Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.

Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

ABE 422

Renewable Energy for AB Materials

LABORATORY REPORT No. 2

Determination of Solar Constant

Introduction

The total solar radiation energy received per unit of time per unit of area on a

theoretical surface perpendicular to the Sun's beams and at Earth's mean distance from

the Sun is known as the solar constant. As a result, it can be used to calculate the rate

at which energy is absorbed by a unit surface, such as a solar panel. For the study of

heat-transfer mechanisms in the earth's atmosphere and the analysis of events

occurring in the sun, knowing the exact value of the solar constant is of great

significance. Solar constants are also employed in the study of geology. The total solar

irradiance (TSI), formerly known as the "solar constant," has been found to fluctuate by

around 0.1 percent over an 11-year period of solar sunspot activity. The sunspot activity

is linked to changes in solar output energy, according to satellite studies during the last

few decades. As a result, the solar constant is regarded as a relatively constant.

There are many factors that need to be considered in the determining solar

constant. The amount of solar radiation received at a particular area on the Earth's

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

surface is determined by the state of the atmosphere, latitude, and time of day. The

Earth's distance from the Sun must also be considered, as the solar constant varies by

+/-3 percent due to the Earth's slightly elliptical orbit around the Sun. When the Earth is

at perihelion (first week in January), the Sun-Earth distance is smaller, and when the

Earth is at aphelion, it is larger (first week in July).

There are various methods to measure the solar constant of Earth. The best

location to measure is in the satellite, where atmospheric effects are absent, thus

having a more accurate results. These instruments includes, but not limited to,

pyranometer, pyrheliometer, and quantum sensor.

Discussion

There are two ways to determine the solar constant. You can either calculate it

by using formulas such as Stefan-Boltzman law, and by using instruments i.e.,

pyronometer, pyrheliometer, or solarimeter.

Formulas

One example of formulas that help us to determine the solar constant is the

dimensional formula for solar constant.

Energy
Solar constant =
(unit area) x (unit time)

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202
2 −2
ML T
Solar constant = 2
L T

Solar constant = M T −3

Where: M=mass, L=length, and T=time

Another formula for solar constant, utilizes the Stefan-Boltzman constant.

2
4 πR
Gsc =σ T 4 ( )
4 πD

Where: σ = 5.67x10^-8 W/m^2 K^4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant), R = 696x10^6 m

(sun’s radius), D = 150x10^9 m (average distance between the sun and the earth)

Instruments

Pyranometer

A pyranometer is a device that measures the amount of heat and light emitted by

the Sun. Solar radiation is measured with a pyranometer on a flat surface, which is

mostly used in meteorology. The whole frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

emitted by the Sun and received on the Earth's surface strikes sensors within the

gadget, which monitors the density of the variations in a 180-degree field around it.

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

One or two domes, a black absorber, a thermopile, the pyranometer body, and,

in some situations, extra electronics are the essential components of a pyranometer.

The dome on a pyranometer acts as a filter, transmitting solar radiation with

wavelengths ranging from roughly 0.3 to about 3 x 106 m (this includes near-infrared,

visible, UV-A, and part of UV-B radiation) but blocking thermal radiation with

wavelengths longer than 3 m. A second dome is occasionally used to improve

pyranometer performance. The thermopile sensor's black coating absorbs solar energy,

while the clear surface reflects it. As a result, the transparent surface absorbs less heat.

Dew does not form on the inner side of the domes because of the dessicator in the

body.

The location of the installation area of pyranometer should always be free from

any obstructions above the plane of the sensing element, it should also be readily

accessible to clean the outer dome and inspect the dessicator. If this is not possible, the

site should be chosen in such a way that any obstruction over the azimuth range

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

between earliest sunrise and latest sunset should have an elevation not exceeding 5

degrees. This is important for an accurate measurement of the direct solar radiation.

The instrument should also be located in such a way that a shadow will not be cast on it

at any time. Walls or other objects that reflect sunlight should not be near to the

instrument. To have an accurate measurement of the global radiation, the levelling of

the thermopile surface should be calibrated. It can be done by turning the levelling

screws.

For maintenance, the fixings and connectors should be checked regularly, check

if the levelling and alignment is still flat or on correct POA. Inspect the ventilation, if

there is any, to ensure the airflow over the dome of the unit. Clean the dome regularly.

To operate the pyranometer, you just have to let it collect data after you install it. This

data is then recorded to data loggers. The values measured can then be interpreted

using formulas or programs/calculators to compute the desired data.

Pyrheliometer

Another type of device used to measure the direct beam of sun radiation on a

regular basis is the pyrheliometer. This instrument has a tracking system that allows it to

follow the sun indefinitely. It responds to wavelength bands ranging from 280 to 3000

nanometers. W/m2 is the unit of irradiance. These equipment are designed specifically

for weather monitoring and climatological research.

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

Pyrheliometers are irradiance sensors with thermopiles, which are Seebeck- or

thermoelectric-effect sensors. A quartz window, a black absorber, a thermopile, the

pyrheliometer tube, which defines the field of vision, and, in some situations, extra

electronics are the essential components of a pyrheliometer. Sights are incorporated to

help you point the instrument accurately. A pyrheliometer's window functions as a filter,

transmitting solar light with wavelengths ranging from about 200 nm to about 4000 nm

(which includes near-infrared, visible, UV-A, and UV-B radiation), while blocking thermal

radiation with wavelengths longer than 4 µm. The black absorber and the thermopile are

also protected from the elements by the window (rain, snow, etc.).

The area for the instrument's placement should be as clear of obstructions as

possible on the horizon. Ideally there should be no barriers between the sun's path and

the instrument. The tube is preferred for clamping the instrument for mechanical

mounting/thermal insulation. Thermal shocks are detectable with a pyrheliometer. It is

not recommended that the device be installed on hot objects (black coated metal

plates).

Regular cleaning of the window and visual inspection of alignment accuracy, together

with a careful analysis of the collected data, preferably compared to other

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

measurements, is the preferred method for obtaining an accurate measurement for

such instruments. Use soft cloth to clean the window of the instruments, and persistent

stains can be treated with soapy water or alcohol. For handling data analysis, compare

the obtained data to the highest possible/expected irradiance as well as other adjacent

measurements (redundant instruments). Expected values can also be derived from

historical seasonal records. Analyze signals that occur during night. Due to the heating,

these may be slightly positive. Look for any trends or incidents that are out of the

ordinary or expected. While for inspection, which is done every few months, inspect

cable quality, inspect cable glands, inspect mounting position, inspect cable, clean

instrument, clean cable, inspect leveling, inspect mounting connection, inspect

desiccant, inspect leveling.

The pyrheliometer will be ready to use after the installation is complete. To avoid

dew deposition on the Quartz glass, it is recommended that you utilize the window

heater. At least 30 minutes before sunrise, turn on the heater. To save electricity, the

window heater may be turned off after daybreak. As indicated in equation below, the

irradiance value (ESolar) may be easily computed by dividing the pyrheliometer's output

signal (Uemf) by its sensitivity (Sensitivity). The following formula must be used to

calculate the direct sun irradiance:

Where the: EDirectSolar = solar radiation; U emf = output radiometer; S = sensitivity of

radiometer

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

Quantum Sensors

Quantum sensors are specialized devices that measure photosynthetically active

radiation, or the visible spectrum that photosynthetic organisms can utilize to generate

energy. The PPFD- photosynthetic photon flux density from sunlight is measured by

quantum sensors. This data is useful in agriculture since it aids in the selection of

farmland. The data has a wide range of applications, as it is also used in oceanography

to determine ocean sunlight zones. The data generated by these sensors is generated

using photovoltaic technology.

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

The quantum sensor, in this case the LI-191R, directs light to a single filtered

silicon photodiode via a 1-meter quartz rod under a diffuser. Over its 1-meter length, the

entire LI-191R diffuser is light sensitive. The LI-191R essentially integrates an infinite

number of points over its surface into a single value that represents light from the entire

1-meter length because the diffuser is one continuous piece. Optical filters restrict light

with wavelengths longer than 700 nm, which is important for under-canopy studies

when the ratio of infrared to visible light is large.

The LI-190R Quantum Sensor can be carried in one hand or mounted on a

platform. Install your sensor in the 2003S Mounting and Leveling Fixture for the best

results. Tighten the mounting screws against the sensor base to secure the sensor in

the fixture. Adjust the three leveling screws to level the fixture with the bubble. Bolts or

screws can be used to secure the 2003S Mounting and Leveling Fixture to a structure

through the three holes in the fixture. Use cable ties to secure cables to the instrument

platform. Make sure the junction where the cable enters the sensor housing is free of

tension, and place a cable tie at any sharp bends in the cable.

Connect the BNC-type cable directly to a BNC input port on a LI250A Light

Meter, LI1400 Datalogger, or LI-1500 Light Sensor Logger to operate this instrument.

These devices take the current (A) signal from the sensor and measure it immediately.

To calculate PAR in mol s^-1 m^-2, enter the sensor's multiplier (LI-COR handheld

meters and loggers convert the current (μA) signal into units of radiation (µmol s-1 m-2)

by applying this multiplier, expressed in radiation units per current (µmol s^-1 m^-2 µA^-

1). This multiplier is a negative number) into the device.

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

Instrument Used by PAG-ASA for weather observation, specifically for Solar

Radiation

 Pyrheliometer – instrument that measures solar radiation by its heating effects

 Dobson Spectrophotometer – can measure total column ozone as well as

ozone profiles in the atmosphere. Ozone (O3) is a triatomic oxygen that absorbs

harmful UV rays in the atmosphere before it reaches the earth's surface. It also

monitors the difference in solar radiation intensity between specified wavelength

pairings in the 300-350 nm range.

 Brewer Ozone Spectrophotometer – a diffraction-grating spectrometer that

offers near-simultaneous readings of the sun's intensity at six wavelengths in the

near ultraviolet range. The quantities of Ozone and SO2 as well as the aerosol

optical depth are calculated using these data.

Summary

The solar constant is the quantity of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per

unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays at a distance of

one astronomical unit, which is a measure of flux density. The inverse square law can

be used to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one AU and deduce the solar

constant when solar irradiance is measured on the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere.

Solar output is roughly constant, but not quite, and instead changes through time.

Before the satellite era, variations in total solar irradiance were too tiny to detect with the

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

equipment available. Total solar output now varies by about 0.1 percent; see solar

fluctuation for further information. Not only visible light, but all types of solar radiation

are included in the solar constant. At solar minimum, it is nearly 1.361 kilowatts per

square meter, while at solar maximum, it is approximately 0.1 percent higher. Due to the

Earth's fluctuating distance from the Sun, the actual direct solar irradiance at the top of

the atmosphere fluctuates by roughly 6.9% over the course of a year, and by

considerably less than 0.1 percent from day to day. As a result, the power for the entire

Earth is 1.7401017 W, plus or minus 3.5 percent. The solar constant does not remain

constant over extended periods of time, but it fluctuates significantly less than the

variation in direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere caused by the Earth's

orbit's ellipticity over a year. The approximate average number mentioned, 1.361

kW/m2, is comparable to approximately 1.952 calories per minute per square

centimeter, or 1.952 langleys in SI units, or 81.66 kJ/m2 per minute. According to the

European Photovoltaics Business Development organization, the ideal type of

instrument you have to use to measure depends to the type of solar radiation you intend

to measure. These instruments includes: pyranometer that measures irradiance in

W/m2 arising from radiant fluxes incident upon a planar surface (horizontal or slanted)

from the hemisphere above, and integrates throughout a wavelength range of at least

300 to 3000 nanometers (nm); pyrheliometer, a device that measures solar irradiation

from the sun directly; and quantum sensors, sensors that measure PPFD or

Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density.

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

Conclusion/Recommendation

Solar constant is not actually constant but fluctuated by ±1.5% of their average

value, and this varies with time. That is why it is important to measure it directly using

instruments to acquire the data that can help to what applications this data will be

utilized. Choosing instruments to measure solar radiation requires several

considerations so that we can measure the type of solar radiation we want, accurately.

This includes the solar radiation’s numerous applications. A pyranometer, for example,

is the perfect instrument for measuring worldwide horizontal irradiation, irradiance on a

plane of the array, or irradiance on a slanted plane. It's also perfect for measuring

reflected sun radiation. Quantum sensors, on the other hand, will do the job if you want

to measure the PPFD in order to make better farming judgments. For installing and

handling the equipment, it is recommended to strictly follow the instruction manuals that

comes with the instruments upon buying it, to avoid measurements errors. These

instructions can also be found in books or internet sites, which are easier to access.

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Name: Laguiab, Jamil Mansor M.
Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

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Yr/Crs/Sec: 4BSABE-A Date: April 1, 202

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