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com SECTION 2: THE PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTS – PAGE 13

SECTION 2

THE PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTS

Section 2-A: The Pitot-Static System Page 14

Section 2-B: The Altimeter Page 16

Section 2-C: The Vertical Speed Indicator Page 18

Section 2-D: The Airspeed Indicator Page 20

www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-A: The Pitot-Static System – PAGE 14

SECTION 2-A: THE PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

The Pitot-static system is the system used in
aircraft to provide some of the flight
instruments with air pressure readings. The
system is made up of two vents to the outside
airflow—each oriented in different
directions—and a series of plumbed lines
connecting these vents to the Pitot-static
instruments. These instruments (Fig. 2-1) are
the:

1) altimeter,
2) airspeed indicator, and
3) vertical speed indicator.

Figure 2-1 – Pitot Static Instruments: The Pitot-static instruments (Airspeed

Each of these relies on pressure readings to
Indicator, Altimeter, Vertical Speed Indicator) in their standard positions within provide the flight crew with information.
the flight instrument “6-pack”.

MAIN ELEMENTS: ‘PITOT’ and ‘STATIC’

The two vents of the Pitot-static system are the Pitot tube and the static port. Each port samples a different type
of pressure, which is then used to measure flight parameters such as altitude, airspeed, and vertical speed.

The static port (Fig. 2-2) is the simplest of the

two. It's oriented with it's opening parallel to the
airflow so that the movement of the air has a
minimum impact on the static reading. To
accommodate this parallel orientation, the static
port is often located on the side of the fuselage,
but can also be located on the side of the pitot
tube assembly. Some aircraft have static ports
on both sides of the fuselage to reduce any error
induced by a slip.

The purpose of the static port is to sample the

static pressure of the air in the surrounding
atmosphere. The static pressure sampled is
vented into the instruments by plumbed lines
Figure 2-2 – The Static Port: The static port is oriented parallel to the relative inside the airframe. The static pressure is then
airflow, and the flow passes the port with minimum disruption in order to used by all three pitot-static instruments.
sample ambient static pressure. In this image, there are three static ports, one
for the Captain’s instrument set, one for the First Officer’s instrument set, and The opening of the Pitot tube1 (Fig. 2-3) is
one for the standby (i.e. – backup) instrument set.
aligned perpendicular to the airflow, so that the
movement of the airflow effectively impacts the

1
– Named for Henri Pitot, an engineer who was trying to measure flow rates of the River Seine in 1732.
www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-A: The Pitot-Static System – PAGE 15

opening. The Pitot tube normally extends off of a wing outside the prop slipstream. However, on jet aircraft and
on multi-engine prop aircraft, it can sometimes be mounted on or near the nose of the aircraft.

The lines attached to the Pitot tube are closed, so that

no air actually flows through the Pitot tube—the flow
is stopped at the opening. It's this stopping of the
airflow at the Pitot tube opening that's important. As
the air's velocity is reduced, it's pressure increases in
accordance with Bernoulli’s Principle2. The faster
the air is moving, the higher the pressure will be
when it comes to a stop. It's this increase in pressure
that we’re trying to measure, since it can be used to
determine airspeed. and sure enough, the Pitot
pressure, also known as the total pressure or ram
pressure, is vented into the airspeed indicator.

So, the full Pitot-static system delivers readings of

static pressure to all three pitot-static instruments,
Figure 2-3 – The Pitot Tube: The Pitot tube is oriented perpendicular and a total pressure reading to the airspeed indicator.
to the relative airflow, and the flow is brought to a stop at the opening
in order to sample “ram” pressure, or total pressure.

REDUNDANCY AND SAFETY FEATURES

Some aircraft have multiple Pitot-static systems to provide pressure readings to different sets of instruments. This
provides a level of redundancy and enhances safety. Other features that enhance safety are the Pitot heat and the
alternate static—both of which are requirements for aircraft operating under IFR.

Pitot heat is exactly what it sound like – an electric heating element installed inside the Pitot tube heats the tube
and prevents or removes ice buildup. The alternate static is a second static port – usually inside the cabin in
unpressurized aircraft. This second static port can be selected by the pilot if s/he suspects that the regular static port
is blocked.

2
– As the velocity of the air is decreased, the dynamic pressure decreases, so static pressure increases.
www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-B: The Altimeter – PAGE 16

SECTION 2-B: THE ALTIMETER (ALT)

The altimeter is a Pitot-static instrument and
is normally located in the top right corner of
the “6-Pack” (Fig. 2-4). The word ‘altimeter’
has it’s roots in the Latin word ‘altus’ which
means ‘high’. This makes sense, since an
altimeter is basically a “Height-Meter”.

Figure 2-4 – The Altimeter: The altimeter is normally located in the top right
position of the standard “6-pack”.

ALTIMETER READING

The altimeter tells us our height above sea level, which we normally refer to as altitude, and the units used is feet.
The instrument face has markings that are labelled 0 through 9 And there are three needles:

1) The long, medium-width needle indicates hundreds of feet. The little notches on the instrument periphery
indicate 20 foot increments.
2) The short, thick needle indicates thousands of feet. The little notches on the instrument periphery indicate
200 foot increments.
3) The long, thin needle with the triangle on it’s end indicates tens of thousands of feet. The little notches on
the instrument periphery indicate 2,000 foot increments.

EXAMPLE (Fig. 2-5)

1) If the long, medium width needle is pointing to the

first notch past the 3, this is read as 320 feet.

2) If the short, thick needle is indicating just past the 5,

this is read as 5,000 feet.

3) If the long, thin needle is past the 1 that would be

10,000 feet.

Reading all 3 needles together, our altitude is .... 15,320 feet

ASL.

Figure 2-5 – Reading The Altimeter: On the altimeter, there

are three needles indicating hundreds, thousands, and tens of
thousands of feet ASL.
www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-B: The Altimeter – PAGE 17

ALTIMETER SETTING
On the right side of most3 altimeters is the altimeter setting window,
also known as the Kollsman window (Fig 2-6). You can adjust the
number in the window with a knob usually located on the bottom left
of the instrument.

The altimeter setting, which is the number you dial into the Kollsman
window, is in inches of mercury (“Hg), and you can get this number
from airport towers, weather reports, or by setting a known elevation
on the altitude reading. The altimeter setting will change from day to
day, hour to hour, and place to place. This is because of
meteorological changes in the atmosphere and the resulting pressure
changes. We compensate for this by adjusting the altimeter setting
Figure 2-6 – Altimeter Setting: The altimeter periodically.
needs to be set in order to account for variations in
meteorological conditions. This setting is done If we get a report that the altimeter setting is 30.01“Hg, we need to
with the altimeter setting knob, which changes the make sure that our altimeter is set to 30.01. With the correct altimeter
readout in the Kollsman window. The Kollsman
window in this illustration is set to 29.92"Hg,
setting dialled in, the altitude read off the altimeter is referred to as
which is the standard setting. indicated altitude, which is our altitude above sea level (ASL).

As an example, sitting at Los Angeles airport, a properly set altimeter

would read 120 feet, which is the elevation of that airport above sea level.

We use Mean Sea Level as a common reference because ground elevation varies significantly from place to
place—even over short distances.

ALTIMETER FUNCTION

So, how does the altimeter work?

Inside the instrument case (Fig. 2-7) we have a sealed aneroid

capsule, which will expand and contract with pressure changes.
The instrument case, which is not sealed, it's connected to the
static port, which registers static pressure.

So as the aircraft gains altitude, pressure decreases and air

leaves the instrument case and the aneroid capsule expands.
This expansion is transmitted through linkages and is displayed
on the instrument face as a gain in altitude.

Vice Versa as the aircraft descends, pressure increases, air

enters the case, and the aneroid capsule contracts—which is
displayed on the instrument face as a loss of altitude.

Figure 2-7 – Function of the Altimeter: The altimeter

operates by using an aneroid capsule to measure pressure.
Since pressure changes with height, the expansion or
contraction of the aneroid capsule is a function of altitude.

3
– Some altimeters don’t have a Kollsman window. These altimeters are set to a fixed setting of 29.92"Hg. Settable altimeters
—those with a Kollsman window and a setting knob—are known as “sensitive” altimeters. Regulations calling for altimeters often specify
sensitive altimeters.
www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-C: The Vertical Speed Indicator – PAGE 18

SECTION 2-C: THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)

The vertical speed indicator is also referred
to by its abbreviation, the VSI. It’s normally
situated in the lower right position of the
flight instrument “6-pack” (Fig. 2-8).

The VSI provides an indication how fast you

are gaining or losing altitude.

Figure 2-8 – The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI): The VSI is normally located in
the bottom right position of the “6-pack”.

READING THE VSI

The VSI displays whether the aircraft is climbing, descending or is in level flight. This information is displayed on
the instrument face with a needle. The instrument face is typically laid out in two halves: top and bottom.

If the needle is in the top half (Fig. 2-9a) then that means you’re climbing, if its bottom half (Fig. 2-9b) then you’re
descending, and if its straight down the middle (Fig. 2-9c) pointing at that zero then you’re in level flight. Further,
the amount of displacement of the needle indicates the rate at which your are climbing or descending.

The units used are hundreds of feet per minute (fpm). If the needle is pointing to the first notch past the five in the
top half, that would mean we are climbing at 600 fpm.

Figure 2-9 – VSI Indications: Interpretation of the VSI is straightforward. The needle indicates direction and rate of vertical motion.
www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-C: The Vertical Speed Indicator – PAGE 19

VSI FUNCTION

So, how does the VSI work?

Inside the instrument case there is an aneroid capsule. This capsule is connected to the static port which samples
static pressure. The instrument case is also connected to the static port, but the connection to the instrument case
is through a calibrated leak, which just means the air isn't free flowing—there needs to be a pressure differential,
and the airflow will be slowed by the calibration of the leak.

When you are in level flight the pressure between the

instrument case and the capsule are equal and the needle
on the face will indicate zero.

When you climb, pressure decreases, which results in air

leaving both the aneroid capsule and the instrument casing
through the static port. However the instrument case has
that calibrated leak. So it will lose air more
slowly—maintaining a relatively high pressure compared
to the capsule. The resulting difference in pressure causes
the aneroid capsule to contract. This contraction is
transmitted through mechanical linkages and displayed on
the instrument face as a rate of climb.

When an aircraft descends instead, the exact opposite

Figure 2-10 – Function of the VSI: The VSI uses an aneroid process occurs. Pressure increases, and air enters through
capsule to measure the rate of change of static pressure. Central
to this process is the calibrated leak, which allows pressure to
the static port going to the capsule and instrument case.
equalize when no change is occurring, and to maintain a But once again, the calibrated leak the casing falls behind,
difference proportional to the rate of change. resulting in relatively lower pressure in hte casing than in
the capsule. So the capsule expands, which is displayed as
a rate of descent on the instrument face.
www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-D: The Airspeed Indicator – PAGE 20

SECTION 2-D: THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)

The Airspeed Indicator (ASI) is a dial with a
pointer that tells you have fast your moving
with respect to the air (airspeed which is
distinct from groundspeed). The ASI is
normally situated in the upper left position of
the flight instrument “6-pack” (Fig. 2-11).

The units of airspeed is usually MPH or

knots. So if the ASI indicator is pointing to
120 and the units is knots, that means we are
flying at a speed of 120 knots (nautical miles
per hour). The airspeed you read directly off
the airspeed indicator is the 'indicated
airspeed' (IAS).
Figure 2-11 – The Airspeed Indicator (ASI): The ASI is normally located in the
top left position of the “6-pack”.

NOTABLE SPEEDS AND RANGES

There are several color coded airspeeds and airspeed ranges on the ASI. Each color is a quick reference for
different operating conditions applicable to the aircraft.

The green arc (Fig. 2-12) indicates the normal operating range.
The lowest number on the green arc indicates the power off
stalling speed with the flaps and gear up. This speed is referred
to as VS. The highest number on the green arc is the max cruising
speed for normal operation, and is referred to as VNO. Most flight
time is spent in the normal operating range.

Figure 2-12 – The ASI Green Arc: The green arc covers
the normal operating range, where flaps-up operation
with or without turbulence is normal.

The white arc (Fig. 2-13) indicates the operating range that full
flap can be used. The lowest number on the white arc is the
power off stalling speed with the flaps and gear down, referred
to as VSO. The highest number on the white arc is the Max Flaps
Extended Speed, referred to as VFE.
Flaps are normally used during takeoff and landing.

Figure 2-13 – The ASI White Arc: The white arc covers
the flap operating range. In this range, flaps can be used
safely to increase drag and/or increase lift capacity.
www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 2-D: The Airspeed Indicator – PAGE 21

The yellow arc (Fig. 2-14) denotes the 'caution’ speed range. You
should only flying the aircraft in the yellow arc when in smooth
air conditions—no turbulence. The lowest number on the yellow
arc is VNO, which matches up with the top of the green arc.

Finally at the highest speed on the yellow arc is a red radial line
(Fig. 2-14). This is the never exceed speed, which is referred to
as VNE.

Quick RECAP:
1) WHITE ARC: Use of flaps is ok.
Figure 2-14 – The ASI Yellow Arc and Red Line: The 2) GREEN ARC: Turbulence is ok,
yellow arc covers the caution range, in which operations
are permitted, but turbulence tolerance is reduced.
3) YELLOW ARC: Smooth air only, and
The Red Line coincides with the top of the 4) RED LINE: Never Exceed.
Yellow Arc, and indicates the Never Exceed Speed (VNE).
At speeds above VNE, we run the risk of flutter,
divergence, control reversal, and more severely reduced
turbulence tolerance.

ASI FUNCTION

So, how does the ASI work?

The airspeed indicator is connected to our two pressure sources: the Pitot tube and the static port, sampling the total
pressure and the static pressure.

Inside the airspeed indicator casing (Fig. 2-15) there is an

a aneroid capsule connected to the pitot tube, which
samples total pressure (i.e – the sum of dynamic and static
pressure). The casing itself is connected to the static port,
which samples static pressure. The instrument compares
the two inputs.

The aneroid capsule will expand by an amount

proportional to the difference between the total pressure
and the static pressure. This difference is the dynamic
pressure. The aneroid expansion due to dynamic pressure
is what gets displayed on the instrument facing. However,
the facing is calibrated to interpret this pressure reading as
a speed.

Figure 2-15 – Function of the ASI: The ASI operates by using an

aneroid capsule to compare total pressure to static pressure. The
difference between these is the dynamic pressure, which is a
measure of airspeed.