PHYSICS PROJECT

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
Sr i j an Mani Tr
i pathi
Hol y mi s s ion
s ec ondr y
s c hool

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 INDEX
1. Certi cate
2. Acknowledgement
3. Introduction
i. Electrochemical cells
ii. Daniel cell
iii. Electromotive force
4. Objective
5. Apparatus
6. Circuit diagram
7. Theory
8. Procedure
9. Observations
10.Precautions
11.Sources of error
12.Bibliography

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Srijan, a student of class XII

has successfully completed the research project on the

topic

"FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNAL RESISTANCE/

EMF OF A CELL"

This project is absolutely genuine and does not indulge in

plagiarism of any kind. The references

taken in making this
project have been declared at the end of this report.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success and nal outcome of this project
required a lot of guidance and assistance from
many people and I am extremely fortunate to
have got this all along the completion of my
project work. Whatever I have done is only due
to such guidance and assistance and I would not
forget to thank them. I respect and thank
_________________________ for giving me an
opportunity to do this project work and
providing us all support and guidance which
made me complete the project on time. I would
like to express my gratitude towards
___________________________ for helping me in
conducting practicals for project.

Last but not the least I would like to thank all my

friends who supported me all the way and my
parents who helped me nancially and
encouraged me throughout in the completion of
project.

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 INTRODUCTION

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
An electrochemical cell is a device by which electric energy is generated at
the cost of chemical energy due to chemical action taking place in the cell.
They are of two types:

1. Primary Cells
2. Secondary Cells

PRIMARY CELL: It is the cell in which electrical energy is produced due to

chemical energy. The chemical reaction in the cell is irreversible.
E.g. Daniel cell, Leclanche cell.

SECONDARY CELL: It is that cell in which the electrical energy is rst stored
up as chemical energy and when the outside circuit is closed to draw the
current from the cell the stored chemical energy is reconverted into electrical
energy. The chemical reactions in this case are reversible.
E.g. lead acid accumulator, Edison cell.

DANIEL CELL
The Daniel cell was invented by a British chemist, John Frederic Daniel. In
the Daniel cell, copper and zinc electrodes are immersed in a solution of
copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4 (aq)) and zinc (II) sulphate (ZnSO4 (aq))
respectively. The two half cells are connected through a salt bridge. Here zinc
acts as anode and copper acts as cathode.
At the anode, zinc undergoes oxidation to form zinc ions and electrons. The
zinc ions pass into the solution. If the two electrodes are connected using an
external wire, the electrons produced by the oxidation of zinc travel through

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the wire and enter into the copper cathode, where they reduce the copper
ions present in the solution and form copper atoms that are deposited on the
cathode.

The anodic reaction is represented as:

Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e
The cathodic reaction is represented as:
Cu2+ + (aq) + 2e + Cu(5)
The difference of excess electrons on the anode and de cit of electrons on the
cathode creates an electrical potential between the two electrodes.
The ions pass through the salt bridge to maintain charge balance until such a
time as the anode and cathode reach electrical equilibrium of zero volts as
chemical equilibrium is reached in the cell.

The so-called "salt bridge" is not made of salt but could be made of material
able to wick the cations and anions (salts) in the solutions, where the ow of
positively charged cations along the "bridge" amounts to the same number of
negative charges owing in the opposite direction.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Electromotive force, also called emf (denoted and measured in volt), is the
voltage developed by any source of electrical energy such as a battery or
dynamo. It is generally de ned as the electrical potential for a source in a
circuit.

OBJECTIVE
To study the various factors on which the internal resistance/emf of a cell
depends.

APPARATUS
A Potentiometer, a battery (battery eliminator), two way keys, a rheostat of
low resistance, a galvanometer , a high resistance, an ammeter, a cell, a
Jockey, a set square , connecting wires, water bath, thermometer(0-100°C),
burner , tripod stand, wire gauge

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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 THEORY
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by its electrolyte to
the ow of ions. The internal resistance of a cell

i. Is directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.

ii. Is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the electrodes in
electrolyte.
iii. Decrease with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
iv. Is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.

The internal resistance of a cell is given by

r = (l1 − l2) * R
l1
Where l1 and l2 are the balancing length without resistance and with
resistance shunt, respectively and R is the shunt in parallel with the given
cell.

PROCEDURE
Step 1

1. Draw the circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections.

2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight
connections according to the circuit diagrams.
3. Tight the plugs of the resistance box.
4. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and cell and see that e.m.f. and see that
e.m.f. of the battery is more than that of given cell ,otherwise null or
balance point will not be obtained (E' >E).
5. Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.
6. To test the corrections of the connections. (insert the plug in the key K1
and note the ammeter reading .Take out 2000 ohm resistance plug from
resistance box. Place the jokey rst at the end P of the wire and then at the
end Q. If the galvanometer shows de ection in opposite direction in the
two cases the connections are correct).

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7. Without inserting the plug in the key K2 adjust the rheostat so that a null
point is obtained on the 4th wire of potentiometer.
8. Insert the 2000 ohm plug back in the position in resistance box and by
slightly adjusting the jockey near the previous obtained position of null
point, obtain null point position accurately, using a set square.
9. Measure the balancing length l1 between the point and the end P of the
wire.
10.Take out the 2000 ohm plug again from the resistance box R.B. introduce
plugs in K1 ,as well as in key K2. Take out small resistance the key
11.(1-5 ) from the resistance box R connected in parallel with the cell.
12.Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain null point.
13.Insert 2000 ohms plug back in its position in R.B. and if necessary make
further adjustment for sharp null point.
14.Measure the balancing length l2 from end P.
15.Remove the plug keys at Ki and K2 Wait for some time and for the same
value of current (as shown by ammeter) repeat the steps 7 to 13.
16.Repeat the observations for different values of R repeating each
observation twice.
17.Calculate the internal resistance of cell by using the above relation for r.

Step 2
To see the effect of distance between the electrodes on internal resistances
keeping the other factors constant, vary separation between electrodes and
measure internal resistance in each case.

Step 3
To see the effect of the temperature of electrolyte on internal resistance by
keeping other factors constant.
Keep primary cells in water bath to heat the electrolyte. Determine the
internal resistance at various temperatures.

Step 4
To see the effect of concentration(nature) of electrolyte on internal resistance
by:-
Keeping the other factors constant, decrease concentration of electrolyte on
internal resistance by adding the distilled water and determine internal
resistance fo cell in each case.

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 OBSERVATIONS
(A)Internal resistance of cell

1. Table for internal resistance

2. (B) to study the effect of separation between the electrodes

2. Table for effect of separation between electrodes:-

(C) Effect of temperature of electrolyte on the internal resistance

3. Table for effect of temperature

CONCLUSIONS
1. The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant and is equal to E = 0.98 Volt

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2. The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the separation
between the electrodes.
3. The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of the
electrodes dipped in electrolyte.
4. The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the
temperature of electrolytes.
5. The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the
concentration of the electrolyte.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations
are to be taken.
3. The positive polls of the battery E and cells El and E2 should , all be
connected to the terminal at the zero of the wires.
4. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the
wire gently.
5. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of
observation. If necessary, adjust the rheostat for this purpose.
6. The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than the e.m.f.'s of the either of
the two cells.
7. Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from resistance box
before the jockey is moved along the wire.
8. The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than that of the cell.
9. For one set of observation the ammeter reading should remain constant.
10.Current should be passed for short time only , while nding the null
point.
11.Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial null point lies on last wire of
the potentiometer.
12.Cell should not be disturbed during experiment.
13.Jockey should not be rubbed against the potentiometer wire.

SOURCES OF ERROR

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1. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material
density throughout its length.
3. End resistances may not be zero.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Physics NCERT class XII
II. Comprehensive Physics practical class XII.
III.www.google.com
IV. in.wikipedia.org

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