after The logistics of the Slum Networking approach are
and sustain the assets created, thus avoiding the lack detailed below, both for physical improvements and
of aftercare which has proved to be one of the major the community development aspects. The
stumbling blocks to slum improvement programmes in organisational and financial aspects are also
the past. described, together with the need for long-term

11
 continuity. open gutters make access difficult, particularly when it

rains. Water supply is inadequate and often

contaminated and poor sanitation facilities lead to the

2.2 Physical improve- use of streets for defecation. Even in government

improved slums conditions are far from satisfactory

ments in the Slum since work is often carried out in an unplanned and

Networking shoddy manner. Interviews with slum dwellers show

repeatedly that their priorities are adequate water

approach supply, better sanitation, storm drainage and paved

access to their home.

Most slums have little or no physical infrastructure.

Roads, water supply, sanitation, storm drainage, solid

Figure 3 clearly shows the strong association between
waste disposal, streetlighting, pavings and
slums and the water courses of the city. These water
landscaping are rarely present. The lack of
courses are known as "nallas" and are either man-
infrastructure causes severe environmental and
made (open drains, large storm drains) or natural.
sanitation problems for the slum dwellers. Many
The nallas form the natural disposal system of the city
slums have developed on low lying land and flood in
and slums are thus situated on the best gravity paths
the monsoon season. Pools of stagnant water provide
nature can provide. By using this natural
breeding sites for mosquitoes and flies. Not
infrastructure the need for expensive technology, e.g.
surprisingly slums become the centres for epidemics
pumping stations, is considerably reduced.
of cholera, typhoid and malaria. Unpaved roads and

Figure 3 Association of slums and water courses

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and environmental Programme: Experiences of Indore,
Baroda and Ahmedabad H.H. Parikh, 1995

12
 levels of service with individual toilets, but at this stage

Site topography plays a crucial role in the gravity- it is not easy to change from one system to another

based services and it is cheaper and easier if roads, and the original investment is wasted.

storm drainage and sewerage are co-ordinated

wherever possible. Grading, landscaping, cut and fill A comprehensive range of physical improvements are

are inexpensive and effective measures for included in the Slum Networking approach and these

topography management and most importantly, ones include improved roads and footpaths, storm drainage,

in which the community can participate directly. sanitation and sewerage, water supply, streetlighting.

earthworks and soft landscaping and solid waste

Short term solutions which are not amenable to management.

change are avoided in the Slum Networking approach.

In many other slum upgrading projects cosmetic a) Roads and footpaths

measures such as community toilets, public
Common problems associated with conventional road
standposts, open gutters and cheap paving have been
building practices are, firstly, that roads tend to follow
installed. Lack of maintenance and poor durability
the lie of the land, allowing water to pool in hollows
mean that these slums rapidly deteriorate to their
and secondly, that roads are slightly raised above
original condition. There is rarely any improvement in
ground level which results in water running off the
the health of the slum dwellers since the problems of
road to the margins. Contrary to common engineering
water ponding, water contamination and dealing with
practise, the roads in the Slum Networking approach
excreta have not been dealt with. Nor do short term
are placed in a slight excavation wherever possible,
solutions lend themselves to change. As the slums
with positive downward slopes from high points to
mature and income levels rise people aspire to higher
drainage courses. This is illustrated in Figure 4 and

Figure 4 Principles of topography management

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and environmental Programme: Experiences of Indore,
Baroda and Ahmedabad H.H. Parikh, 1995

13
 to raising the roads with their associated high
• During periods of light rainfall the underground
maintenance requirements.
drains take the storm water but when there are

periods of intensive rain, the road itself

Wherever possible, stone, brick or concrete roads
supplements the drains. Fewer storm drains are have been used rather than asphalt. Experience has
thus needed and smaller pipe sizes can be used shown that concrete roads are cheaper, easier to
since the road sections attenuate the rain peaks. clean and more durable than asphalt ones and the

• By lowering the road, water drains onto the road

technology is such that local people are able to take

part in the construction process. Expensive

from paths rather than from the raised roads into
reinforcement can be avoided by providing movement
people's homes. This ensures that the slum
joints. These roads become extensions of the house
dwellers do not have to live in permanently damp
and people use them for sleeping at night.
conditions throughout the monsoon season.

• Sufficient fill is generated by the excavation to infill

The main circulation roads give the long-term

structure to the settlement and these are designed to

other low-lying areas to avoid pooling and
the appropriate lifespan and usage. They have the
flooding.
minimum widths necessary for access by emergency
• Savings can be made when the roads are in vehicles. All internal roads are made as narrow as

excavation since sub-base thickness can be possible. Kerbs are provided for all roads to prevent

reduced, as can the depths of storm drains, sewer them crumbling at the edges and to give a longer life.

runs and manholes. The margins are graded and planted rather than

paved. Their layout is informal in keeping with the

• The expense of road filling, which can be as much
organic growth of the slum and they are designed for
as 25 per cent of the cost, can be avoided. a longer lifespan than the main roads, since they are

less likely to be frequently upgraded by the authorities.

has the following advantages: --

Since roads and nallas both slope positively it makes

sense to lay the gravity-based sewerage system along

It is commonly believed that rain running along a road the roads. Roads and sewers within the individual
surface damages it. This is not the case. The real slums can therefore be inter-tuned, saving both
damage is caused by water permanently ponding on money and time and increasing efficiency. Main
the road surface or margins, which eventually sewer linkages between the individual slums follow
undermines the sub-base of the road, resulting in the lines of the river banks and the other natural
eroding edges. 25 per cent of road building costs go

14
 Conventional building methods of raising roads result
in rapidly eroding edges as heavy rainfall washes
away the sub-base. 50 per cent of all conventional
road building goes to raising the roads and
maintaining them.

5
In the Slum Networking approach, roads are built in a slight
excavation sloping down gently towards the drainage course. Kerbs
are provided to prevent crumbling and in periods of heavy rain the
roads itself acts as a drain and suffers no deterioration as a result.
Costs are significantly reduced and water no longer drains into
4
people’ s homes.

The majority of in-slum roads are only used by bicycles,

rickshaws and pedestrians and these internal roads are
made as narrow as possible. The main circulation roads
are desighned to have the minimum widths necessary for
access by emergency vehicles.

Wherever possible, stone brick or concrete roads have been used

rather thn asphalt. Experiance has shown that concrete roads are
cheaper to build, easier to clean and more durable than asphalt ones
and the technology ois such that the local people are able to take part
in hte construction process.

7
 Roads Have positively downward
slopes from high poinrts to drainage
courses and are thus able to act as
storm water channels and attenuate
the rain peaks.

b) Storm drainage
During the monsoon season the open drains typically

provided in slums invariably fail as they soon become 100m less for piped drains, the length required is also
blocked by waste and sewage. Roads laid in substantially reduced since the roads themselves take
excavation with positive downward slopes are able to over part of the function.
carry storm water and need to be supplemented by

piped drains only when the loads increase. The cost

of such a system is much lower than the open

masonry storm drains normally provided, which are

expensive and insanitary. (See Table 1). It is also

hydraulically more efficient. Not only is the cost per

Table 1 Comparative cost of piped and open storm drains

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and environmental Programme: Experiences of Indore,
Baroda and Ahmedabad H.H. Parikh, 1995

16
c) Sanitation and sewerage stages, when there are fewer connections, the

minimum cleansing velocity is maintained and

Various options are available for sewerage
yet there is sufficient capacity in the system for
provision and of these piped sewerage is the
maximum flows. Computers are used to make
most acceptable due to hygiene, preference for
the calculations required to generate optimum
use, maintenance costs and durability. Piped
solutions vis-à-vis pipe diameters and the
sewerage was cost effective in Indore because
necessary slopes required in each individual
the slums are close together and do not require
settlement.
long lengths of additional pipes to connect to

the main sewers. By linking sewage lines in

Careful design meant that pumping was
the slums a mains network for the entire city
avoided and expensive items such as drop
could be developed, where previously there
manholes and vent shafts could also be
had been none.
omitted. Inspection chambers (which account

for 30 per cent of sewerage cost) were

Sewage lines in cities conventionally run
replaced with small intercepting gully traps
separate from nallas and often run along the
which were small enough to be placed at the
main roads. These lines need to be on a slope
doorstep or even inside the homes. Unlike
and therefore deeper and deeper trenches need
inspection chambers, gully traps ensure that
to be dug at great expense until a pumping
any abuse of the sewerage system by
station becomes necessary. By placing
individual households results in blockages at
underground sewage lines along nallas/rivers
their own doorsteps, instead of passing the
the natural gradients serve to dramatically
problem onto the main sewerage lines.
reduce the cost of an underground system.
Maintenance of these gully traps is the

responsibility of the individual families.

Piped sewerage carries both sewage and foul

water in order to achieve better flows. All

An innovative system of treating sewage is also
families are encouraged to take individual
beginning to be used as well as the more
water connections so that most of the water
conventional treatments. Reed beds have
supplied returns to the sewer lines. Realistic
proved themselves to be efficient cleansing
design standards need to be used. Water
systems for waste water. Waste is piped to
consumption of 135-250 litres per capita per
clay or plastic-lined pits to prevent pollution of
day (lpcd) is assumed for urban sewerage
ground water. These pits are filled with sand
systems but surveys carried out in the Indore
or gravel and are planted with the indigenous
slums showed this to be only 40-60 lpcd.
plant Phragmites Australis. The roots of this
When designing a system possible future
reed break down the sewage and convert it
increases in water consumption, due either to
into water. None of the waste enters the food
population increase or to improvements in the
chain. This root-zone method requires one
water supply (the city of Indore as a whole
square metre per person (150 ha. for Indore),
experiences a water shortage) need to be
which means that sewage can be treated
considered.
locally rather than being pumped long

distances. Initially, root-zone treatment was

The piped sewerage system in Indore is
actively considered for Indore slums. However,
designed in such a way that in the early

17
 available to help slum dwellers pay the small

connection charge and also to carry out the

construction of the toilet.

d) Water supply
Where there is a reasonable water supply in

the slum area it is preferable to selectively

repair or upgrade the existing system rather

than totally replace it. New supply needs to be

installed in those areas with no previous

supply. Existing hand pumps and wells should

be integrated into the system wherever

possible. By incorporating existing facilities it

is possible for an adequate water supply to be

provided at a cost of Rs. 450 (£10) per

household instead of Rs. 1,000 (£18). The

supply is to individual households rather than

community standposts and households pay a

17
small charge to be connected to the supply.
Each dwelling is provided with an individual connection to

the piped sewerage system and space to build its own toilet.
For new networks design needs to balance the
Low interest loans are available for households to do so and
terminal pressures, reservoir heights and pipe
the resulting toilets are kept in pristine condition. Having an
diameters. To achieve a more even distribution
individual toilet is increasingly a feature on the list of
of water pressure looped networks are used in
marriage requirements for slum families.
preference to branches and by integrating the

slum supply into that of the rest of city some

for administrative reasons, the idea was branches can be turned into loops, thus helping

dropped. The slum sewage treatment was to equalise water pressure throughout the city
eventually absorbed in the city level facilities and bring city-wide improvement.

planned under a newly launched National River

Action Plan by the government.

e) Earthworks and soft landscaping

A piped sewerage system enables households
These are important elements of the Slum
to have individual toilets. For the last forty
Networking process. Landscaping is used as an
years the standard sanitation solution in slums
engineering tool as well as helping provide a
has been to build communal toilets, with the
more attractive environment. After the roads
result that a lot of money is spent to provide a
have been lowered the excavated material is
filthy and inadequate service. The justification
used to fill up low lying areas and regrade the
for this is that slum densities are too high to
slopes in order to drain water towards the
find space for individual toilets but this has
roads and storm drains instead of ponding on
been shown not to be the case. Loans are
site. (See Figure 4 on page 19). By grassing

18
these areas clean and firm surfaces are f) Street lighting
provided at a fraction of the cost of hard
A provision is made within the programme to
paving. A grassed surface is also more
provide street lighting, if it does not already
efficient at absorbing water and reducing its
exist within the slums and to repair any
speed of flow. It also helps prevent soil
existing provision. The main problem in many
washing into the drainage system and reduces
slums is that the lines are overhead and it
the likelihood of blockages.
would be better from the point of view of

safety, as well as aesthetics, if they could be

The cost of roads and pavings are a major cost
underground. Although the maintenance of an
in slum improvement and the selective use of
underground system is cheaper it involves high
earth management and grassing very
initial capital outlays and resources have not
significantly reduces that cost. The community,
been available within any project to date to put
with guidance, can undertake this landscaping
the lines underground.
work itself. Care needs to be taken in the

selection of the species of grass planted. As

well as being suited to the local soil conditions

g) Solid waste management
it needs to be hardy, maintenance free, quick
The management of solid waste in slum areas
growing, not require a lot of watering and be
is crucial in creating a better living
unpalatable to livestock.
environment as well as providing basic

hygiene. The problem of dealing with solid

Planting of trees and shrubs can also improve
waste occurs widely in India and the problem is
the microclimate of the slums. Trees cool the
exacerbated where there are open drains.
streets in summer as well as reducing the
Solid waste management is a crucial urban
amount of dust in the air. Flowering trees and
service but often neglected, both by municipal
plants add beauty and those that yield fruits
authorities and by residents. Waste collects in
help to supplement the daily food needs of the
side lanes or gets dumped in sewer manholes
families. The slum families are encouraged to
and storm drain chambers.
plant and care for the trees outside their

homes. Rather than providing conventional

This element of the Slum Networking approach
tree guards at a cost of Rs. 1,200 (£21)
is the one that has been least successful to
families are paid to plant and care for the
date. Insufficient resources have been
trees. They are paid Rs. 50 (£0.88) when the
allocated to it and simply providing dustbins
tree is planted and Rs. 100 (£1.75) at the end
has not been adequate. An educational
of each of the first two years. After two years
programme amongst slum dwellers to separate
the tree is strong enough to fend for itself.
and collect rubbish and to convince them of the
The total cost of upkeep is thus only Rs. 250
health hazards of solid waste has not been
(£4.39) and the money is retained within the
very successful, and is made worse by the lack
slum community. Families provide their own
of municipal support in collecting the rubbish
makeshift, but effective, treeguards and a
from collecting points as agreed.
much higher survival rate is achieved for the
Possible future action will include allocating
trees.
larger sums to waste disposal, introducing

innovative technologies for recycling the waste

19
 or using it for energy production. Waste pickers and

municipal sweepers should be incorporated into the

waste disposal programme and every opportunity 10

taken to see solid waste as a potential resource

instead of treating it as a nuisance.

11

Rather than providing conventional tree guards at a

cost of Rs.1,200 (£21.05), families are asked to take

responsibility for the upkeep of a tree outside their

dwelling. They are paid Rs.50 when the tree is planted

and Rs.100 at the end of each of the first two years.

The total cost of upkeep is thus only Rs.250 ($4.38)

and a survival rate of over 70 per cent is achieved,

compared to only 10 per cent for the more expensive

municipal tree guards.

20
2.3 Community landscaping and earthworks, most of the

development construction work in Indore was carried out by

contractors, albeit employing the slum

Physical improvements by themselves cannot dwellers. In Ahmedabad and Baroda the slum
improve the overall quality of life for slum dwellers themselves have played an active part
dwellers, unless their economic, social, in construction as well. They also manage cost
educational and health conditions change also. recoveries on a house to house basis, thus
Although the concept of community relieving the funding institutions of this
development is often included in slum burdensome responsibility. Experience has
improvement schemes the two rarely keep in shown that women play a more mature role in
step for want of co-ordinating mechanisms. reaching consensus and resolving differences
Under the Slum Networking approach such which arise in the community. They also show
integration is assured because the approach a greater degree of responsibility in managing
demands the active participation of the money and making repayments. Special care
community. Community development is a is therefore taken to encourage the majority
crucial aspect of the total programme since this representation of women in Neighbourhood
gives the urban poor the self-confidence and Committees, both in terms of numbers and
the ability to plan and manage their own positions.
development.

Building the community hall is the first

When work in a new slum commences a construction work that is done in every slum.
baseline survey is carried out by the This is then used as a focus to develop
community development team. This identifies community involvement in the project. Initially
the number of houses, the number of people the community halls are used as offices by the
living there, income levels, health and project staff for disseminating information and
education facilities etc. and helps to establish consulting the communities on the proposed
rapport with the people and identify their developments. Eventually the ownership is
needs. Meetings are held with small groups to transferred to the Neighbourhood Committee
explain the project objectives and to identify who are then responsible for its running and
Resident Community Volunteers (RCVs). There maintenance. The halls are designed on sound
is one RCV per twenty families approximately, architectural principles of function, form,
they are the spokesperson of this group of economy and suitability to the community
families and are the backbone of all community characteristics. They are designed in
development activities. The RCVs are consultation with the slum dwellers and
organised into Neighbourhood Committees. comprise a square main hall with a pyramid

roof, to which smaller rooms are attached on

These Neighbourhood Committees are involved four sides. Ancillary facilities of WC and
in the planning and implementation of the washbasin, staircases, stores and offices are
project and form the link between the also incorporated. Internal layouts are kept
implementing agency and the slum dwellers. flexible to accommodate future changes of use.
These groups are also involved in the Variations of the basic modules allow a
maintenance of the project. Except for community to opt for the size and cost of

21
 Community halls are provided in
each in each slum as a focus for
community activity. Health clinics,
pre-school and non-formal
education take place here
regularly, as well as community
meetings.

12

facilities that best meet their needs. development work in a slum. These are:

In Slum Networking much of the community

development work is focused on women and a) Social aspects

girls. This is done deliberately in order to try
The social inputs into the project include
and stem the carryover of the disadvantages
 Setting up a Neighbourhood
from one generation to the next. The female
Committee in each settlement.
literacy rate is strongly correlated with a

number of development indicators such as  Setting up youth clubs and womens'

infant mortality rate, birth rate, family income. co-operatives.

Many of the Slum Networking activities are

 Building community halls.
designed to help empower women and the
 Arranging for social activities at the
majority representation of women is required
community halls.
on all projects and groups, both in terms of
 Encouraging the groups to arrange
numbers and the positions held. It is the
competitions and functions both
women and girls in a slum community who

have closest contact with the degradation and within their own area and also with

hardships of slum life. The women are more the neighbouring settlements.

highly motivated to initiate development, not

 Holding regular awareness
only to improve their daily lives but, more
programmes on various issues such
importantly for them, to improve the lot of
as environment, solid waste
their children.
management, use and maintenance
There are five main elements of the community
of infrastructure.

 Social aspects  Starting physical education centres.

 Economic activities/ income generation

 Educational

 Health

 Training

22
 Four training and production workshops are
b) Economic activities/income
built, two in the first year of the project and
generation two in the second. They are given financial

Providing opportunities to increase incomes is support throughout the project period and it is

crucial if slum dwellers are to improve their expected that they will be self-financing after

standard of living. A range of ways to do so that. Two of the centres provide short courses

have been established and these include (one to three months) in skills for which there

is strong local demand. The other two centres

 Setting up workshops for developing each provide one year's training for about fifty

vocational and entrepreneurial skills and trainees. This training is up to technical

providing counselling for the aspiring institute standards but for trainees who have

entrepreneurs to register, set up and run their only had eight rather than ten years of

own industries or business. education.

 Establishing community based cottage Training is given at the community halls to

industries, especially for housewives and women for developing the necessary skills for

creating linkages with local industries and small income generation projects, either

markets. working at home or in small groups. Help is

given in setting up co-operatives to obtain

 Setting up revolving funds for giving short materials and market the finished products.

term loans for raw materials, machinery and

establishment. One revolving fund is set up in each slum. The

fund amounts to Rs. 10,000 (£175) per 450

 Providing technical education scholarships to families. Individual families are able to draw

promising students in slums. an interest free loan up to a maximum of Rs.

1,000 (£17.50) each. These loans are

13 repayable by weekly or monthly instalments

over a maximum period of one year and

priority is given to those who have completed a

training course. Loans are for purchasing stock

Running a small shop is
or equipment to start small-scale businesses.
one of the many ways in
A student sponsorship programme is also
which slum families earn
established to help improve the employment
an income. Th eshop is
opportunities for young people. This provides
located next to the
technical scholarships for 100 young people
family’s house and sells
from the slum every year (up to a maximum of
a range of fresh and
Rs. 1,200 (£21) to attend technical training
prepared foods. Its
institutes.
custom is drawn from

the other slum

neighbourhood. In the

larger slum

neighbourhoods there

are many such shops

23
 c) Education
Educational support has been included in the
Pre-school education is provided for children aged 3-5 in slums. This helps to give the children
programme for three specific areas only and is confidence to join in the State primary and secondary education system.
14
designed to encourage better linkages between

the slum dwellers and the mainstream education

system. These are

 Pre-primary education

This is provided in order to help families

understand the importance of education for their

children and to provide facilities for about 60 per

cent of the children in the slum in the 3-5 age

group to attend a half-day nursery school. The

confidence gained makes it easier for the children

to attend the state primary and secondary

education system which brings them into contact

with non-slum children and helps them become

part of mainstream urban community life. One

kindergarten is established in each slum and it

caters for a maximum of 50 children and is held in

the community hall. Financial support is provided

for three years after which time funding is taken

Non-formal education classes are provided in the evenings for those children who do not attend
over by state or private agencies.
the normal day school. one of the main reasons for non-attendance is to assist the family in
earning money. This eight year old girl works seven hours a day making 2 Kg of incense sticks,
 Non-formal education which will earn the family Rs. 10
15

This is provided to give back-up coaching to help

slum children keep up with those in their classes

from more privileged backgrounds and also

provides help for those who have abandoned

school under the pressure to supplement family

income. These classes also take place in the

community halls. Funding is available for three

years and pays honoraria to teachers, contingency

sums and one-off purchases of equipment.

 Adult education

This is aimed at improving adult literacy levels in

the 15-35 age group, especially women (73 per

cent of working women are illiterate). One centre

is to be provided in each slum in the community

24
hall. The programme is run by the
 Distributing folic acid, iron and
communities themselves with the help of the
deworming tablets.
kindergarten teachers, generating volunteers,
 Distributing vitamin A tablets for children
planning activities and monitoring progress.

Volunteers receive basic training. Funding by aged under 5.

the project is for three years after which it is  Conducting nutrition education classes.

absorbed into regular government programmes  Undertaking immunisation programmes.

for adult literacy.  Training community health workers from

within the slums for day-today support

and regular monitoring.

d) Health  Training mothers in the use of oral

The health programme of the project is closely rehydration solution.

linked to the existing medical provision.

 Family planning
Training of both management and field staff is
 Conducting workshops and distributing
undertaken by state bodies. The programme
information on alternative methods of
aims to create awareness, give training and
family planning and birth spacing.
provide the basic infrastructure for

 Counselling individual families and

 mother and child care distributing appropriate contraceptives as
 family planning necessary.
 disease detection and cure
 Encouraging permanent methods of birth
 better health statistics
control when families are complete

(strictly no coercion).
Community based workers provide these

services in the slum communities. These  Disease detection and cure

workers are Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (one per  Upgrading the three existing dispensaries

1000 households), Community Health Workers in the slums and attaching an additional

(one per 200 households) and dais, the medical officer to each for routine health

traditional birth attendants. Existing curative checks and for treatment of minor

services such as dispensaries are also ailments.

upgraded to support their activities. Auxiliary  Providing minor treatment and dispensing

Nurse Midwives are based in the community essential drugs with the help of auxiliary

hall and the management staff are provided nurse midwives and community health

with mopeds. The project funds the inputs for workers.

three years in each slum. Detailed tasks for

 Establishing linkages with local hospitals
the individual components are as follows
and developing systems for speedy
 Mother and child care referral of major ailments.
Training traditional birth attendants and
 Health monitoring
auxiliary nurse midwives for childbirth and also
 Maintaining records and monitoring progress
for pre/post-natal care
are crucial elements of any effective health

25
 programme. A database is maintained bringing valuable contacts and sharing of

enabling progress to be monitored. Monthly experience between individual slums.

statistics are recorded on infant mortality,

immunisation, family planning usage, The role of the state is limited to that of

frequency and nature of illness, child weights enabling and facilitating. For example, by

etc. These statistics are collected by the removing the legal impediments to land

community health workers, the auxiliary nurse development and the rental sector, making

midwives and the field medical officers. serviced land available and carrying out

maintenance of infrastructure systems where

relevant.

2.4 Organisation and

The success of any project depends on the

finance database available. All Slum Networking

projects are proceeded by a thorough

surveying of the site to establish

From the point of view of organisation, the
comprehensive data banks and drawing
Slum Networking approach starts with a single
archives. The slum dwellers are also consulted
slum and works outwards, gradually including
to identify their needs and views. This is
more and more individual slums in the 16

programme. Thus, although the final outcome

is development on a massive scale, it has all

been completed at the neighbourhood level and

there has been no chance of it becoming

"inappropriate". The programme is developed

and implemented at the city level by a

specialist team working within the City

Development Authority, although the detailed

arrangements will vary from city to city. The

organisational structures for the three cities of

Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad are set out in

Chapter 3.

The basic organisational unit is the elected

Neighbourhood Committee. These Committees

are registered as co-operative societies or non-

trading associations. They are the key element

of social and community development. They

handle money matters and represent the slum

Regular health checks are made on all slum children
dwellers' interests when dealing with by Community Health Workers. Nutrition classes,
developers and local government. Each slum immunisation programmes and distribution of vitamin
and mineral supplements have helped to bring about
has its own Committee and an organisational
a dramatic improvement in the health of children
network is gradually built up from these. growing up in slums.
Experience is shared between Committees

26
particularly important in view of the wide Rs. 4,200 (£74) per family. This includes the

disparity in lifestyle of the professional and the provision of a high quality environmental and

slum dweller. sanitation programme, the main components of

The slum dwellers themselves play a major role which are set out below in Table 2. The British

in the development of their habitat. They are Overseas Development Administration financed

co-financiers and therefore clients rather than the first Slum Networking project in Indore to

beneficiaries. In Indore the financial the tune of Rs. 417 million (£7,315,900). In

contribution of slum families was small and view of the success of the programme, many

often 'in kind'. In Ahmedabad and Baroda, slums which were previously upgraded under a

slum dwellers are equal co-financiers. As such more conventional World Bank programme, and

they have the right to be consulted on any which had subsequently degenerated, were

works and find their own contractors. The also taken up. With these additional works,

Municipal Corporation may put in a bid to do the cost of the project eventually increased to

the work but the final decision rests with the Rs. 600 million (£10.5 million). Subsequent

slum dwellers. projects in Baroda and Ahmedabad have not

relied on overseas grant aid and in Ahmedabad

The Slum Networking programme covers the the city has not required any grant aid at all

costs of the provision and improvement of the and details of the funding is set out in Chapter

physical infrastructure and the community 3.

development activities for a limited period. It The slum dwellers pay for and build their own

does not cover the cost of individual water and toilets and pay for their own connections to

sewerage connections for the slum dwellers, water and sewerage services. All

nor for the building of individual toilets and any improvements done to the dwellings are done

upgrading of the dwellings within the slum. by the slum dwellers themselves - the Slum

Networking approach provides only

The infrastructure costs per family of the Slum infrastructure, there is no element of housing

Networking approach have been calculated at improvement at all included in the programme.

Table 2 Cost of individual infrastructure components per family

Source: Indore Habitat Project, World Habitat Award, Final Submission 1993

27
Table 3 Comparitive costs of networking and conventional sewerage systems

It

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-Based Sanitation and Environmental Programme:

Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H. H. Parikh, 1995

the Slum Networking approach to ensure that

has been shown time and again that the slum
the project is fully understood by the project
dwellers are willing and able to muster large
teams as well as by the members of the
amounts of money to improve their living
community. Unless this training is carried out
conditions - far more than any state
the initial success of the programme would not
government could possibly afford to pay.
be maintained. The training is given to the
Dwellers invest anything from Rs. 10,000-
project staff, community organisers and
80,000 (£175 - £1,404) in their houses at one
volunteers and is an on-going process. The
go. Aid agencies are required only to act as
main aspects covered are
financial guarantors.
 Training to the trainers.

 Basic training to project officers, community

2.5 Long term project organisers and volunteers.

continuity  Refresher courses to review progress and

exchange experiences.

Long term continuity is vital in any  Monitoring workshops to review progress

development programme. Unless due care is and prepare reports.

given to this aspect of the project, the benefits  Interdisciplinary team training (engineers,
will be only fleeting. There are two key architects, planners, health and community
elements in ensuring continuity. Firstly, development staff).
ensuring that project personnel are adequately

trained and second ensuring that structures are Long term continuity and maintenance of the

in place to help maintain the physical and assets created is crucial and great care needs

social/community assets created during the to be taken to ensure this continuity. Involving

project. local institutions and organisations from the

very beginning in the project is crucial, since

An intensive training programme is built into often it is they who will be taking on
responsibility, in conjunction with the
Further reading
community, for the assets created.

L. Nicholson Slum Networking - An Alternative

Approach to Urban Development, Open
The following guidelines have been produced House International, Vol. 20 No. 2, 1995, pp
29-38

 Sensitise individuals and institutions on the K. Taylor and A. Cotton Urban Upgrading -
Options and Procedures for Pakistan, WEDC,
importance of post project maintenance of
Loughborough 1994
assets created.

 Fix institutional roles and responsibility for H. Parikh Environmental-based Problems in

UBSP Slums, Ahmedabad, 1994
post project assets.

 Organise community support to continue H. Parikh Slum Networking - A Community-

based Sanitation and Environmental
into the future. Programme - Experiences of Indore, Baroda
and Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, 1995
 Make financial provision, as well as

infrastructure and equipment needed. VIKAS Partners in Development - The Urban

Poor of Ahmedabad, Environment and
 Train personnel in post project Urbanisation, Vol. 8 No. 1, April 1996, pp 223-
233
maintenance.

 Plan for the legal transfer of assets to the Marijk Huysman Waste-picking as a survival
strategy for women in Indian cities,
agencies responsible for their maintenance.
Environment and Urbanisation, Vol.6, No.2,
October 1994, pp157-176
 Ensure proper co-ordination and integration

between the project staff and agencies

C. Furedy Garbage: Exploring Non-
responsible for their future maintenance. conventional Options in Asian Cities,
Environment and Urbanisation, Vol. 4 No. 2,
October 1992, pp 42-61

 Strengthen the neighbourhood committees

D. Diacon Indore Habitat Project in World
and involve them in post project
Habitat Awards 1990-1994, Building and Social
maintenance. Housing Foundation, Coalville, 1996

M. Slingsby Indore Habitat Improvement

 Identify NGOs prepared to be involved. Project - An Integrated Approach. Shelter-
Special Issue. World Habitat Day, October
 Helping interested project staff involved in 1994, HUDCO Publication, pp.37-40.

community development to retain a role in

the community.
1 Comparative Study in Indore

29
30
 Slum Networking in
3 Practice

Slum Networking was successfully pioneered in

3.1 The Indore Habitat
the Indore Habitat Project in the city of Indore
Project
and is currently being implemented in the two

Indian cities of Baroda and Ahmedabad. The a) Indore city profile

location of the three cities can be seen in Indore is located midway between Delhi and
Figure 5 below. Just recently, the city of Bombay and lies at 550 metres on the fertile
Jodhpur has taken up Slum Networking, and Malwa plateau. It is an important textile
approaches have been received from the cities manufacturing town of India and also has a
of Bombay and Delhi to try the concept on a sizeable engineering industry. Its central
pilot basis. The project in Indore was launched location makes it an important marketing and
in March 1989 by the Indore Development distribution centre for the region's agricultural
Authority with financial assistance from the produce.
Overseas Development Administration of the

British government. Actual implementation of In the last twenty years the city's population
the project started in 1991. Against all odds has grown rapidly from 560,000 in 1971 to
and in an unimaginable short time, changes 1,400,000 in 1995. Twenty-eight per cent of
have happened in Indore City which would the population currently live in slums and this
have previously been deemed impossible. is expected to increase to thirty per cent by the

Figure 5 Location of Indor, Baroda, Jodhpur and year 2000. Indore is the major city in the
Ahmedabad
region and exercises a great pull on the

surrounding area. This has helped to account

for the rapid rates of population increase

experienced by the city over the last twenty

years. A disproportionate amount of this

growth has been in slums, where population

has quadrupled, as opposed to doubled as in

the city as a whole. In Indore most of the

slums were either on Government lands or in

unauthorised private colonies. The slum

dwellers on Government lands are given

"pattas' (long-term leasehold) by a State

Government ordinance. The unauthorised

31
 private colonies have now been 'authorised'. is a marked difference between the sexes, with

only 47 per cent of women being literate

Indore is an old city and a large number of its compared to 73 per cent of men. Sickness is

houses are in a dilapidated condition. Slums in common and families spend about 8 per cent

Indore are characterised by overcrowding, of their monthly income on medicine.

dilapidated structures, unhygenic conditions,

grossly inadequate basic amenities, unplanned There is an underground sewerage system

layouts and poor accessibility. Over half the serving the city but it was built in 1936 and

houses in the slum areas are classified as only serves 5 per cent of the population and

temporary with a further 35 per cent being covers only 10 per cent of the city area, due to

semi-temporary. They generally house the the lack of a proper collection network or

poorer sections of society. A survey in 1990 treatment facilities. The large population not

showed that more than two thirds of all slum served by the network discharges its waste into

dwellers are below the poverty line, earning the open gutters and storm channels, which

less than Rs. 1,000 (£18) a month. Most of eventually discharge into the river Khan

the workers find work on a temporary basis passing through the city. The river carries the

only. Only two thirds of workers find work for major portion of the city's sewage and sullage.

more than 14 days a month. This results in poor environmental and health

The literacy rates in the slum are surprisingly conditions for the city's inhabitants.

high, being almost 60 per cent although there

Figure 6 Components of the Indore Habitat Project

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental Improvement

Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H.H. Parikh, 1995

32
The city is short of water and plans are be 58,203 m2, of this 12,561 m2 was built

underway to improve this situation with a area (21 per cent). Of the open area 13,013

diversion of water from the River Narmada. m2 (22 per cent) was road or paved area

Until this work is carried out the city will leaving 32,629 m2 as open space. This

continue to suffer from intermittent supply and provides a measure against which the end

poor pressure. In some houses the water result of the project can be measured. It also

connections pass through open drains carrying identified the perceived needs of the population

sewage, so that when the pressures in the and details of their willingness to pay for

water lines are low during non-supply hours, upgrading. Two socio-economic surveys were

sewage enters the supply pipes through leaking carried out, one a detailed sample survey of

joints. families and the other a survey of statistically

selected slums to establish overall slum

The works carried out under the Indore Habitat profiles. The survey work was undertaken by a

Project comprise three main components - the professional operational research agency.

physical works, the community development

works and the various monitoring and Following the baseline survey further surveys

information gathering activities to support this. were planned for evaluating and monitoring the

This is shown in Figure 6. project. This work was carried out by the

same agency. The need for two evaluation

b) Information gathering surveys was identified. One during the project

to ensure that all was going to plan, enabling

Prior to any work being carried out a thorough
corrective action to be taken if it wasn't and
base-line survey was carried out to establish
the other to be carried out some time after the
the basic physical and socio-economic
project is over in order to determine the longer
conditions of the 161 slums. Each individual
term effects of intervention.
slum was surveyed and a comprehensive

database built up for each. The results of the

physical surveys of two of these - the Ekta c) Physical improvements

Indira Nagar slum and the Musakhedi Balai 183 slums are covered by the project and 22 of

Mohalla slum can be seen in Figures 7 and 8. these had been previously upgraded under a

Each individual dwelling is identified together World Bank scheme, although not to such a

with the function of all other dwellings in the high standard. The physical improvements

slum. Also noted are the trees, water laps, were therefore carried out only in 161 slums

toilet blocks, fencing, roads, waterways, while the community development works took

washrooms and OTLAs (uncovered platforms place in all 183. Subsequently 11 of the 22

built at the entrance or rear of the house). slums previously improved requested they also

Dwellings are categorised as to whether they be included in the physical work programme

are (a) pucca building with slab, (b) sheet since girls living in slums upgraded under the

roofing and brick walls or (c) ordinary roof and Indore Habitat Project were more eligible for

mud walls. marriage than those not. In total 450,000

persons were included in the area covered by

The results of the physical survey showed that the project.

the total area of the Ekta Indira Nagar slum to In each slum colony new roads were provided,

33
 an underground sewerage system and an  replacement of sub-grade soil by inert
material such as sand
improved water supply system put in place

using the process outlined above in Chapter  use of a flexible surface such as stone
Two. Most of Indore is situated on black cotton paving in preference to asphalt.

soil which is a soft and silty clay and the

 Unreinforced concrete can be used so long
following precautions had to be taken to as sufficient movement joints are provided

minimise damage to roads caused by soil

 provision of high cambers to allow for some
movement settlement

17

18

Physical improvements carried

out under the Slum Networking
programme including improving
roads and footpaths, providing
storm drainage, sanitation and
sewerage systems, water
supply, street lighting, soft
landscaping and solid waste
management. This has been
achieved in Indore at a cost of
Rs. 4,200 (£73.68) per family

19

34
35
 Table 4 The agregate impact of Slum Networking in Indore

Note: This shows actual rather than thoeretical impact at the slum level. 90 km of city level main
sewers along the banks have been provided in addition to these works.

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental Improvement

Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H.H. Parikh, 1995

Although the total amount of work in each such as youth clubs, womens' groups etc. To

slum might be small the aggregate impact is date 71 womens' groups (Makila Mandals) have

substantial, as can be seen in Table 4 above. started with 4,706 members.

d) Community development Education and health activities are developed

at the same time as the physical improvements

80 community halls have been built to date
are done. At present there are 190
and are in use and a further 40 are under
kindergartens in operation in 100 of Indore's
construction. Four vocational training and
slums in addition to the 79 centres set up in 26
production workshops have been built. One
slums under the national Integrated Child
health centre for primary health care has been
Development Scheme. As at December 1995
built and a further one is planned. Three
the pre-primary education programme had
existing dispensaries have been upgraded.
covered 60 per cent of the eligible children.
Wherever possible existing city facilities have
(See Table 5)
been integrated into the project in preference
For non-formal education 67 centres are at
to building new ones.
present running in 47 slums, providing

assistance to 1,098 dropout children. 83

In Indore to date 79 Neighbourhood
centres for adult education are active and
Committees (Basti Vikas Mandals) have been
running with the help of kindergarten teachers.
officially registered and have 4,788 members.
So far 15,541 men and women have been
These act as parent bodies to other sub-groups

36
involved and in 20 slums 100 per cent literacy the project, can be seen below.

has been achieved.A statistical record of the

progress of the health programme is kept. e) City wide impact

Data is maintained by the community itself in
The slums were integrated into the city fabric
simple and easy to understand formats.
through the improved road and sewerage
Information is typically recorded on infant
networks. Since there are normally transition
mortality, immunisation coverage, use of family
zones between the slums and the formal
planning, frequency and nature of illnesses,
settlements, these are crucial areas for
child weights etc. A progress report as at
ensuring the assimilation of the slums into the
October 1992, i.e. in the fairly early stages of
city fabric. Particular attention was thus paid

Table 5 Pre-primary education programme in Indore

Source: Slum Networking - A community-based Sanitation and Environmental Programme:

Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad, H.H. Parikh, 1995

Table 6 Health progresss report in Indore slums

Source: Slum Networking - A community-based Sanitation and Environmental Programme:

Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad, H.H. Parikh, 1995

37
 to the service infrastructure and landscaping of through cities define the ideal gravity paths

transition zones between the slum boundaries and that slum colonies are located along these

and the surrounding higher income areas. By water courses, it has been possible to develop

improving the slum areas in a way which not a piped sewerage network linking the slum

only draws upon the rest of the city colonies. These links were located along the

infrastructure but also serves to improve it, river banks and by using larger pipe diameters

shows how slum and non-slum fabrics and than needed just for the slums, the capacity of

communities can become mutually supportive. the main sewers installed was increased

It is estimated that 450,000 slum dwellers sufficiently to accept the larger city load.

benefited directly from the project but that a

further 450,000 citizens have also benefited. Thus the Slum Networking approach provides

the primary sewerage for the entire city and

 Roads and sewers the secondary and tertiary sewerage networks

in the slums, but not in the rest of the city

Out of the 360 km of roads provided in the
where people can well afford to lay their own
slums, approximately 80 km on the slum
networks. Doing this is cheaper than providing
peripheries were linked up at the city level to
conventional on-site treatment such as septic
reduce the traffic congestion on the existing
tanks. Households are increasingly connecting
city trunk roads. An example of how this was
to the mains network (about 90 km of sewer
achieved can be seen in Figure 9 below.
mains now penetrate deep into the city fabric).
Given that the natural water courses passing

Figure 9 Crating road linkages through slum networking

Source: Slum Networking - A community-based Sanitation and Environmental Programme:

Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad, H.H. Parikh, 1995

38
A government grant is available under the by cutting the sides to the natural angle of soil

National River Action Plan to help the non- repose and extensively planted. Stone pitching

slum sectors of the city and upstream areas and masonry top walls were used to retain the

develop distribution systems and treatment banks where the space was too limited to

facilities. In light of the positive experience of permit the natural slopes. Pedestrian paths

Slum Networking, the new systems are also and gardens were laid on the banks. As the

planned on the same topography sensitive earthworks and landscaping stabilised short

approaches. bund walls were built across the bed to retain

the water. Thus in the monsoon times water

flows freely over the walls but in the dry

 River cleaning
summer months water is retained in the lake

As stretches of the rivers passing through the formed by the bunds.

city centre were cleaned of sewage, they were

turned into fresh water lakes and the banks The city centre has thus been transformed into

were landscaped. 4 km of bank have been a major recreational area and in the light of

improved to date. Improvement of the this success a further stretch of the river near

riverbank has now become a continuous the temple site of Panchuyia has been similarly

process. A further one kilometre stretch was improved to form a beautiful and popular picnic

taken up for development in 1996. The old spot for local people. Surveys have shown that

temples and stone steps along the banks were groundwater quality in wells near the improved

painstakingly restored. The river bed was stretches of the river is now significantly better

dredged to a grade and the surplus earth used than those near stretches still to be improved.

to widen the banks. The slopes were stabilised

Figure 10 Proposed and implemented riverfront improvement

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental Improvement

Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H.H. Parikh, 1995

39
 20 21

Before and after riverbank improvement. Prior to the slum improvement programme in Indor, the river
was full of sewage and was abreeding ground for flies and mosquitoes. Once the piped sewerage
system was in place, it was possible to clean the rivers and make them into an attractive part of the
city.

23

22

Pedestrian paths and gardens were laid on the river banks and provide attractive walkways. Old
temples and stone steps along the river have been painstakingly restored and the area is now a major
recreational area of the city.

40
The cost of carrying out this work has been also provided technical expertise in the

met from those wishing to provide commercial development and implementation of the

and recreational facilities on the river banks programme. Many public agencies were

and has placed no additional financial burden involved in the project and these included the

on the project. Fountains and lights are being Indore Municipal Corporation, the District

installed and maintained in the lake by Collectorate, State Ministries, Public Health

industrial and commercial companies. A plan Engineering, Forestry Department and the

for extending the improvement of the river State Health and Education Departments.

banks to cover the entire city has been

developed, as can be seen in Figure 10. Although the contribution of all these agencies

is important, the project would not have been

f) Organisation and possible without the people themselves. A

implementation veritable army of community volunteers,

teachers, local birth attendants, members of

The size and complexity of the Indore Habitat
neighbourhood committees, youth
Project requires the co-operation of many
organisations and women's co-operatives have
different organisations. The Indore
been involved in the day to day activities
Development Authority is the main Executive
required to establish and run the project. The
Agency and has been assisted through the
Indore Development Authority established a
project by the Overseas Development
project team to carry out the project in liaison
Administration of the British government
with the project consultant. The structure of
through its field management office in Delhi.
this team can be seen in Figure 11.
As well as providing financial support the ODA

Figure 11 Indore Habitat Project Team

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental Improvement

Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H.H. Parikh, 1995
 establishment of a registered NGO which can

g) Monitoring and management continue to provide services to the slums of

Indore, as well as to other cities.

A management information system (MIS) was

established to provide simple and clear

information on all aspects of project progress.

The development of the MIS was carefully h) Financing and costs

planned in order that it provide the required The Slum Networking project in Indore has

information at an appropriate level of detail been phased over a five year period. Slum

and frequency. Once the project was underway Networking however is continuous, and not a

information on the progress of all activities was one-off process. The physical works are

obtained on designed proformas and fed into phased over a four year period. The

computers for analysis. community development works are co-

ordinated with the physical works so that the

The entire project is monitored under the two run in tandem. A summary of the project

overall control of the Project Director, Mr C. M. phasing and costs are set out in Table 7 below.

Dagaonkar. A project monitoring committee is Subsequently, the project time frame has been

constituted which contains community extended and costs raised to Rs. 600 million to

representatives as well as experts from many additional slum settlements, which were

disciplines. This meets once a month to previously upgraded under a World Bank

monitor progress. In addition regular visits by programme but which did not have individual

the funding agency, the Overseas Development services.

Administration, and the consultant's office

ensure that problems are quickly identified and In Indore the main funding agency for the

remedied. Once a year a high level mission project has been the British government.

evaluates the progress and makes While this was crucial for establishing and

recommendations. developing the project it was important that

similar projects should be able to be

Although the programme was carried out by undertaken without substantial external donor

the Indore Development Authority the support. Alternative funding mechanisms have

maintenance was the responsibility of the been developed in Baroda and Ahmedabad that

Municipal Corporation. A system of 'handing do not require such support.

over' was established where the completed

works were jointly inspected by the staff of the In addition to the ODA funding, state and local

Development Authority, the Municipal agencies have also been involved in funding

Corporation and the members of the the project. The Madhya Pradesh State

community before formally passing the assets Government is providing Rs. 20,000,000

to the Corporation for maintenance. Methods (£351,000) for the main sewage outfalls for the

of funding this maintenance in the long-term city. The costs of river front improvements are

are currently being identified. being met by the private sector purchasing

associated recreational and commercial

The expertise of the community development facilities. The Indore Municipal Corporation is

team is also being retained, through the bearing the running and maintenance costs of

42
 all the infrastructure assets created. Some of the programme with the slum dwellers either

the costs of this can be recouped from the offer their services free of charge or receive a

extra income received by the authority owing small honorarium from project or community

to the larger local tax net generated from the funds.

higher income levels of families living in the

slums and from the connection charges Slum dwellers have access to substantial

imposed on non-slum population for their link financial resources if they consider the

to the mains sewerage system. The costs of investment worthwhile. Once their slum is

running and maintaining the proposed city-level improved, the stigma associated with their

sewage treatment plant under the National address is removed. A degree of permanence

River Action Plan are expected to be met from is given to their former precarious situation.

the sale of treated water and manure to local Although the slum dwellers do not necessarily

farmers. The health and education facilities have full title to the land (30 year leasing

created are to be maintained by their arrangements are made with residents) they do
Mr John Major, former respective State Departments. nevertheless perceive themselves as having
Prime Minister of the
security. They are then prepared to invest
UK, visited the Indore
Habitat Project which The slum-dwellers are also financial their own resources in further improving their
was funded primarily
contributors to the project. All families environment. Studies carried out have shown
by the British
Government through contribute a proportion of the sewerage cost by that such activity has already started in Indore.
the Overseas paying for their house to be connected to the The average investment in their dwellings by
Development
main line. The earthworks and landscaping slum families is Rs. 10,000 (£175). This is in
Administration. The
success of the project components of the project are carried out by response to an original investment of Rs. 4,200
has ensured that
the community themselves through self-help (£74) in upgrading the physical and social
subsequent projects
have not needed donor and mainly at their on expense. The local environment.
aid, but have attracted community volunteers who carry out the
support from local
people and industry.
health, educational and social components of 3.2 Baroda - an example
24
of increased comm-
unity control
Baroda represents a critical step in the

evolution of Slum Networking. Having shown

at Indore that complex and large scale urban

renewal programmes could be carried out, it

was necessary in Baroda to move towards self

sufficiency and a greater degree of community

control. Hence, it was agreed that 50 per cent

of the resources necessary be raised locally

and that both physical and socio-economic

development be undertaken by the community

with the help of NGOs. As the urban

infrastructure for the higher income groups is

subsidised to the tune of 50 per cent from

direct municipal taxes, it was felt that the same

43
 advantage be made available to the slum doubled whereas the increase in the slum

dwellers. The matching contribution in slums population has been almost four and a half

and the cost of the works at the city level were times, due primarily to high levels of in-

to be borne by Baroda Municipal Corporation migration. 40 per cent of males and 71 per

(BMC) from its own revenues with some cent of females in Baroda slums are illiterate.

bilateral grant aid. Only a tiny proportion have any vocational

training. About 25 per cent of the children

In view of local scepticism it was decided to do aged between 5-15 do not attend schools,

a pilot project in the Ramdevnagar Slum first. mainly out of the economic necessity. Poor

It was revealing that in this pilot phase, the health and education are reflected in the low

community committed its 50 per cent monthly incomes. 58 per cent of the families

contribution within a month while the matching earn less than the minimum wages of Rs.

resources from BMC took three years to 1,000 (£18) per month. About 65 per cent of

mobilise on account of legal and administrative males and 10 per cent of women are workers

hurdles. In the end, BMC committed 10 per out of which 35 per cent male workers and 50

cent of the costs with UNICEF providing the per cent of women are self-employed. A total

remaining 40 per cent. Thus, the assumed of 30 per cent of workers are underemployed.

weakest link in the resource chain, namely the There is a clear need for intense economic

slum dwellers, turned out to be the strongest. development programmes which encourage

It is also telling that while the pilot project, cottage industries, give vocational training,

which was spearheaded by an NGO, is already generate employment opportunities and draw

nearing completion, the main city-level project women in the work force. A parallel

handled by BMC is yet to take off the ground. intervention of health care and education would

help to break the vicious circle of illnesses,

a) Baroda City profile illiteracy and poverty.

Baroda is a historic city founded around 1000

The basic facilities in the slums are poor. A
BC on the banks of River Vishwamitri. It is a
1982 survey showed that 27 per cent of
major city in the state of Gujerat in India,
families did not have access to safe drinking
located about 100 km from Ahmedabad and
water and 72 per cent of households did not
400 km from Bombay. The city has good
have latrines. About 50 per cent of slum
linkages by road, rail and air with all parts of
settlements do not have paved roads and most
the country.
have no storm drainage. In Baroda, in

Ramdevnagar, the slum was on Government

The population of Baroda City was 10.2 million
land. In a memorandum of understanding with
in 1991. From 1951 to 1981, the city saw a
the State Government, this slum land is
phenomenal population growth due to the
transferred to individual families under the
establishment of major public sector industrial
provision of the Urban Land Ceiling Act.
complexes for fertilisers, petrochemicals and oil

refining. Other industries include textiles and

Baroda's watercourses are highly polluted. In
light manufacturing units.
summer, River Vishwamitri is no more than an

open sewer. In the monsoon season, the city

In the last 20 years the city population has

44
is frequently flooded in spite of a good dwellers set up a Community Savings and Loan

drainage system because the natural water Association. It had 4,000 members in October

courses have been blocked in places by 1994 providing loans of short periods to about

insensitive development. Location of slums on 1,000 households. The communities raise half

these drainage paths can help to address the the development costs for on-site development.

sewerage and storm drainage problems of the The BMC bears the other half and also the full

city. cost of the supporting off-site development.

The BMC raises its share of the funding by

combining its own resources with those

b) Project scope and available under other government schemes and

bilateral grants. The NGOs help the

components
communities to form elected neighbourhood
The 'Baroda 2000' Project seeks to improve the
groups, choose development options, mobilise
entire slum matrix of Baroda in a 7 year time
resources, organise health, educational and
scale. The slums house approximately 50,000
economic programmes, take part in execution
families living in 336 slum settlements. The
and assume the maintenance under a joint
project contains the same elements as the
agreement with the Corporation. Expert
Indore Habitat project and these are
services such as surveying, planning, design,
summarised in Table 8 below.
supervision, project management and

evaluation are provided by professionals.

30 km of intercepting sewers are planned

across the city between the slums along the

As most of the slums in Baroda are situated on
water courses. Environmental improvement
government owned land, the BMC will initiate
and landscaping of all the waterbodies is
procedures for the provision of security of
incorporated to create a network of freshwater
tenure. However, this is not made a
lakes and green pedestrian paths. By
precondition for development in order to avoid
reactivating the natural water courses, the
long delays in execution.
flooding in the city will be greatly relieved. A

notion of 'transition zones' has been introduced

d) Phasing and costs
in the project. The slums do not always have
The project was planned in two phases, a pilot
clearly defined boundaries. The grey zones
project and the city wide project. Starting in
surrounding the slums need some input in
1992, the pilot study in one settlement was
terms of infrastructure and environmental
expected to last 18 months followed by the
improvements to merge the slums smoothly
expansion of the programme at the city scale,
into the formal urban fabric.
which would take another 5 to 6 years. In

reality, it took almost three years before the

c) Implementation framework
pilot project in Ramdevnagar slum could be
The project is a joint venture between the slum
started just to overcome the institutional
communities of Baroda and the BMC with NGOs
intransigence to the unorthodox method
playing the crucial role of facilitators and
adopted. However, since a firm foundation was
intermediaries. The main overseeing and
established for the future works, the delay was
executing body here is the Baroda Citizens'
not in vain.
Council, an NGO which has helped the slum

45
 Table 7 Summary of Indore Project phasing costs (in Rs. millions)

Note: Th eabove cost does not include the World Bank slums later taken up in the programme. The
programme has also been extended by two more years. The final cost is now Rs.600 million.

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental Improvement

Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H.H. Parikh, 1995

46
 Table 8 Key elements of Baroda 2000 project

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental Improvement

Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H.H. Parikh, 1995

47
 Table 9 Baroda 2000 - cost estimates

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental

Improvement Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad.
H.H. Parikh, 1995

48
 all those involved - the community, NGOs,

As seen in Table 9 , the total project cost in professionals and the government and a

1992 prices is estimated at Rs. 557.4 million combining of resources from all quarters, the

(£9,787,533). When this project was government, the private sector, other support

conceived, it was anticipated that it would take agencies and the slum dwellers themselves.

some years to fully gear up. The prices

therefore allow for 3 - 4 years of inflation and Many technical innovations have been

hold good even today. This cost does not take introduced in the project to cut costs and at

into account the building premises and the the same time provide solutions which are

other administrative staff which will be more appropriate to the needs of the

provided by the BMC at its own expense. The community. Individual sanitation is proposed

cost of any land acquisition for rehabilitation is at costs lower than community latrines. This

also not included in the project proposals. The eliminates the usual problems of maintenance

average cost per family for the physical works and provides greater privacy and dignity.

in the slums is Rs. 5,650 (£99) and that for

community development is Rs. 1,100 (£19).  Project profile

The slum of Ramdevnagar comprises about 820

No financial provision has been made for future
households and is situated on Gotri Lake in the
increase in the slum population beyond the
western part of Baroda City. It is devoid of any
project date since mechanisms are already
urban infrastructure other than some public
incorporated to recycle the resources mobilised
water taps and street lighting, which are both
by the communities into a fund for dealing with
inadequate. Situated on the bank of a lake,
subsequent growth.
parts of the slum get flooded during monsoons.

e) Ramdevnagar pilot project

The most pressing need expressed consistently

by the slum dwellers, particularly women, is for

 Background adequate water supply and good sanitation

facilities. The environmental improvement

The pilot project at Ramdevnagar Slum
proposed includes provision of roads,
explodes the myth that the slum dwellers are
stormwater drains, water supply, house to
not willing or able to contribute towards their
house underground sewerage, filling of low
own development. It further demonstrates
lying areas and landscaping. Baroda Citizens
that the community in partnership with NGOs
Council (BCC), a highly reputable NGO, with an
can initiate and control development. The
active presence in Ramdevnagar has taken up
outcome is very significant because it sets a
the execution through community participation
precedent for action in the rest of the slums in
and under expert supervision. The existing
Baroda.
solid waste collection programme organised by

BCC in the other parts of the city is also

The project attempts to mobilise the
extended into Ramdevnagar.
communities, determine their needs and then

bring together all available resources to meet

BCC has initiated the process of community
these needs. This requires the co-operation of
awareness at Ramdevnagar with an organised

49
 effort to mobilise resources and capacities neighbourhood committee plays an active role

within the community to meet their needs. in determining the nature of development.

Using past experience BCC has initiated a Women have a majority representation in the

number of activities to help meet these needs committee and have played a leading role in

in the fields of health, education, economic articulating their demands, activating the

improvement recreation and local leadership community and mobilising the resources.

skills.

A contractor with a good track record of

 Implementation structure working in slums has been selected and

appointed by the community with the

Baroda Citizens Council (BCC) is the central
assistance from Engineering Sewa Trust, an
agency responsible for undertaking the physical
NGO providing technical services for socially
as well as community development works in
oriented projects. The project management
Ramdevnagar. It is a non-governmental
services and quality control checks on behalf of
organisation set up in 1966 by the Gujarat
the community are also provided by the same
Federation of Mills and Industries, Baroda
NGO. Masons and plumbers have been
Municipal Corporation and MS University. It is
identified within the community whose services
already working in 30 slums of Baroda covering
can be utilised by the main contractor. Top
12,000 families. Its main objective is to
quality professional services have been used
improve the quality of life of the urban poor by
for physical surveys, engineering design and
community development comprising education,
planning services.
health, vocational training, sanitation and

shelter improvement programmes. Over the

Baroda Municipal Corporation has provided the
years, Baroda Citizens Council has developed
off site infrastructure support such as the water
rapport with other NGOs and their support too
supply and sewerage connections. As the slum
will be sought in the venture.
is on government land the Baroda Collector has

agreed to start the process of transferring the

The conventional delivery mechanisms used to
ownership of the land to the slum dwellers.
date have not been successful in providing an
Local industry has accepted the responsibility
improved and affordable water supply and
of environmental improvement of the lake
sanitation service. Inadequate access to
around which Ramdevnagar is situated and
finance is a major problem for poor households
converting the banks into recreational green
in the slums and BCC has established a
spaces for the citizens of Baroda.
Community Savings and Loan Association

(CSLA) to provide finance to the slum dwellers.

The project is monitored by a steering
It has at present 4000 members and has
committee comprising the elected leaders of
provided small loans short-term to about 1,000
the community, the director of Baroda Citizens
households. These loans are used for house
Council, the Municipal Commissioner and the
repairs, toilet construction, pregnancy,
project consultant. All decisions and approvals
hospitalisation and self employment. In
related to the project are made by this
Ramdevnagar the CSLA has been strengthened
committee. Over half the community
to meet the increasing demand of loans from
representatives are women.
the savers for the slum development. The

50
 similar works in the future. Half of this sum is

 Cost and contributions met from BCC's own resources and the rest

from UNICEF.
As seen in the table below, the cost of physical

works in the Ramdevnagar Slum is estimated

Although the families are willing to pay their 50
at Rs. 4,466,000 (£78,351), which includes the
per cent contribution, they need some short
cost of providing 8 collection trolleys for solid
term credit facilities to be able to do so. The
waste management (£888). The monthly
CSLA is used to provide this facility. Members
charges for collection and disposal will be paid
have enrolled into CSLA with an initial deposit
directly by the community. The slum dwellers
of Rs. 500 per family against which a one year
contribute 50 per cent of the development cost.
loan is provided to cover their contribution.
The remaining Rs. 2,233,000 (£39,175) is
The revolving fund of the CSLA has been
raised from other sources (UNICEF, BMC and
strengthened to meet this sudden surge in
local industry). The construction cost of
demand. A grant of Rs. 1,000,000 (£17,544)
individual toilets is borne by the slum dwellers
is provided by UNICEF to meet this need.
themselves from their own resources. Since
Once the loans have been recovered from the
urban infrastructure services for upper income
slum dwellers of Ramdevnagar, this revolving
groups are at present highly subsidised it
fund will be used to start similar programmes
would be unfair not to extend a similar subsidy
in other slums of Baroda.
level to the slum dwellers.

The work at Ramdevnagar is shortly coming to

The health, education, economic development,
an end. The underground services and house-
leadership development and convergence
to-house connections for water supply,
components are estimated at about 10 per cent
sewerage and storm drainage have been
of the project cost, i.e. Rs. 446,000 (£7,825).
implemented. Earthworks are complete and
The cost covers community development and
road construction is about to be started.
also the strengthening of the institutional

structure of BCC so that it can develop

capability to manage this project as well as

Table 10 Costs and contributions for the Ramdevnagar pilot project

Note: In addition to the contribution shown above, the community will also bear
the cost of building their own toilets.

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental

Improvement Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad.
H.H. Parikh, 1995

51
 3.3 Ahmedabad - an
example of a) Ahmedabad city profile

financial self- Ahmedabad is the seventh largest city in India

sufficiency with a population of 3.3 million spread over an

area of more than 200 sq. km. It is a major

Experience gained in Indore and Baroda has centre for trade, commerce and industry in
been used to develop the Slum Networking India and the city is well connected by air, rail
approach in Ahmedabad. Although Ahmedabad and roads to the other parts of the country.
is a much larger city the process of organising

the work has taken a much shorter time and in The slums in and around the city are growing
addition complete self-sufficiency of funding at a rapid rate. Currently about 40 per cent of
has been achieved, thus illustrating the the city's population lives in slums. In 1986,
replicability of the Slum Networking concept. the city boundaries were extended to absorb

the peripheral industrial areas which had very

Having demonstrated that city wide urban poor levels of urban infrastructure and this
renewal can be undertaken using slums as exacerbated the slum problem of the city. In
opportunities (Indore) and that communities Ahmedabad slums are located on Municipal
can mobilise resources and control the lands, Government lands and on private lands.
development process with the help of NGOs For the Municipal lands, the Municipal
(Baroda), the prime objectives for Ahmedabad Corporation has given 10 years written security
are redefined to take into account the of tenure with the view that this is as good as
contribution of the private sector as follows: permanent ownership one can get without the

gigantic task of changing national laws with

 improve the overall quality of life of the respect to land ownership in slums. The
urban poor in terms of health, education, Municipal Corporation in Ahmedabad has also
skill upgrading and access to finance for formally moved the State Government to take
shelter improvement and income similar action for all the slums on Government
generation. land. For the private lands, the Ahmedabad

Municipal Corporation uses its statutory powers

 transform the sanitation and environment to provide health and sanitation facilities to
entire slum matrix of Ahmedabad within a execute the works. At the same time it has
set time scale.
assured the slum dwellers on the private lands

that the Municipal Corporation will not support

 revitalise the service infrastructure and any eviction moves by private owners. Most
environment of the city as a whole as a private lands with slums have long arrears of
consequence of slum intervention. Municipal taxes. Ahmedabad Municipal

Corporation is using this a s a leverage to

 converge the strengths of the persuade the private owners to sell the land at
communities, economic forces of the city below the market prices to the individual
and the government for the planning and families.
implementation of the programme.

In spite of its problems Ahmedabad is in a

52
good position to meet these challenges. It has areas where the city drains are not yet laid, the

a tradition of good civic management and a conditions are even worse. Many of the

history of close co-operation between the internal areas of the slums are unpaved and

Municipal Corporation and industry. Together also without storm drainage. During the

with the vibrant economy of the city, this offers monsoons these slums become quite

an opportunity to mobilise and harness the treacherous. Since many of the slums are on

resources for comprehensive revitalisation of private land, the Corporation is not legally

the city. In addition, the city has a university, responsible for street sweeping and solid waste

many leading institutions of national repute collection.

and a pool of motivated NGOs and individuals.

Many pioneering movements from the The poor environmental and sanitation

independence struggle to women's banking conditions in slums result in frequent outbreaks

have originated from Ahmedabad. of epidemics. Poverty, bad work environment

and lack of education compound the health

In 1991 1,170,000 persons lived in 2,412 problems in slums. As a result, many slum

slums and chawls (tenement shanties) within dwellers suffer from water borne diseases,

the city limits. The chawls were built primarily malnourishment, respiratory infections,

to house the industrial workers and had only tuberculosis, skin diseases, anaemia etc. The

the most minimal facilities. The housing stock lower levels of literacy in slums affect both the

and the services have subsequently health and family planning awareness and at

deteriorated to very poor conditions. Allowing the same time limit the opportunities for better

for growth after 1991, a target of 300,000 employment and incomes.

families, i.e. 1.5 million persons, is assumed

for the city's slum improvement programme.

Project scope and

The environment and sanitation conditions in components
slums and chawls are of serious concern. It is
The project is designed to improve the living
estimated that about 500,000 slum dwellers in
conditions of the entire slum population of
Ahmedabad have no toilet facilities and they
Ahmedabad City, over a period of about seven
defecate in the open. Most of the rest use
years. The associated strengthening of urban
community latrines. Only a very few families
infrastructure networks and environmental
own individual toilets. 70 per cent of
improvements at the city level is also
community latrines are non-functional at any
undertaken in parallel by networking the slums.
given time. The slums in existence prior to
The main components of development are as
1976 have water supply from public standposts
for Baroda (see Table 8 above).
or individual connections, though the pressures

are generally poor. The later slums get water

Many of the project components above are
from shallow hand pumps or fetch it from long
common to those detailed earlier for Indore
distances. The water often gets contaminated
and Baroda. The implementation structure has
by contact with surface water and open drains.
been refined, however, to adjust to the new
Many slums in the city are not connected by
financing mechanisms developed.
sewers to the city system and in the peripheral

53
 expertise in the planning, execution and

c) Project implementation management of projects of scale. At the same

time local authorities do have certain

The Ahmedabad Slum Networking project is a
advantages in terms of democratic
joint effort between the communities living in
accountability, legislative authority, civic
the slums, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation
management and a vast technical pool.
and local industry. They jointly determine the

development and also share the costs. NGOs

The implementation process used in
and professionals are involved as
Ahmedabad combines the strengths of all the
intermediaries and their individual roles are set
participating parties, with the community
out in detail below. Table 11 below shows the
playing a pivotal role. Roles vary according to
financial contributions of the different groups
the scale and nature of the task. For the
involved.
execution of the works, the slums are grouped

in convenient packages. Consortia of reputable

Traditionally slum improvement projects are
industries and NGOs bid for the work on behalf
fully planned and carried out by the local
of the communities within the design
authorities. This has certain disadvantages.
framework established by the Corporation. In
The communities become recipients instead of
a country where city development falls strictly
the instigators of the project and expect all
within the purview of the state and local
facilities to be provided free of cost.
governments, this is a very bold transition
Implementation by the local authority often
which will have far reaching consequences.
leads to poor results because of insufficient
The Corporation too has set up a parallel works
attention to detail and also precludes
department to bid for the work. This
potentially gainful inputs from other sources
competition will improve the overall quality of
such as the private sector and industry which

too have

Table 11 Ahmedabad project costs and contributions (1996 costs)

Source: Slum Networking - A Community-based Sanitation and Environmental Improvement

Programme. Experiences of Indore, Baroda and Ahmedabad. H.H. Parikh, 1995

Note: Above costs do not include shelter upgrading and individual toilet constructions which
will be borne by the community from its own resources or with the help of the 20:80
LCS scheme.

54
work carried out and also enable the essential services on private land and has also

Corporation to build up a long term passed a resolution not to evict the

implementation structure which is both efficient participating slum dwellers for 10 years and to

and sensitive. For the wider city level works register them formally as ratepayers. These

the Corporation is the principal agency for both two measures provide sufficient perceived

planning and execution, though some inputs security of tenure for the slum dwellers to

from the private sector are again anticipated. invest heavily in their shelter from their own

The programme is dovetailed into other current resources. At a suitable point of time in the

national urban improvement and future, the corporation will also consider

health/education schemes and funding bringing the private land owners and the slum

arrangements. dwellers around the same table to discuss land

transfer on mutually agreeable terms.

A similar approach is also planned for resource

mobilisation. With the help of NGOs, the The approach adopted in Ahmedabad favours

community thrift groups are being organised upgrading in preference to demolition and

into savings and loan societies. Support is reconstruction, although alternative strategies

given to both the individual families and the which require redevelopment are not excluded

societies in turn to be supported by dedicated when they have greater advantages. For

financial institutions such as Self-Employed example, where the high land values can be

Women's Association (SEWA), Friends of used as a potential resource to finance house

Women's World Banking (FWWB) and Housing construction for the urban poor through

and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO). densification.

At the city scale HUDCO is prepared to finance

all the parties, namely, the industrial firms, the The project is monitored by a steering group

Municipal Corporation and the communities to which has members from the community,

meet their respective shares of the costs. industry and the Corporation.

HUDCO normally provides bridging finance to

government bodies. In Ahmedabad they have  The role of the slum communities

agreed to extend the bridging finance to One third of the development cost within slums

industries and communities (through NGOs) is borne by the community with matching

should they also require this facility to meet inputs of one third each by the Corporation and

their share of the expenses. HUDCO finance industry. The slum dwellers thus have a

comes in the form of medium and long term controlling role in their development and play

loans. an active part in the slum level planning,

execution and subsequent maintenance.

Over 70 per cent of Ahmedabad slums are Although the project envisages individual

located on private land, the rest being on latrines, the responsibility of toilet construction

municipal and government lands. Ownership of belongs to the householders. The present

land is not made a pre-condition of the project 20:80 Low Cost Sanitation scheme (LCS) of the

as it can result in long legal and administrative Corporation is converged with the programme

delays. However, Ahmedabad Municipal so that the families can build their own toilets

Corporation has the statutory right to install with an 80 per cent corporation subsidy. The

55
 cost of upgrading individual dwellings is borne framework in which the slum matrix of the city

by the families themselves and low-cost and the associated city level infrastructure

financing mechanisms have been developed to needs are integrated. It will also determine

assist them in this process. the policies with regards to tenure, rates, sale

of land, restructuring of slums, rehabilitation,

Democratically elected Neighbourhood supporting 'site and service' projects,

Associations, formed through democratic implementation of 74th amendment and

processes, are responsible for mobilising the maintenance. The planning and execution of

community's share of costs for the physical the city level infrastructure and environmental

works. They also run the socio-economic improvement programmes outside the slum

programmes developed under the project. boundaries are the responsibilities of the

Each family has to initially contribute Rs. 100 Corporation, though private sector contribution

to finance these activities and manage the to cost and execution is encouraged where

community assets. The fund is regularly appropriate. The city level service

replenished as and when needed. The infrastructure will be maintained by the

Neighbourhood Associations will be encouraged Corporation from its rates and taxes and slum

to collect the rates on behalf of the Corporation dwellers will be encouraged to register as rate

and, as an inducement, permitted to retain a payers so as to increase the tax base.

proportion for minor repairs and maintenance Registering as ratepayers increases the sense

of the municipal services at the neighbourhood of security for slum dwellers.

level. Each association enters into an

agreement with the Corporation to define their In view of the importance of the programme, a

respective responsibilities. dedicated cell has been set up within the

Corporation, headed by a senior Deputy

Both in terms of numbers and the key Commissioner and drawing upon a large

positions, majority representation of women is resource pool of technical and community

stipulated in the Neighbourhood Associations. development persons at his disposal.

 The role of Ahmedabad Municipal  The role of industry and private

Corporation sector

The Corporation is a joint financier of the Local industry represents a significant resource

project, contributing one third of the physical base. It also has the entrepreneurial,

development cost in the slums, 70 per cent of management and technical skills which can be

the costs of city level programmes. It bears utilised for the project. Many aspects of the

fully the costs of project preparation, surveys, project such as physical and community

consulting charges, evaluations, documentation development within slums, solid waste

and dissemination. It has also incorporated its management and environmental improvements

existing 20:80 Individual Toilet scheme into the are spearheaded by the private sector.

project. The Corporation draws on national

schemes for financial support where available. Industry has a clear interest in the

development of the city. Its growth is

At the city level, the Corporation will develop a dependent on the infrastructure which the city

56
provides. The image of an industry is closely  The role of the NGOs

interlinked with that of its host city, and can The NGOs play an important role of facilitators,

play its part in attracting the investment and acting as intermediaries between the

professionals needed for success. The government and the communities. Their main

connection between industrial prosperity and tasks are to organise the communities, assist

the living conditions and skill levels of its with resource mobilisation and initiate the

workforce is now well understood. Much of the health, educational and income generation

unskilled industrial workforce in Ahmedabad programmes. They work with the existing

lives in slums. Therefore, investment in the community based organisations (CBOs) in the

environmental improvements and skill settlements and strengthen them so that

upgrading in slums makes sense to industry eventually the CBOs take over fully all the

and also benefits its workers in terms of community related activities in the area.

income levels and quality of life. It is for this Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation funds only

reason that industrial firms of Ahmedabad are 70 per cent of the community development

prepared to provide one third of the physical cost, the remaining 30 per cent has to be

upgrading cost within slums and 30 per cent of contributed by the NGOs from their own

costs for community development and the city sources. This is to ensure that only the

level infrastructure development. Industries committed organisations are involved with the

responsible for the pollution of the city's water programme.

courses are expected to pay for the required

anti-pollution measures, such as drainage and d) Phasing and costs

treatment.
The project is planned in two phases. The first

phase includes preparatory surveys and

Where possible, BOT (Build, Operate and
engineering designs within slums for 25,000
Transfer) mechanism for raising the resources
families and implementation of the pilot project
from the private sector and implementing
covering 5,000 families. This phase is
components of the project will be considered.
expected to last 18-24 months. Phase II will
There are now institutions such as ILFS
cover the rest and is expected to take another
(Infrastructure Leasing and Financing Services)
5 years. The phasing will be kept flexible in
in India which undertake such assignments.
response to the experiences gained from the

pilot in Phase 1. So far, out of 5,000 families

 The role of professionals
planned for the pilot project, only 3,300
To ensure excellence in planning, design and
families have actively been pursued.
execution of the works, the best professionals

are employed for the project. They are

The pilot project tests the basic tenets of Slum
responsible for surveys, planning, detailed
Networking in the context of Ahmedabad.
designs, quality control, project management
Within the overall parameter established by
and evaluations. Experts are also employed to
Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, this
design and monitor the health, education and
initiative has been taken up by a consortium of
community training programmes.
Arvind Mills Limited, an industrial house of

national repute and "SAATH", a city-based NGO

which has been actively involved in grassroots

57
 development of slums since 1989. "SAATH's"

major areas of intervention have been in the

fields of community development, health, non-

formal education, skill imparting and income

generation. Services of Engineering Sewa

Trust, an NGO offering technical support to

socially relevant projects, are being utilised for

project management and quality control during

execution. The project covers approximately

3,300 households living in slums and chawls in

four pockets located in different zones of

Ahmedabad City. Spatially, each pocket is

taken up fully between the main roads,

irrespective of ownership and tenure.

The project cost for the two phases is Rs.

3,256,900,000 (£72,000,000), distributed

between the three partners, namely, the

community, industry consortium and the

Corporation as shown in Table 11 on page 54.

The work in the first slum of the pilot project

called Sanjaynagar has now been completed

and the resource mobilisation in the other

slums of the pilot project is at an advanced

stage. The physical works in the remaining

slums of the pilot project are shortly to start.

In the wake of successful implementation of

just one of the pilot slums, demand is now

coming from many slums across the city, to be

taken up under the project.

It is also interesting that during the

implementation of Sanjaynagar most families

have now built permanent houses at their own

expense, ranging from Rs. 10,000 (£175) to

Rs.20,000 (£350). An old dilapidated

community toilet at Sanjaynagar was

demolished at the request of the community

and has been replaced by house to house

sewerage.

58
 4 Replication of the Slum
Networking Approach

If the success of a project relies simply on the  the process involved in Slum

enthusiasm and energy of one person, or relies Networking is soundly based and

on a one-off source of funding or type of clear;

organisation, then it cannot be easily  the approach is flexible and can be

replicated. Although such one-off projects are adapted to meet differing needs;

undeniably important for those that benefit  it works within the framework of

directly from them, those projects that do have existing institutions and traditions;

a clearly identifiable and replicable process  it does not rely on aid funding;

have a much wider impact and bring greater  it uses limited resources which are

value to the world. A clearly identifiable readily available;

process facilitates easier adaptation and  it introduces solutions which are

replication of the project elsewhere. more effective as well as being

cheaper than previous ones.

4.1 Project or process?

When work first started in Indore it was seen
The main weakness of the Indore Habitat
more as a project rather than a process. It
Project where Slum Networking was first
was only during the actual implementation that
developed was that it was primarily financed by
the importance of sustaining the assets and
grant aid from the British government. It was
activities was fully realised. Thought then had
therefore open to question whether or not the
to be given on how best to achieve longer-term
successful work carried out there could be
sustainability within the project. Having done
replicated elsewhere when there were no large
this, the project was then recognised as being
sums of donor aid to support the work.
widely capable of adaptation and replication to

meet similar needs in other Indian cities.

Grant-aided work should not be dismissed out

of hand. It does serve the purpose of

The Slum Networking approach can be easily
supporting innovative and experimental
adapted elsewhere because
programmes which would not otherwise attract

finance from conventional sources. There are

drawbacks however in the use of grants in that

59
 they encourage an attitude of dependency in carried out show that slum dwellers are willing

the recipient countries. They also tend to be to invest for water and sanitation. On average

channelled through government structures, this sum varies between Rs. 1,500 and Rs.

which means that development is dominated 5,000 (£26 - £88) per family depending on the

by public agencies, who are not usually city. In Baroda slum dwellers have readily

renowned for their enlightenment or efficiency. committed Rs. 2,600 (£46) per family for

environmental improvements. In Ahmedabad

In spite of the deficiencies mentioned above families in the pilot slums are prepared to

the Indore Habitat Project has been an invest Rs. 2,000 (£35) per family and the local

inspiration to other cities in India. It has industries are matching this contribution. In

provided a valuable learning process for all addition, in all cases, the cost of home

persons involved and been successively improvement is met by the families

adapted, first in Baroda and then in themselves.

Ahmedabad. Each time the successful

elements have been adopted and replicated If the available government funds could be

and the deficiencies have been made good as converged with the resources of the slum

the levels of financial viability and community dwellers themselves, a very substantial impact

control have increased. Over a period of eight could be achieved. For example, under the

years Slum Networking has matured into a government's Environmental Improvement of

holistic and lasting strategy which can be Urban Slums scheme Rs. 2,500 per family is

replicated on a mass scale. made available. Other physical improvement

programmes which could be dovetailed into the

Slum Networking programme include the Urban

4.2 Opportunities for Community Development Programmes, Urban

further Basic Services for the Poor Programmes,

expansion Environmental Improvement Schemes, Town

Planning Schemes, Land Ceiling Act, Nehru

Huge resources are spent every year by the Rojgar Yojana, Health and Education Schemes
Indian government on poverty alleviation under undertaken by state departments, Integrated
a variety of national programmes. Yet there is Child Development Scheme and the National
very little sustained improvement to show for River Action Plan.
it. Enormous sums are dissipated for lack of

focus and the end result is nothing more than If the resources of the government and slum
sporadic amelioration. dwellers are combined there is no need to

contemplate beggarly solutions such as public

It is normally assumed that slum dwellers do latrines, common hand pumps, partial brick
not have the capacity to finance their own paving of poor quality and open gutters. These
upgrading. Detailed studies have been carried measures are cosmetic and not durable.
out which show clearly that the propensity to Instead a high quality infrastructure can be
invest is primarily triggered not by legal tenure provided with concrete roads, individual water
of the land but rather by 'perceived security' supply and toilet connections, underground
and faith that the locality will improve with sewerage, storm drainage, landscaping,
time. Slum upgrading achieves this. Studies

60
streetlighting and solid waste management. programme through easing of financial and

legal mechanisms. These include

How then can the resources of the slum

dwellers be released? What measures  Helping formalise community thrift societies

encourage the co-operation of the slum and savings and loan societies and link them

dwellers? The slum dwellers are astute and into external finance to strengthen their

unlikely to pay for something they don't really capacity for resource mobilisation in the

need or can get for nothing from someone community.

else. The following guidelines identify the key

factors to ensure success of the approach.  Helping establish apex financial institutions

to provide working capital to the Savings and

 The proposed physical improvements have Loan Societies and to lend money to the

to be affordable and meet community intermediate private sector organisation such

needs. as SEWA bank and the Housing Development

Finance Corporation (HDFC) for the same

 The completed improvements need to live purpose. The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh is

up to the community's expectation and another example of a good role model.

should be capable of transferring from the

micro to the macro scale.  Encouraging NGOs to become the links

between the formal finance and the community

 Mechanisms need to be in place to enable societies.

resources of the slum dwellers to be

mobilised.  Amending existing legislation. For example,

the Rent Control Act (designed to offer security

 The community has to have control over of tenure) and the Land Ceiling Act (designed

the development and be consulted from to provide affordable land for the poor) have

the outset of the project. both served rather to starve the cities of

shelter and land and into the bargain have

 The programme must not be projected as encouraged widespread malpractices and

a 'government scheme' but instead as a corruption. The legislation is retained for

community initiative in which the political expediency. In a similar fashion, the

government and private sector are the 74th Amendment to the Constitution to

partners. The slum dwellers are clear that empower the people does not have

they will not be receiving anything for commensurate legal teeth to mobilise and

free. control resources at the local level.

 Encouraging the replication of the better

4.3 Role of government state legislative frameworks regarding land

in encouraging tenure. In Madhya Pradesh and Andhra

replication Pradesh, for example, where a progressive

framework exists, the improvement has been

There is much that the government can do to very noticeable. In many other states the
enable and facilitate the Slum Networking

61
 notification procedures for intervention in slums impressive in view of the fact that the

is limited in scope. beneficiaries were in the very lowest of income

groups. Co-ordination of activity and careful

 Giving serious thought to the role and planning and monitoring of activity were felt to

function of Slum Clearance Boards, Housing be the key factors in achieving this success and

Boards, Water Supply and Sanitation Boards the Indore Development Authority and Mr

and Public Works Departments, as well as that Parikh were much congratulated on its success

of the municipal authorities and development in improving the infrastructure of the entire

authorities at the city level. State and city city, as well as bringing about much improved

agencies have not always proved to be the living conditions for the slum dwellers.

most efficient or competent of agencies for

implementation and there may well be an The process of Slum Networking had managed

increasing role for the private sector. to give shape to the shapeless through its

process of linking all the slum communities

along the river courses. It was felt that the

4.4 An external city as a whole was made more attractive

perspective because of the work carried out in the slums

and that this would have many benefits for all

The Indore Habitat Project was visited and
the city's population and not only the slum
critically assessed by the international study
dwellers. It was very evident that the initial
group. This group included planners,
improvements to the infrastructure had led to
architects, financial and legal experts as well as
the slum dwellers investing their own resources
development workers from many countries
in improving their dwellings. Many of these
around the world. Each brought their own
dwellings were most impressive. They
perspective to the project and provided a
exceeded simple shelter needs both in terms of
critical assessment as a result of visiting the
their size and architectural design and were a
project. Most of the study visit time was spent
good indicator of the success of the project.
in the slum communities, visiting the various
The fact that the women of the communities
aspects of the project. The key points made
had been primarily responsible for much of the
by the group are set out below.
good work carried out was also felt to be very

positive.

 Community involvement
 Physical improvements
The people living in the slums appeared to be
There was much surprise and admiration by
happy. They lived with dignity in a cleaner,
the group that such a large scale urban
more attractive and decent city. Emphasis
improvement project, which involves an entire
upon the importance of the women as a
city, was capable of being implemented and of
catalyst for change in the slums was felt to be
showing positive results in such a short time
particularly worthwhile. The community
span. It was also felt that the changes would
development programmes of health, education,
be a permanent rather than just a fleeting
employment and women's rights were well co-
improvement. This was felt to be particularly
ordinated, both with each other and with the

62
programme of physical improvements. An to stop the slums forming in the first place.

indicator of the quality of the community

development carried out was the way that It was felt that forward planning of urban

religious integration of the various communities settlements deserves far greater attention than

had been handled. Empowerment of local it is receiving at present and that this would be

community-based groups had obviously taken a much more efficient and cost-effective way to

place and it was felt that this would go a long anticipate population growth in urban areas

way in ensuring sustainability of the project and plan the necessary infrastructure to cope

with it than to deal with the slums when they

 Integration are already a reality. It was also felt that more

work was needed in the rural areas from where

The project was considered to be a good
the population comes, with the object of
needs-led project in an urban setting that has
decreasing the flow of people to the city.
adopted the integrated approach to tackling

urban poverty with success. The integration of

Concern was also expressed as to what would
the various aspects of the project was felt to
happen in ten or fifteen years time when
be an extremely important factor in the
inevitably there would be more people living in
obvious success that the project has achieved.
the slum than there are currently. The present

low-density of the slums would obviously allow

 Concerns relating to the project
for a certain degree of densification, but the
One of the major concerns of the group was
capacity of the infrastructure to cope with a
not a criticism of the Indore Habitat Project
substantially increased population was
itself, but rather it related to the future of
questioned.
Indian cities and whether programmes such as

the Indore Habitat Project were the best way of

Solid waste management was obviously a
dealing with future urbanisation pressures.
problem in some of the slums where the
Although there was no doubt as to the
systems designed to deal with it were clearly
effectiveness of the Slum Networking approach
not working. This problem was acknowledged
in dealing with the problems of existing slums
by the Development Authority who were taking
it was felt that it did not actually do anything
steps to deal with it.

63
64
 5 Reference and Further
Information

In November 1995 a study visit was organised

5.1 Contacts in India
by the Building and Social Housing Foundation
for further
to the World Habitat Award winning Indore
information
Habitat Project in Indore, India. Bursary

funding was made available to help meet the Mr Himanshu H Parikh

Consulting Engineers
costs of participants from developing countries
2 Sukhshanti
to attend. Regretfully, many others had to be 10A Parnakunj
refused. This section is designed to provide Ambawadi Circle
Ahmedabad-380 006
sources of further reference for those who wish
INDIA
to find out more about the project. Tel: +91-79-6563590
Fax: +91-79-6440263

Details are provided of the individuals and Mr C. M. Dagaonkar

organisations connected to the Indore Habitat Director
Indore Habitat Project
Project in India. Full information on addresses,
Indore Development Authority
telephone and fax numbers is provided in order 7 Race Course Road
Indore - 452 003
that further information can easily be acquired.
Madhya Pradesh
Secondly, information is provided on the INDIA
Building and Social Housing Foundation and its Tel: +91-731-434541
Fax: +91-731-431459/432665
activities including full details of the World

Habitat Awards. Thirdly, there is a list of all Overseas Development Administration

those who attended the study visit with Field Management Office
(Slum Improvement Projects)
addresses and telephone/fax numbers. These British High Commission
persons come from a wide range of countries B-2 Anand Niketan
New Delhi 110 021
and are able to give details of their own first
INDIA
hand experience of the project. Tel: +91-11-6875973/6876379
Fax: +91-11-6882954/6872882

Baroda Citizens Council

Above Health Museum
Sayajibaug
Vadodara 390018
INDIA

65
 contribution to the United Nations International

5.2 The Building and Year of Shelter for the Homeless in 1987. The

Social Housing principle objective of the international year was

Foundation for every nation to draw up strategies, policies

and programmes that would enable practical

The Building and Social Housing Foundation and attainable improvements to be made in the
(BSHF) is a research institute based in shelter and neighbourhoods of all poor and
Coalville, Leicestershire in the United Kingdom. disadvantaged people by the year 2000. The
It is an independent research body which World Habitat Awards were initiated in order to
received its financial endowment from a identify innovative and successful human
building organisation formed by a group of settlement projects throughout the world which
homeless and penniless ex-servicemen just could be replicated elsewhere. Every year the
after World War Two. The Foundation carries competition has attracted quality, innovative
out research into all aspects of housing, projects, capable of replication in either the
concerning itself with the immediate and developed or developing world. To date
practical problems of housing today as well as winning projects have been identified in Turkey,
attempting to look to the future in a India, Malawi, United Kingdom, Sri Lanka,
progressive and imaginative way. Of particular United States of America, Poland, Egypt,
interest is the need to identify a sustainable Switzerland, Cyprus, Costa Rica, Japan,
and viable way of life for the future in both the Venezuela, Czecholslovakia, Philippines,
developed and developing world and the Singapore, Indonesia, Germany, China,
reallocation of resources away from wasteful Denmark, Namibia, Canada and Ecuador.
expenditure on armaments to meeting the

shelter needs of the millions of homeless Each year two cash awards of £10,000 and
around the world. individually designed and crafted silver trophies

are presented to the winners of the competition

BSHF is not concerned with identifying on World Habitat Day.
problems, but rather with focusing attention on

solutions and bringing about improvements in

 International study visits
housing conditions throughout the world. This
An international study visit is also organised
it does through a variety of activities which are
each year in collaboration with the United
detailed below. In all its work it aims to avoid
Nations and national governments in order that
bureaucracy, eliminate the waste of resources
the winning World Habitat Award housing
and encourage self-help and self-reliance.
solutions can be made better known and their

replication encouraged throughout the world.

Highly successful study visits have been held to

 The World Habitat Awards
date in Malawi, Sri Lanka, Costa Rica,
A major area of BSHF activity is the annual
Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia, Beijing and
World Habitat Award competition which it India and as a result the programmes studied
organises and sponsors. The World Habitat in these countries are now being replicated
Awards were initiated in 1985 as part of the throughout the world. Bursaries are made
Building and Social Housing Foundation's available enabling participants from a range of
developing countries to attend. issues, including an Inquiry into Leicestershire

Housing and a study of the regeneration of a

 Misallocation of resources mining town, which investigated the future

provision of housing and employment in

This is a continuing underlying theme of the
Coalville in the 1990's.
Foundation's activities. As part of its

contribution to the 1987 International Year of

Shelter for the Homeless, the Foundation

A list of Building and Social Housing Foundation
published a Handbook of Readings on the
publications are set out below and can be
overall theme of homelessness and the
obtained from the Building and Social Housing
misallocation of global resources. World
Foundation on request.
leaders and others renowned for their expertise

and independent thought contributed to the

Handbook, including Dr Willy Brandt, Brigadier Publications

M N Harbottle, Rt. Hon. Enoch Powell, Hon. R World Habitat Day 1996: Presentation of

Premadasa the President of Sri Lanka and Ms the World Habitat Awards in Budapest, Hungary

Diana Schumacher. All proceeds from the sale (1996) (free)

of the handbook have been sent to SPARC, an

organisation helping the pavement dwellers of Human Settlements as part of a

Bombay help themselves. Sustainable Future (1996) £5.00

 Sustainable futures The World Habitat Awards 1990 - 1994

(1996) £15.00
The Foundation maintains an active

commitment to researching the possibilities for

How to Abolish War. Editor - B W Walker
sustainable housing and is currently carrying
(1995) £7.00
out research in collaboration with the Tsinghua

University of Beijing into sustainable village

World Habitat Day 1995: Presentation of
development in southern China and has held a
the World Habitat Awards in Curitiba, Brazil
Consultation at St. George's House, Windsor
(1995) (free)
Castle on Human Settlements as part of a

Sustainable Future.
Alternative Futures - the Reallocation of

Power and Responsibility (1995) £5.00

 United Kingdom based housing

research World Habitat Day 1994: Presentation of

In addition to its work internationally, the the World Habitat Awards in Dakar, Senegal
Building and Social Housing Foundation has (1994) (free)
carried out research into national housing

issues, including the protection afforded by Innovative Housing Solutions in China

residential housing in the event of nuclear (1994) £10.00
attack and the deterioration of the public

housing stock in the UK. Further research The Reallocation of Resources to meet
work has also been carried out on local housing Global Shelter Needs (1994) £5.00

67
 Regeneration of a Mining Town - Coalville

World Habitat Day 1993: Presentation of into the 1990s - A Future without Coal?

the World Habitat Awards in New York, USA (1990) £6.95

(1993) (free)

The House that Grows: Proceedings of the

Cities of the Future: Successful Housing International Conference on Rural Low Cost

Solutions in Singapore and Surabaya (1993) Housing (1988) £6.95

£10.00

Handbook of Readings on the

A Guide to Low Cost Typhoon-Resistant Misallocation of Resources as a Cause of

Housing in the Philippines (1993) £10.00 Homelessness (1987) £5.95

World Habitat Day 1992: Presentation of Inquiry into Leicestershire Housing

the World Habitat Awards at the United (1986)

Nations, New York (1992) (free) £5.00

Building for Hope in Costa Rica: Bed and Breakfast: An Adequate Form of

Proceedings of the International Conference on Temporary Accommodation or State-Financed

Housing in Costa Rica (1992) £10.00 Slums (1985) £5.00

Housing through Support: Proceedings of Shared Ownership Housing in the UK

the International Conference on the Sri Lankan (1985)

Million House Programme (1991) £7.95 £5.00

Houses Now! Building for Hope in Costa Shelter Against Nuclear Attack: Does

Rica (1991) £5.95 Residential Housing Provide Effective Civil

Defence? (1985) £2.50

The World Habitat Awards 1985-1989

(1991) £15.00 Residential Housing and Nuclear Attack

(1984) £11.95

Deterioration of the UK Public Sector

Housing Stock (1990) £35.00 Self Sufficient Co-operative Village (1978)

£10.00

68
5.3 Participants
attending the
Study Visit Mr Francisco Restrepo
Regional Manager
Fundación Servicio de Vivienda Popular
"Servivienda"
Ms Felisbela do Espírito Santo Calle 55 #70-59
Zone Co-ordinator - Luanda Apartado 53963
Acord Angola
c/o Acord Medellín
Francis House Antioquia
3rd Floor COLOMBIA
Francis Street
LONDON Tel: +57-4-230-8207/27/67/87
SW1P 1DQ Fax: +57-4-230-8187

Tel: +44 171 828-7611

Fax: +44-171-976-6113 Dr Henry B Jeffrey
1 Happy Acres
East Coast Demerara
Mr Juan M Arbona GUYANA
Planner/Community Organiser
Servicios Múltiples de Tecnologías Apropiadas Mrs Hannah Joseph
(SEMTA) Director
c. Alfredo Ascarrunz 2675 Family and Women's Concerns
Casilla 15041 Christian Concern Mission
La Paz P O Bag 5
BOLIVIA Shamshabad
Ranga Reddy District
Tel: +591-2-360042 Andhra Pradesh 509 218
Fax: +591-2-391458 INDIA

Tel: +91-84131
Mr Michel Ongolo-Ndongo Fax: +91-842-203236
BP 15260
Douala-Akwa
REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON Mr Jagdeep Kumar Kapoor
Project Associate
Tel/Fax: +237-426009 School of Planning and Architecture New Delhi
- 2
H. No. WZ/A-23A
Mr Victor Basauri Tocchetton OmNagar
Coordinator de Proyectos Om Vihar
Centro Urbano de Asistencia Tecnica Ltda - Uttam Nagar
Taller NORTE - New Delhi 110 059
Maria Luisa Santander 0440 INDIA
Comuna de San Soaquin
Santiago de Chile Tel: +91-11-331-8054 Ext 228
CHILE Fax: +91-11-661-6439

Tel: +56-2-204-1241/274-5726 Mr Adolf Tragler

Fax: +56-2-2250-6063 13 Kala Niketan
SV Road
Bandra
Bombay 400 050
INDIA
Tel: +91-22-642-2207

69
 Mr Francis K Mfune Mr Uryi Serbin
Town Clerk and Chief Executive President
Lilongwe City Council Kiev Industrial Joint-Stock Company "Gazprom"
P O Box 30396 40 Years Oktabra aven 50
Lilongwe 3 252039 Kiev
MALAWI UKRAINE

Tel: +265-783144/782825 Tel: +380-44-264-9596

Fax: +265-780885 Fax: +380-44-263-8954

Ms Georgina Sandoval Mrs Diane Diacon

Director Research Officer
Casa y Cuidad A.C. Building and Social Housing Foundation
Calzada de Tlalpan Num 1025 Memorial Square
Col. Americas Unidas Mex 03306 Coalville
Apartado Postal 113-129 Leicestershire
Mexico 03300 DF LE67 3TU
MEXICO UNITED KINGDOM

Tel/Fax: +52-5-539-2087 Tel: +44-530-510444

Fax: +44-530-510332

Dr Abdul Rahim Khan

Chief Technical Adviser Mrs Pat Elderfield
UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat)/SOSRSP Hon Treasurer
157 Abu Bakr Block Building and Social Housing Foundation
New Garden Town Memorial Square
Lahore 54600 Coalville
PAKISTAN Leicestershire
LE67 3TU
Tel: +92-42-854642 UNITED KINGDOM
Fax: +92-42-852377
Tel: +44-530-510444
Fax: +44-530-510332

Dr Ranjith Dayaratne
21/1A Siripa Road
Colombo - 5 Mr Michael Slingsby
SRI LANKA Overseas Development Administration
Field Management Office
(Slum Improvement Projects)
British High Commission
Eng Charles Drazu B-2 Anand Niketan
Project Director New Delhi 110 021
Ministry of Lands, Housing and Physical INDIA
Planning
P O Box 7122 Tel: +91-11-6875973/6876379
Kampala Fax: +91-11-6882954/6872882
UGANDA

Tel: +256-41-242931

70
Mr Daniel Eduardo Chavez Miños
Covisan °1 - Casa 24
CP 60.000
Paysandu
URUGUAY

Jorge Di Paula
Investigador ITU-UPV
Facultad Arquitectura
Bulevar Artigas 1031
Mercedes 1188 Ap. 401
Montevideo
URUGUAY

Tel: +598-2-401106/983683
Fax: +598-2-406063/984758

Mr Alex Mugova
Programme Manager
Building Materials and Shelter
Intermediate Technology Development Group
2nd Floor Gorlon House
7 Jason Moyo Avenue
P O Box 1744
Harare
ZIMBABWE

Tel: +263-4-796420
Fax: +263-4-796409

71
 Engineering Drawings

72
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