Trigonometric Ratios

9 and Functions
9.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry
9.2 Angles and Radian Measure
9.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
9.4 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions
9.5 Graphing Other Trigonometric Functions
9.6 Modeling with Trigonometric Functions
9.7 Using Trigonometric Identities
9.8 Using Sum and Difference Formulas

Sundial (p. 518)

Tuning Fork (p.

(p 510)

Ferris Wheel (p.

(p 494)

SEE the Big Idea

Terminator (p. 476)

iliing ((p.
Parasail
Parasailing p. 46 5))
465)

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 Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency
Absolute Value
2
Example 1 Order the expressions by value from least to greatest: ∣ 6 ∣, ∣ −3 ∣, —, ∣ 10 − 6 ∣
∣ −4 ∣

∣6∣ = 6 ∣ −3 ∣ = 3 The absolute value of a

negative number is positive.
2 2 1
—=—=— ∣ 10 − 6 ∣ = ∣ 4 ∣ = 4
∣ −4 ∣ 4 2

2
So, the order is —, ∣ −3 ∣, ∣ 10 − 6 ∣, and ∣ 6 ∣.
∣ −4 ∣

Order the expressions by value from least to greatest.

∣ −5 ∣
1. ∣ 4 ∣, ∣ 2 − 9 ∣, ∣ 6 + 4 ∣, −∣ 7 ∣ 2. ∣ 9 − 3 ∣, ∣ 0 ∣, ∣ −4 ∣, —
∣2∣
3. ∣ −83 ⋅
∣, ∣ −2 8 ∣, ∣ 9 − 1 ∣, ∣ 9 ∣ + ∣ −2 ∣ − ∣ 1 ∣ 4. ∣ −4 + 20 ∣, −∣ ∣, ∣ 5 ∣ − ∣ 3 ⋅ 2 ∣, ∣ −15 ∣
42

Pythagorean Theorem
Example 2 Find the missing side length of the triangle.

10 cm a2 + b2 = c2 Write the Pythagorean Theorem.

102 + b2 = 262 Substitute 10 for a and 26 for c.

26 cm b
100 + b2 = 676 Evaluate powers.
b2 = 576 Subtract 100 from each side.
b = 24 Take positive square root of each side.

So, the length is 24 centimeters.

Find the missing side length of the triangle.

5. 6. 7.
b
9.6 mm 7.2 mm
12 m c
7 ft
25 ft
c
5m

8. 9. 10. 3
yd
35 km 10
a
1 b
12 in.
3 a
21 km 1
yd
2
4 in.

11. ABSTRACT REASONING The line segments connecting the points (x1, y1), (x2, y1), and (x2, y2)
form a triangle. Is the triangle a right triangle? Justify your answer.

Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com 459

45

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 Mathematical Mathematically proficient students reason quantitatively by creating

Practices valid representations of problems.

Reasoning Abstractly and Quantitatively

Core Concept
The Unit Circle y
The unit circle is a circle in the coordinate plane. Its center (0, 1)
is at the origin, and it has a radius of 1 unit. The equation of (x, y)
the unit circle is
x2 + y2 = 1. Equation of unit circle
(−1, 0) θ (1, 0)
(0, 0) x
As the point (x, y) starts at (1, 0) and moves counterclockwise
around the unit circle, the angle θ (the Greek letter theta) moves
from 0° through 360°. (0, −1)

Finding Coordinates of a Point on the Unit Circle

Find the exact coordinates of the point (x, y) on the unit circle. y
(0, 1)
SOLUTION
(x, y)
Because θ = 45°, (x, y) lies on the line y = x.
(−1, 0) 45° (1, 0)
x2 + y2 = 1 Write equation of unit circle.
(0, 0) x
x2 + x2 = 1 Substitute x for y.
2x2 = 1 Add like terms.
(0, −1)
1
x2 = — Divide each side by 2.
2
1
x=— — Take positive square root of each side.
√2

( ) ( )
— —
1 1 √2 √2
The coordinates of (x, y) are ——, —— , or —, — .
√2 √2 2 2

Monitoring Progress
Find the exact coordinates of the point (x, y) on the unit circle.
1. y 2. y 3. y
(0, 1) (0, 1) (0, 1)
(x, y)
135° 225°
(−1, 0) (1, 0) (−1, 0) (1, 0) (−1, 0) (1, 0)
(0, 0) x (0, 0) x (0, 0) x
315°
(x, y) (x, y)
(0, −1) (0, −1) (0, −1)

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 9.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry
Essential Question How can you find a trigonometric function of
an acute angle θ?
Consider one of the acute angles θ of a right triangle.
Ratios of a right triangle’s side lengths are used to

opposite side
define the six trigonometric functions, as shown.

se
nu
te
opp. adj.

po
Sine sin θ = — Cosine cos θ = —

hy
hyp. hyp.
opp. adj.
Tangent tan θ = — Cotangent cot θ = — θ
adj. opp.
adjacent side
hyp. hyp.
Secant sec θ = — Cosecant csc θ = —
adj. opp.

Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles

Work with a partner. Find the exact values of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions
for the angles 30°, 45°, and 60° in the right triangles shown.

60°
45°
2 2
CONSTRUCTING 1 1

VIABLE ARGUMENTS
30° 45°
To be proficient in
3 1
math, you need to
understand and use stated
assumptions, definitions,
and previously established Exploring Trigonometric Identities
results in constructing Work with a partner.
arguments.
Use the definitions of the trigonometric functions to explain why each trigonometric
identity is true.
a. sin θ = cos(90° − θ) b. cos θ = sin(90° − θ)
1 1
c. sin θ = — d. tan θ = —
csc θ cot θ
Use the definitions of the trigonometric functions to complete each trigonometric
identity.
e. (sin θ)2 + (cos θ)2 = f. (sec θ)2 − (tan θ)2 =

Communicate Your Answer

3. How can you find a trigonometric function of an acute angle θ?
4. Use a calculator to find the lengths x and y
of the legs of the right triangle shown. 1 y

25°
x

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 9.1 Lesson What You Will Learn
Evaluate trigonometric functions of acute angles.
Find unknown side lengths and angle measures of right triangles.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use trigonometric functions to solve real-life problems.
sine, p. 462
cosine, p. 462
The Six Trigonometric Functions
tangent, p. 462
cosecant, p. 462 Consider a right triangle that has an acute angle θ
(the Greek letter theta). The three sides of the triangle hypotenuse
secant, p. 462
are the hypotenuse, the side opposite θ, and the side
cotangent, p. 462 opposite
adjacent to θ. side
Previous
right triangle Ratios of a right triangle’s side lengths are used to
θ
define the six trigonometric functions: sine, cosine,
hypotenuse adjacent side
tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent. These six
acute angle
functions are abbreviated sin, cos, tan, csc, sec, and
Pythagorean Theorem
cot, respectively.
reciprocal
complementary angles
Core Concept
Right Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Functions
Let θ be an acute angle of a right triangle. The six trigonometric functions of θ are
defined as shown.
opposite adjacent opposite
sin θ = — cos θ = — tan θ = —
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
csc θ = — sec θ = — cot θ = —
opposite adjacent opposite

REMEMBER The abbreviations opp., adj., and hyp. are often used to represent the side lengths
of the right triangle. Note that the ratios in the second row are reciprocals of the
The Pythagorean Theorem
ratios in the first row.
states that a2 + b2 = c2
for a right triangle with 1 1 1
csc θ = — sec θ = — cot θ = —
hypotenuse of length c sin θ cos θ tan θ
and legs of lengths a
and b.
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
c
a Evaluate the six trigonometric functions of the angle θ.
θ hypotenuse
5
b SOLUTION
From the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the 12
hypotenuse is
—
hyp. = √ 52 + 122
—
= √ 169

= 13.
Using adj. = 5, opp. = 12, and hyp. = 13, the values of the six trigonometric
functions of θ are:
opp. 12 adj. 5 opp. 12
sin θ = — = — cos θ = — = — tan θ = — = —
hyp. 13 hyp. 13 adj. 5
hyp. 13 hyp. 13 adj. 5
csc θ = — = — sec θ = — = — cot θ = — = —
opp. 12 adj. 5 opp. 12

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 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

In a right triangle, θ is an acute angle and sin θ = —47 . Evaluate the other five
trigonometric functions of θ.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Draw a right triangle with acute angle θ such that
the leg opposite θ has length 4 and the hypotenuse 7
has length 7. 4
θ
Step 2 Find the length of the adjacent side. By the
adj. = 33
Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the other leg is
— —
adj. = √ 72 − 42 = √ 33 .
Step 3 Find the values of the remaining five trigonometric functions.
4 hyp. 7
Because sin θ = —, csc θ = — = —. The other values are:
7 opp. 4
— —
adj. √33 opp. 4 4√ 33
cos θ = — = — tan θ = — = — — = —
hyp. 7 adj. √33 33
— —
hyp. 7 7√ 33 adj. √33
sec θ = — = — — = — cot θ = — = —
adj. √33 33 opp. 4

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Evaluate the six trigonometric functions of the angle θ.

1. 2. θ 3.
17 5 2 θ
3 5
θ
15
4
7
4. In a right triangle, θ is an acute angle and cos θ = —
10
. Evaluate the other five
trigonometric functions of θ.

The angles 30°, 45°, and 60° occur frequently in trigonometry. You can use the
trigonometric values for these angles to find unknown side lengths in special
right triangles.

Core Concept
Trigonometric Values for Special Angles
The table gives the values of the six trigonometric functions for the angles 30°,
45°, and 60°. You can obtain these values from the triangles shown.

θ sin θ cos θ tan θ csc θ sec θ cot θ

— — —
1 √3 √3 2√3 —
30° — — — 2 — √3
2 30° 2 2 3 3
3
— —
2 45° 1 √2 √2 — —
45° — — 1 √2 √2 1
60° 45° 2 2
1 1 — — —
√3 1 — 2√3 √3
60° — — √3 — 2 —
2 2 3 3

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 Finding Side Lengths and Angle Measures

Finding an Unknown Side Length

Find the value of x for the right triangle.

8
SOLUTION 30°
x
Write an equation using a trigonometric function that
involves the ratio of x and 8. Solve the equation for x.
adj.
cos 30° = — Write trigonometric equation.
hyp.
—
√3 x
—=— Substitute.
2 8
—
4√ 3 = x Multiply each side by 8.
—
The length of the side is x = 4√3 ≈ 6.93.

Finding all unknown side lengths and angle measures of a triangle is called solving
READING the triangle. Solving right triangles that have acute angles other than 30°, 45°, and 60°
Throughout this chapter, may require the use of a calculator. Be sure the calculator is set in degree mode.
a capital letter is used
to denote both an angle
of a triangle and its
Using a Calculator to Solve a Right Triangle
measure. The same letter
Solve △ABC. B
in lowercase is used to
denote the length of the c
SOLUTION a
side opposite that angle. 28°
Because the triangle is a right triangle, A and B are A b = 15 C
complementary angles. So, B = 90° − 28° = 62°.
Next, write two equations using trigonometric functions, one that involves the ratio
of a and 15, and one that involves c and 15. Solve the first equation for a and the
second equation for c.
opp. hyp.
tan 28° = — Write trigonometric equation. sec 28° = —
adj. adj.
a c
tan 28° = — Substitute. sec 28° = —
15 15

15(tan 28°) = a Solve for the variable. (1

15 — = c
cos 28° )
7.98 ≈ a Use a calculator. 16.99 ≈ c

So, B = 62º, a ≈ 7.98, and c ≈ 16.99.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

5. Find the value of x for the right triangle shown.

6

45°
x
B Solve △ABC using the diagram at the left and the given measurements.
c a
6. B = 45°, c = 5 7. A = 32°, b = 10
A b C 8. A = 71°, c = 20 9. B = 60°, a = 7

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 Solving Real-Life Problems
Using Indirect Measurement

You are hiking near a canyon. While standing at A,

you measure an angle of 90º between B and C, as
C
FINDING AN shown. You then walk to B and measure an angle of
76° between A and C. The distance between A and B
ENTRY POINT is about 2 miles. How wide is the canyon between
The tangent function is A and C?
used to find the unknown x
distance because it involves SOLUTION
the ratio of x and 2. x
tan 76° = — Write trigonometric equation.
2 B 76°
2(tan 76°) = x Multiply each side by 2. 2 mi A

8.0 ≈ x Use a calculator.

The width is about 8.0 miles.

If you look at a point above you, such as the top of

a building, the angle that your line of sight makes angle of
with a line parallel to the ground is called the angle depression
of elevation. At the top of the building, the angle
between a line parallel to the ground and your line angle of
of sight is called the angle of depression. These elevation
two angles have the same measure. you

Using an Angle of Elevation

A parasailer is attached to a boat with a rope 72 feet long. The angle of elevation from
the boat to the parasailer is 28°. Estimate the parasailer’s height above the boat.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Draw a diagram that represents the situation.
72 ft
h
28°

Step 2 Write and solve an equation to find the height h.

h
sin 28° = — Write trigonometric equation.
72
72(sin 28°) = h Multiply each side by 72.
33.8 ≈ h Use a calculator.

The height of the parasailer above the boat is about 33.8 feet.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

10. In Example 5, find the distance between B and C.

11. WHAT IF? In Example 6, estimate the height of the parasailer above the boat
when the angle of elevation is 38°.

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 9.1 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE In a right triangle, the two trigonometric functions of θ that are defined
using the lengths of the hypotenuse and the side adjacent to θ are __________ and __________.

2. VOCABULARY Compare an angle of elevation to an angle of depression.

3. WRITING Explain what it means to solve a right triangle.

4. DIFFERENT WORDS, SAME QUESTION Which is different? Find “both” answers.

What is the cosecant of θ ? 1

What is —?
sin θ
6
4
What is the ratio of the side opposite θ to the hypotenuse?

What is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the side opposite θ? θ

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 5–10, evaluate the six trigonometric 12. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS Evaluate the six
functions of the angle θ. (See Example 1.) trigonometric functions of the 90° − θ angle in
Exercises 5–10. Describe the relationships you notice.
5. 6.
θ θ
In Exercises 13–18, let θ be an acute angle of a right
9 8 triangle. Evaluate the other five trigonometric functions
of θ. (See Example 2.)
7 5
12 6 13. sin θ = —
11
14. cos θ = —
12

7. 8. 7 15
9 15. tan θ = —6 16. csc θ = —
3 8
7 θ
5 14
17. sec θ = —
9
θ
16
18. cot θ = —
11
9. 10.
10 14
19. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in
θ θ finding sin θ of the triangle below.
18 26
17
8
11. REASONING Let θ be an acute angle of a right
triangle. Use the two trigonometric functions θ
—
4 √97 15
tan θ = — and sec θ = — to sketch and label
9 9

✗
the right triangle. Then evaluate the other four
opp. 15
trigonometric functions of θ. sin θ = — = —
hyp. 17

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 20. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in 41. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS To measure the
finding csc θ, given that θ is an acute angle of a right width of a river, you plant a stake on one side of the
triangle and cos θ = — 7
. river, directly across from a boulder. You then walk
11
100 meters to the right of the stake and measure a

✗
79° angle between the stake and the boulder. What is
1 11 the width w of the river? (See Example 5.)
csc θ = — = —
cos θ 7

Not drawn to scale

In Exercises 21–26, find the value of x for the right
triangle. (See Example 3.)
w
21. 22.
79°
9 6
100 m
60° 60°
x x 42. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Katoomba Scenic
Railway in Australia is the steepest railway in the
world. The railway makes an angle of about 52° with
23. 30° 24. 30° the ground. The railway extends horizontally about
12 13 458 feet. What is the height of the railway?

43. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A person whose

x x eye level is 1.5 meters above the ground is standing
75 meters from the base of the Jin Mao Building in
25. 8 26. 7 Shanghai, China. The person estimates the angle
of elevation to the top of the building is about 80°.
What is the approximate height of the building?
x x (See Example 6.)
45° 45°

44. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The Duquesne

Incline in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, has an angle of
USING TOOLS In Exercises 27–32, evaluate the elevation of 30°. The track has a length of about
trigonometric function using a calculator. Round your 800 feet. Find the height of the incline.
answer to four decimal places.
45. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS You are standing
27. cos 14° 28. tan 31°
on the Grand View Terrace viewing platform at Mount
Rushmore, 1000 feet from the base of the monument.
29. csc 59° 30. sin 23°

31. cot 6° 32. sec 11°

Not drawn to scale

In Exercises 33–40, solve △ABC using the diagram and

the given measurements. (See Example 4.) b
24°
A 1000 ft
c
b
a. You look up at the top of Mount Rushmore at an
C a B angle of 24°. How high is the top of the monument
from where you are standing? Assume your eye
33. B = 36°, a = 23 34. A = 27°, b = 9 level is 5.5 feet above the platform.
b. The elevation of the Grand View Terrace is
35. A = 55°, a = 17 36. B = 16°, b = 14 5280 feet. Use your answer in part (a) to find the
elevation of the top of Mount Rushmore.
37. A = 43°, b = 31 38. B = 31°, a = 23
46. WRITING Write a real-life problem that can be solved
39. B = 72°, c = 12.8 40. A = 64°, a = 7.4 using a right triangle. Then solve your problem.

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 47. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The Tropic of 50. PROBLEM SOLVING You measure the angle of
Cancer is the circle of elevation from the ground to the top of a building as
latitude farthest north North Pole 32°. When you move 50 meters closer to the building,
Tropic of
of the equator where Cancer the angle of elevation is 53°. What is the height of
23.5°
the Sun can appear equator the building?
directly overhead. It lies
23.5° north of the equator, 51. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims it is
South Pole
as shown. possible to draw a right triangle so the values of the
cosine function of the acute angles are equal. Is your
a. Find the circumference of the Tropic of Cancer
friend correct? Explain your reasoning.
using 3960 miles as the approximate radius
of Earth.
52. THOUGHT PROVOKING Consider a semicircle with a
b. What is the distance between two points on the
radius of 1 unit, as shown below. Write the values of
Tropic of Cancer that lie directly across from
the six trigonometric functions of the angle θ. Explain
each other?
your reasoning.

48. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the figure to answer

each question.
θ
y h
90° − θ
θ 53. CRITICAL THINKING A procedure for approximating
x
π based on the work of Archimedes is to inscribe a
regular hexagon in a circle.
a. Which side is adjacent to θ ?
b. Which side is opposite of θ ?
c. Does cos θ = sin(90° − θ)? Explain.
30° 30°
1 1
49. PROBLEM SOLVING A passenger in an airplane sees x
two towns directly to the left of the plane.
a. Use the diagram to solve for x. What is the
15° 25° perimeter of the hexagon?
25,000 ft d b. Show that a regular n-sided polygon inscribed
in a circle of radius 1 has a perimeter of
x y
180 °
a. What is the distance d from the airplane to the
⋅
2n sin — . ( )
n
first town? c. Use the result from part (b) to find an expression
in terms of n that approximates π. Then evaluate
b. What is the horizontal distance x from the airplane the expression when n = 50.
to the first town?
c. What is the distance y between the two towns?
Explain the process you used to find your answer.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Perform the indicated conversion. (Skills Review Handbook)

54. 5 years to seconds 55. 12 pints to gallons 56. 5.6 meters to millimeters

Find the circumference and area of the circle with the given radius or diameter.
(Skills Review Handbook)
57. r = 6 centimeters 58. r = 11 inches 59. d = 14 feet

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 9.2 Angles and Radian Measure
Essential Question How can you find the measure of an angle
in radians?
Let the vertex of an angle be at the origin, with one side of the angle on the positive
x-axis. The radian measure of the angle is a measure of the intercepted arc length on
a circle of radius 1. To convert between degree and radian measure, use the fact that
π radians
— = 1.
180°

Writing Radian Measures of Angles

Work with a partner. Write the radian measure of each angle with the given
degree measure. Explain your reasoning.
a. y b. y
90° 120° 60°
135° 45°
radian 150° 30°
measure
π 0°
180° 360° x x
degree
measure 210° 330°
225° 315°
240° 300°
270°

Writing Degree Measures of Angles

Work with a partner. Write the degree measure of each angle with the given
radian measure. Explain your reasoning.

y
degree 5π 4π
measure
9 9
7π 2π
radian 9 9
measure
x

11π 16π
9 9
13π 14π
REASONING 9 9

ABSTRACTLY
To be proficient in math,
you need to make sense Communicate Your Answer
of quantities and their 3. How can you find the measure of an angle y
relationships in problem in radians?
situations.
4. The figure shows an angle whose measure is
30 radians. What is the measure of the angle in
degrees? How many times greater is 30 radians x
than 30 degrees? Justify your answers.
30 radians

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 9.2 Lesson What You Will Learn
Draw angles in standard position.
Find coterminal angles.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use radian measure.
initial side, p. 470
terminal side, p. 470
Drawing Angles in Standard Position
standard position, p. 470
coterminal, p. 471 In this lesson, you will expand your study of angles to include angles with measures
that can be any real numbers.
radian, p. 471
sector, p. 472
central angle, p. 472 Core Concept
Previous Angles in Standard Position
radius of a circle 90° y
In a coordinate plane, an angle can be formed terminal
circumference of a circle by fixing one ray, called the initial side, and side
rotating the other ray, called the terminal side, 0°
about the vertex. x
180° vertex initial
360°
An angle is in standard position when its vertex side
is at the origin and its initial side lies on the
positive x-axis. 270°

The measure of an angle is positive when the rotation of its terminal side is
counterclockwise and negative when the rotation is clockwise. The terminal side
of an angle can rotate more than 360°.

Drawing Angles in Standard Position

Draw an angle with the given measure in standard position.

a. 240° b. 500° c. −50°

SOLUTION
a. Because 240° is 60° b. Because 500° is 140° c. Because −50° is
more than 180°, the more than 360°, the negative, the terminal
terminal side is 60° terminal side makes side is 50° clockwise
counterclockwise past one complete rotation from the positive
the negative x-axis. 360° counterclockwise x-axis.
plus 140° more.
y y y

240° 140°
x
x x
500° −50°
60°

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Draw an angle with the given measure in standard position.

1. 65° 2. 300° 3. −120° 4. −450°

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 Finding Coterminal Angles
In Example 1(b), the angles 500° and 140° are coterminal because their terminal
sides coincide. An angle coterminal with a given angle can be found by adding or
STUDY TIP subtracting multiples of 360°.
If two angles differ by a
multiple of 360°, then the Finding Coterminal Angles
angles are coterminal.
Find one positive angle and one negative angle that are coterminal with (a) −45°
and (b) 395°.

SOLUTION
There are many such angles, depending on what multiple of 360° is added or
subtracted.
a. −45° + 360° = 315° b. 395° − 360° = 35°
−45° − 360° = −405° 395° − 2(360°) = −325°

y y
−325°

35°
−45° x
395°
x
315°
−405°

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Find one positive angle and one negative angle that are coterminal with the
given angle.

5. 80° 6. 230° 7. 740° 8. −135°

STUDY TIP Using Radian Measure

Notice that 1 radian Angles can also be measured in radians. To define y
is approximately equal a radian, consider a circle with radius r centered at
to 57.3°. the origin, as shown. One radian is the measure of r
180° = π radians an angle in standard position whose terminal side r
intercepts an arc of length r.
180°
— = 1 radian 1 radian x
π Because the circumference of a circle is 2πr, there
are 2π radians in a full circle. So, degree measure
57.3° ≈ 1 radian and radian measure are related by the equation
360° = 2π radians, or 180° = π radians.

Core Concept
Converting Between Degrees and Radians
Degrees to radians Radians to degrees
Multiply degree measure by Multiply radian measure by
π radians 180°
—. —.
180° π radians

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 Convert Between Degrees and Radians

Convert the degree measure to radians or the radian measure to degrees.

π
a. 120° b. −—
12
READING
The unit “radians” is often SOLUTION
omitted. For instance, the π radians π π
π
measure −— radians may
12
a. 120° = 120 degrees — (
180 degrees ) (
b. −— = −— radians —
12 12
180°
π radians )( )
π
be written simply as −—. 2π
12 =— = −15°
3

Concept Summary
Degree and Radian Measures of Special Angles
The diagram shows equivalent degree and y radian
π
radian measures for special angles from 2π 2 π measure
0° to 360° (0 radians to 2π radians). 3π 3 3 π
4 90° 4
5π 120° 60° π
You may find it helpful to memorize the 6 135° 45° 6
equivalent degree and radian measures of 150° degree 30°
special angles in the first quadrant and for measure
π 0° 0 x
π 180°
90° = — radians. All other special angles 360° 2π
2
shown are multiples of these angles. 210° 330°
7π 225° 315° 11π
6 240° 300° 6
5π 270° 7π
4 4π 5π 4
3 3π 3
2

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Convert the degree measure to radians or the radian measure to degrees.

5π
9. 135° 10. −40° 11. — 12. −6.28
4

A sector is a region of a circle that is bounded by two radii and an arc of the circle.
The central angle θ of a sector is the angle formed by the two radii. There are simple
formulas for the arc length and area of a sector when the central angle is measured
in radians.

Core Concept
Arc Length and Area of a Sector
The arc length s and area A of a sector with sector
radius r and central angle θ (measured in
radians) are as follows. r
arc
Arc length: s = rθ length
central s
Area: A = —12 r 2θ angle θ

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 Modeling with Mathematics

A softball field forms a sector with the dimensions shown. Find the length of the
outfield fence and the area of the field.

SOLUTION
outfield
1. Understand the Problem You are given the fence
dimensions of a softball field. You are asked
to find the length of the outfield fence and the
area of the field. 200 ft

2. Make a Plan Find the measure of the central

angle in radians. Then use the arc length and
area of a sector formulas.
90°
3. Solve the Problem 200 ft
Step 1 Convert the measure of the central angle to radians.
π radians
COMMON ERROR
You must write the
90° = 90 degrees — (
180 degrees )
measure of an angle π
= — radians
in radians when using 2
these formulas for the
arc length and area of Step 2 Find the arc length and the area of the sector.
a sector.
1
Arc length: s = r θ Area: A = —r 2θ
2
π 1 π
= 200 —
2 ( ) = — (200)2 —
2 2( )
= 100π = 10,000π
ANOTHER WAY ≈ 314 ≈ 31,416
Because the central
angle is 90°, the sector The length of the outfield fence is about 314 feet. The area of the field
represents —14 of a circle is about 31,416 square feet.
with a radius of 200 feet.
So, 4. Look Back To check the area of the field,
consider the square formed using the two
s = —14 ⋅ 2πr = — ⋅ 2π (200)
1
4 200-foot sides.
= 100π By drawing the diagonal, you can see that
and the area of the field is less than the area of the 200 ft

⋅ πr ⋅ π (200)
square but greater than one-half of the area of
A = —41 2 = —14 2
the square.
= 10,000π. 1
—2 ⋅ (area of square) area of square 90°
200 ft
1 ? ?
— (200)2 < 31,416 < 2002
2
20,000 < 31,416 < 40,000 ✓
Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

13. WHAT IF? In Example 4, the outfield fence is 220 feet from home plate. Estimate
the length of the outfield fence and the area of the field.

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 9.2 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE An angle is in standard position when its vertex is at the __________
and its __________ lies on the positive x-axis.

2. WRITING Explain how the sign of an angle measure determines its direction of rotation.

3. VOCABULARY In your own words, define a radian.

4. WHICH ONE DOESN’T BELONG? Which angle does not belong with the other three? Explain
your reasoning.

−90° 450° 90° −270°

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 5–8, draw an angle with the given measure 22. OPEN-ENDED Using radian measure, give one positive
in standard position. (See Example 1.) angle and one negative angle that are coterminal with
the angle shown. Justify your answers.
5. 110° 6. 450°
y
7. −900° 8. −10°

In Exercises 9–12, find one positive angle and one

x
negative angle that are coterminal with the given angle.
315°
(See Example 2.)
9. 70° 10. 255°

11. −125° 12. −800° ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 23–26, match

the angle measure with the angle.
In Exercises 13–20, convert the degree measure
9π
to radians or the radian measure to degrees. 23. 600° 24. −—
4
(See Example 3.)
5π
13. 40° 14. 315° 25. — 26. −240°
6
15. −260° 16. −500° A. y B. y

π 3π
17. — 18. —
9 4
x x
19. −5 20. 12

21. WRITING The terminal side of an angle in

standard position rotates one-sixth of a revolution
C. y D. y
counterclockwise from the positive x-axis. Describe
how to find the measure of the angle in both degree
and radian measures.
x x

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 27. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The observation 31. PROBLEM SOLVING When a CD player reads
deck of a building forms a sector with the dimensions information from the outer edge of a CD, the CD
shown. Find the length of the safety rail and the area spins about 200 revolutions per minute. At that speed,
of the deck. (See Example 4.) through what angle does a point on the CD spin in
one minute? Give your answer in both degree and
safety rail radian measures.
10 yd
90° 32. PROBLEM SOLVING You work every Saturday from

10 yd
9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Draw a diagram that shows the
rotation completed by the hour hand of a clock during
this time. Find the measure of the angle generated by
the hour hand in both degrees and radians. Compare
28. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS In the men’s shot this angle with the angle generated by the minute
put event at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, the hand from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.
length of the winning shot was 21.89 meters. A shot
put must land within a sector having a central angle USING TOOLS In Exercises 33–38, use a calculator to
of 34.92° to be considered fair. evaluate the trigonometric function.
4π 7π
33. cos — 34. sin —
3 8
10π
35. csc —
11 ( 65π )
36. cot −—

37. cot(−14) 38. cos 6

39. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The rear windshield

wiper of a car rotates 120°, as shown. Find the area
cleared by the wiper.

a. The officials draw an arc across the fair landing

area, marking the farthest throw. Find the length
of the arc.
b. All fair throws in the 2012 Olympics landed
within a sector bounded by the arc in part (a). 25 in.
120°
What is the area of this sector? 14 in.

29. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in

converting the degree measure to radians.
40. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A scientist

✗
performed an experiment to study the effects of
24° = 24 degrees —— (
180 degrees
π radians
) gravitational force on humans. In order for humans
to experience twice Earth’s gravity, they were placed
4320 in a centrifuge 58 feet long and spun at a rate of about
= —
π
radians 15 revolutions per minute.

≈ 1375.1 radians

30. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error

in finding the area of a sector with a radius of
6 centimeters and a central angle of 40°.

✗ 1
A = — (6)2(40) = 720 cm2
2
a. Through how many radians did the people rotate
each second?
b. Find the length of the arc through which the
people rotated each second.

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 41. REASONING In astronomy, the terminator is the 44. THOUGHT PROVOKING π is an irrational number,
day-night line on a planet that divides the planet into which means that it cannot be written as the ratio
daytime and nighttime regions. The terminator moves of two whole numbers. π can, however, be written
across the surface of a planet as the planet rotates. exactly as a continued fraction, as follows.
It takes about 4 hours for Earth’s terminator to move
across the continental United States. Through what 1
3 + ————
angle has Earth rotated during this time? Give your 1
7 + ———
answer in both degree and radian measures. 1
15 + ———
1
1 + ——
1
terminator 292 + ——
1
1 + ——
1
1+—
1+...
Show how to use this continued fraction to obtain a
decimal approximation for π.

45. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims that

when the arc length of a sector equals the radius, the
42. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the graph to find the s2
area can be given by A = —. Is your friend correct?
measure of θ. Explain your reasoning. Explain.
2

y
46. PROBLEM SOLVING A spiral staircase has 15 steps.
4 Each step is a sector with a radius of 42 inches and a
r=4
θ π
central angle of —.
8
x
a. What is the length of the arc formed by the outer
edge of a step?
b. Through what angle would you rotate by climbing
the stairs?
c. How many square inches of carpeting would you
43. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A dartboard is
need to cover the 15 steps?
divided into 20 sectors. Each sector is worth a point
value from 1 to 20 and has shaded regions that double
47. MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS There are 60 minutes
or triple this value. A sector is shown below. Find the
in 1 degree of arc, and 60 seconds in 1 minute of arc.
areas of the entire sector, the double region, and the
The notation 50° 30′ 10″ represents an angle with a
triple region.
measure of 50 degrees, 30 minutes, and 10 seconds.
3 in.
3 in. 8
8 1
a. Write the angle measure 70.55° using the
2 8 in. notation above.
3
3 4 in.
b. Write the angle measure 110° 45′ 30″ to the
triple double
nearest hundredth of a degree. Justify your answer.
6 5 in.
8

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Find the distance between the two points. (Skills Review Handbook)
48. (1, 4), (3, 6) 49. (−7, −13), (10, 8)
50. (−3, 9), (−3, 16) 51. (2, 12), (8, −5)
52. (−14, −22), (−20, −32) 53. (4, 16), (−1, 34)

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 9.3 Trigonometric Functions of
Any Angle
Essential Question How can you use the unit circle to define the
trigonometric functions of any angle?
Let θ be an angle in standard position with (x, y) a point on the terminal side of θ and
—
r = √ x2 + y2 ≠ 0. The six trigonometric functions of θ are defined as shown.
y r
sin θ = — csc θ = —, y ≠ 0 y
r y (x, y)
x r
cos θ = — sec θ = —, x ≠ 0
r x
r
θ
y x
tan θ = —, x ≠ 0 cot θ = —, y ≠ 0
x y x

Writing Trigonometric Functions

Work with a partner. Find the sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle θ in standard
position whose terminal side intersects the unit circle at the point (x, y) shown.

a. y b. y c. y
(
−1 , 3
2 2 ( (−12 , 12 (

x x x

(0, −1)

d. y e. y f. y

(−1, 0)
x x x

( 12 , − 2 3 ( ( 12 , −12 (
CONSTRUCTING
VIABLE ARGUMENTS
To be proficient in
math, you need to
understand and use stated
assumptions, definitions,
Communicate Your Answer
and previously established 2. How can you use the unit circle to define the trigonometric functions of any angle?
results.
3. For which angles are each function undefined? Explain your reasoning.
a. tangent b. cotangent c. secant d. cosecant

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 9.3 Lesson What You Will Learn
Evaluate trigonometric functions of any angle.
Find and use reference angles to evaluate trigonometric functions.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry
unit circle, p. 479 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
quadrantal angle, p. 479
You can generalize the right-triangle definitions of trigonometric functions so that they
reference angle, p. 480
apply to any angle in standard position.
Previous
circle
radius Core Concept
Pythagorean Theorem General Definitions of Trigonometric Functions
Let θ be an angle in standard position, and let (x, y) y
be the point where the terminal side of θ intersects
the circle x2 + y2 = r2. The six trigonometric
functions of θ are defined as shown. θ
(x, y)
y r r
sin θ = — csc θ = —, y ≠ 0 x
r y
x r
cos θ = — sec θ = —, x ≠ 0
r x
y x
tan θ = —, x ≠ 0 cot θ = —, y ≠ 0
x y
These functions are sometimes called circular functions.

Evaluating Trigonometric Functions Given a Point

Let (−4, 3) be a point on the terminal side of y

an angle θ in standard position. Evaluate the
six trigonometric functions of θ.
(−4, 3) θ
SOLUTION r
Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of r. x

—
r = √ x2 + y2
—
= √ (−4)2 + 32
—
= √ 25
=5
Using x = −4, y = 3, and r = 5, the values of the six trigonometric functions of θ are:
y 3 r 5
sin θ = — = — csc θ = — = —
r 5 y 3
x 4 r 5
cos θ = — = −— sec θ = — = −—
r 5 x 4
y 3 x 4
tan θ = — = −— cot θ = — = −—
x 4 y 3

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 Core Concept
The Unit Circle y
The circle + = 1, which has center (0, 0)
x2 y2
and radius 1, is called the unit circle. The values
of sin θ and cos θ are simply the y-coordinate and θ
x-coordinate, respectively, of the point where the
terminal side of θ intersects the unit circle. x
r=1
y y
ANOTHER WAY sin θ = — = — = y (x, y)
r 1
The general circle x x
x2 + y2 = r2 can also be used cos θ = — = — = x
r 1
to find the six trigonometric
functions of θ. The terminal
side of θ intersects the circle It is convenient to use the unit circle to find trigonometric functions of quadrantal
at (0, −r). So, angles. A quadrantal angle is an angle in standard position whose terminal side lies on
π
y −r an axis. The measure of a quadrantal angle is always a multiple of 90º, or — radians.
sin θ = — = — = −1. 2
r r
The other functions can be Using the Unit Circle
evaluated similarly.
Use the unit circle to evaluate the six trigonometric functions of θ = 270º.

SOLUTION y

Step 1 Draw a unit circle with the angle θ = 270º in

standard position.
θ
Step 2 Identify the point where the terminal side
of θ intersects the unit circle. The terminal x
side of θ intersects the unit circle at (0, −1).
Step 3 Find the values of the six trigonometric
functions. Let x = 0 and y = −1 to evaluate (0, −1)
the trigonometric functions.
y −1 r 1
sin θ = — = — = −1 csc θ = — = — = −1
r 1 y −1
x 0 r 1
cos θ = — = — = 0 sec θ = — = — undefined
r 1 x 0
y −1 x 0
tan θ = — = — undefined cot θ = — = — = 0
x 0 y −1

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Evaluate the six trigonometric functions of θ.

1. y 2. (−8, 15) y 3. y

θ θ
θ x x x

(3, −3) (−5, −12)

4. Use the unit circle to evaluate the six trigonometric functions of θ = 180º.

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 Reference Angles

READING
Core Concept
Reference Angle Relationships
The symbol θ′ is read as
“theta prime.” Let θ be an angle in standard position. The reference angle for θ is the acute
angle θ′ formed by the terminal side of θ and the x-axis. The relationship between
θ and θ′ is shown below for nonquadrantal angles θ such that 90° < θ < 360° or,
π
in radians, — < θ < 2π.
2
Quadrant II Quadrant III Quadrant IV
y y y

θ′ θ θ θ

x x x
θ′ θ′

Degrees: θ ′ = 180° − θ Degrees: θ ′ = θ − 180° Degrees: θ ′ = 360° − θ

Radians: θ ′ = π − θ Radians: θ ′ = θ − π Radians: θ ′ = 2π − θ

Finding Reference Angles

5π
Find the reference angle θ ′ for (a) θ = — and (b) θ = −130º.
3
SOLUTION
a. The terminal side of θ lies in Quadrant IV. So, y
y
5π π
θ′ = 2π − — = —. The figure at the right shows
3 3 θ
5π π
θ = — and θ′ = —. x
x 3 3 θ′
θ′ θ b. Note that θ is coterminal with 230º, whose terminal side
lies in Quadrant III. So, θ′ = 230º − 180º = 50º. The
figure at the left shows θ = −130º and θ′ = 50º.

Reference angles allow you to evaluate a trigonometric function for any angle θ. The
sign of the trigonometric function value depends on the quadrant in which θ lies.

Core Concept
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
Use these steps to evaluate a Signs of Function Values
trigonometric function for any angle θ:
Quadrant II y Quadrant I
Step 1 Find the reference angle θ′. sin θ, csc θ : + sin θ, csc θ : +
Step 2 Evaluate the trigonometric cos θ , sec θ : − cos θ , sec θ : +
function for θ′. tan θ , cot θ : − tan θ , cot θ : +

Step 3 Determine the sign of the Quadrant III Quadrant IV x

sin θ, csc θ : − sin θ, csc θ : −
trigonometric function value
cos θ , sec θ : − cos θ , sec θ : +
from the quadrant in which
tan θ , cot θ : + tan θ , cot θ : −
θ lies.

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 Using Reference Angles to Evaluate Functions
17π
Evaluate (a) tan(−240º) and (b) csc —.
6

SOLUTION
y
a. The angle −240º is coterminal with 120º. The reference
angle is θ′ = 180º − 120º = 60º. The tangent function θ′ = 60°
is negative in Quadrant II, so
— x
tan(−240º) = −tan 60º = −√ 3 .
θ = −240°
17π 5π
b. The angle — is coterminal with —. The
6 6
reference angle is y
5π π
θ′ = π − — = —.
6 6
θ′= π6
The cosecant function is positive in Quadrant II, so
x
17π π 17π
csc — = csc — = 2. θ=
INTERPRETING 6 6 6
MODELS
This model neglects air Solving a Real-Life Problem
resistance and assumes
that the projectile’s The horizontal distance d (in feet) traveled by a projectile launched at
starting and ending an angle θ and with an initial speed v (in feet per second) is given by
heights are the same. v2
d = — sin 2θ. Model for horizontal distance
32
Estimate the horizontal distance traveled by a golf ball
that is hit at an angle of 50° with an initial speed of
105 feet per second. 50°

SOLUTION
Note that the golf ball is launched at an angle of θ = 50º with initial speed
of v = 105 feet per second.
v2
d = — sin 2θ Write model for horizontal distance.
32
1052
= — sin(2 50°)
32 ⋅ Substitute 105 for v and 50º for θ.

≈ 339 Use a calculator.

The golf ball travels a horizontal distance of about 339 feet.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Sketch the angle. Then find its reference angle.

−7π 15π
5. 210° 6. −260° 7. — 8. —
9 4
Evaluate the function without using a calculator.
11π
9. cos(−210º) 10. sec —
4
11. Use the model given in Example 5 to estimate the horizontal distance traveled
by a track and field long jumper who jumps at an angle of 20° and with an initial
speed of 27 feet per second.

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 9.3 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE A(n) ___________ is an angle in standard position whose terminal
side lies on an axis.

2. WRITING Given an angle θ in standard position with its terminal side in Quadrant III, explain
how you can use a reference angle to find cos θ.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3 –8, evaluate the six trigonometric In Exercises 15–22, sketch the angle. Then find its
functions of θ. (See Example 1.) reference angle. (See Example 3.)
3. y 4. y 15. −100° 16. 150°

θ 17. 320° 18. −370°

θ x x 15π 8π
19. — 20. —
(4, −3) (5, −12) 4 3
5π 13π
21. −— 22. −—
6 6
5. y 6. y

23. ERROR ANALYSIS Let (−3, 2) be a point on the

θ (3, 1)
θ terminal side of an angle θ in standard position.
x x Describe and correct the error in finding tan θ.
(−6, −8)

7. y 8. y
✗ x 3
tan θ = — = −—
y 2

θ 24. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in

θ
x finding a reference angle θ′ for θ = 650°.
x
(1, −2)

(−12, −9) ✗ θ is coterminal with 290°, whose

terminal side lies in Quadrant IV.
So, θ′ = 290° − 270° = 20°.
In Exercises 9–14, use the unit circle to evaluate the six
trigonometric functions of θ. (See Example 2.)
9. θ = 0° 10. θ = 540° In Exercises 25–32, evaluate the function without using
a calculator. (See Example 4.)
π 7π
11. θ = — 12. θ = — 25. sec 135° 26. tan 240°
2 2

13. θ = −270° 14. θ = −2π 27. sin(−150°) 28. csc(−420°)

( 34π )
29. tan −— 30. cot — ( −83 π )
7π 11π
31. cos — 32. sec —
4 6

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 In Exercises 33–36, use the model for horizontal 38. REASONING A Ferris wheel has a radius of 75 feet.
distance given in Example 5. You board a car at the bottom of the Ferris wheel,
which is 10 feet above the ground, and rotate 255°
33. You kick a football at an angle of 60° with an initial
counterclockwise before the ride temporarily stops.
speed of 49 feet per second. Estimate the horizontal
How high above the ground are you when the ride
distance traveled by the football. (See Example 5.)
stops? If the radius of the Ferris wheel is doubled,
is your height above the ground doubled? Explain
34. The “frogbot” is a robot designed for exploring rough
your reasoning.
terrain on other planets. It can jump at a 45° angle
with an initial speed of 14 feet per second. Estimate
39. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A sprinkler at ground
the horizontal distance the frogbot can jump on Earth.
level is used to water a garden. The water leaving the
sprinkler has an initial speed of 25 feet per second.
a. Use the model for horizontal distance given in
Example 5 to complete the table.

Angle of Horizontal distance

sprinkler, θ water travels, d
30°
35. At what speed must the in-line skater launch himself 35°
off the ramp in order to land on the other side of
the ramp? 40°
45°
50°
55°
60°
5 ft
18° b. Which value of θ appears to maximize the
horizontal distance traveled by the water? Use the
36. To win a javelin throwing competition, your last model for horizontal distance and the unit circle to
throw must travel a horizontal distance of at least explain why your answer makes sense.
100 feet. You release the javelin at a 40° angle with c. Compare the horizontal distance traveled by the
an initial speed of 71 feet per second. Do you win the water when θ = (45 − k)° with the distance when
competition? Justify your answer. θ = (45 + k)°, for 0 < k < 45.
37. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A rock climber is 40. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Your school’s
using a rock climbing treadmill that is 10 feet long. marching band is performing at halftime during
The climber begins by lying horizontally on the a football game. In the last formation, the band
treadmill, which is then rotated about its midpoint by members form a circle 100 feet wide in the center
110° so that the rock climber is climbing toward the of the field. You start at a point on the circle 100 feet
top. If the midpoint of the treadmill is 6 feet above from the goal line, march 300° around the circle, and
the ground, how high above the ground is the top of then walk toward the goal line to exit the field. How
the treadmill? far from the goal line are you at the point where you
y leave the circle?
y

110° starting
5 ft position
300°
x
? (50, 0)
x
100 ft
6 ft
(x, y)
?
goal line

Section 9.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle 483

hsnb_alg2_pe_0903.indd 483 2/5/15 1:49 PM

 41. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS Use symmetry and 46. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims that
the given information to label the coordinates of the the only solution
—
to the trigonometric equation
other points corresponding to special angles on the tan θ = √3 is θ = 60°. Is your friend correct?
unit circle. Explain your reasoning.

(0, 1)
y
( 12 , 23 ( 47. PROBLEM SOLVING When two atoms in a molecule

120°
90°
60°
( 22 , 22 ( are bonded to a common atom, chemists are interested
in both the bond angle and the lengths of the bonds.
135°
150°
45°
30° ( 23 , 12 (
x
An ozone molecule is made up of two oxygen atoms
0° bonded to a third oxygen atom, as shown.
180° 360° (1, 0)
210° 330° y
225° 315°
240° 300° (x, y)
270°
d
128 pm
117° x

42. THOUGHT PROVOKING Use the interactive unit circle (0, 0) 128 pm (128, 0)
tool at BigIdeasMath.com to describe all values of θ
for each situation.
a. In the diagram, coordinates are given in
a. sin θ > 0, cos θ < 0, and tan θ > 0 picometers (pm). (Note: 1 pm = 10−12 m) Find the
b. sin θ > 0, cos θ < 0, and tan θ < 0 coordinates (x, y) of the center of the oxygen atom
in Quadrant II.
b. Find the distance d (in picometers) between the
43. CRITICAL THINKING Write tan θ as the ratio of two
centers of the two unbonded oxygen atoms.
other trigonometric functions. Use this ratio to explain
why tan 90° is undefined but cot 90° = 0. 48. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The latitude of a
point on Earth is the degree measure of the shortest
44. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Determine whether each arc from that point to the equator. For example,
of the six trigonometric functions of θ is positive, the latitude of point P in the diagram equals the
negative, or zero. Explain your reasoning. degree measure of arc PE. At what latitude θ is the
circumference of the circle of latitude at P half the
y
distance around the equator?

θ circle of
x latitude P
C

θ
O D E
45. USING STRUCTURE A line with slope m passes
through the origin. An angle θ in standard position
has a terminal side that coincides with the line. Use equator
a trigonometric function to relate the slope of the line
to the angle.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Find all real zeros of the polynomial function. (Section 4.6)

49. f (x) = x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 8x − 12 50. f (x) = x5 + 4x4 − 14x3 − 14x2 − 15x − 18

Graph the function. (Section 4.8)

1
51. f (x) = 2(x + 3)2(x − 1) 52. f (x) = —3 (x − 4)(x + 5)(x + 9) 53. f (x) = x2(x + 1)3(x − 2)

484 Chapter 9 Trigonometric Ratios and Functions

hsnb_alg2_pe_0903.indd 484 2/5/15 1:49 PM

 41. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS Use symmetry and 46. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims that
the given information to label the coordinates of the the only solution
—
to the trigonometric equation
other points corresponding to special angles on the tan θ = √3 is θ = 60°. Is your friend correct?
unit circle. Explain your reasoning.

(0, 1)
y
( 12 , 23 ( 47. PROBLEM SOLVING When two atoms in a molecule

120°
90°
60°
( 22 , 22 ( are bonded to a common atom, chemists are interested
in both the bond angle and the lengths of the bonds.
135°
150°
45°
30° ( 23 , 12 (
x
An ozone molecule is made up of two oxygen atoms
0° bonded to a third oxygen atom, as shown.
180° 360° (1, 0)
210° 330° y
225° 315°
240° 300° (x, y)
270°
d
128 pm
117° x

42. THOUGHT PROVOKING Use the interactive unit circle (0, 0) 128 pm (128, 0)
tool at BigIdeasMath.com to describe all values of θ
for each situation.
a. In the diagram, coordinates are given in
a. sin θ > 0, cos θ < 0, and tan θ > 0 picometers (pm). (Note: 1 pm = 10−12 m) Find the
b. sin θ > 0, cos θ < 0, and tan θ < 0 coordinates (x, y) of the center of the oxygen atom
in Quadrant II.
b. Find the distance d (in picometers) between the
43. CRITICAL THINKING Write tan θ as the ratio of two
centers of the two unbonded oxygen atoms.
other trigonometric functions. Use this ratio to explain
why tan 90° is undefined but cot 90° = 0. 48. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The latitude of a
point on Earth is the degree measure of the shortest
44. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Determine whether each arc from that point to the equator. For example,
of the six trigonometric functions of θ is positive, the latitude of point P in the diagram equals the
negative, or zero. Explain your reasoning. degree measure of arc PE. At what latitude θ is the
circumference of the circle of latitude at P half the
y
distance around the equator?

θ circle of
x latitude P
C

θ
O D E
45. USING STRUCTURE A line with slope m passes
through the origin. An angle θ in standard position
has a terminal side that coincides with the line. Use equator
a trigonometric function to relate the slope of the line
to the angle.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Find all real zeros of the polynomial function. (Section 4.6)

49. f (x) = x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 8x − 12 50. f (x) = x5 + 4x4 − 14x3 − 14x2 − 15x − 18

Graph the function. (Section 4.8)

1
51. f (x) = 2(x + 3)2(x − 1) 52. f (x) = —3 (x − 4)(x + 5)(x + 9) 53. f (x) = x2(x + 1)3(x − 2)

484 Chapter 9 Trigonometric Ratios and Functions

hsnb_alg2_pe_0903.indd 484 4/20/16 3:03 PM

 9.4 Lesson What You Will Learn
Explore characteristics of sine and cosine functions.
Stretch and shrink graphs of sine and cosine functions.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Translate graphs of sine and cosine functions.
amplitude, p. 486 Reflect graphs of sine and cosine functions.
periodic function, p. 486
cycle, p. 486
period, p. 486 Exploring Characteristics of Sine and Cosine Functions
phase shift, p. 488 In this lesson, you will learn to graph sine and cosine functions. The graphs of sine
midline, p. 488 and cosine functions are related to the graphs of the parent functions y = sin x and
y = cos x, which are shown below.
Previous
transformations 3π π π 3π
x −2π − — −π −— 0 — π — 2π
x-intercept 2 2 2 2
y = sin x 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0
y = cos x 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0 1

maximum y
y = sin x
value: 1
1
amplitude: 1
range:
−1 ≤ y ≤ 1 3π −π π π π 3π 2π x
− −
2 2 2 2
−1
minimum period:
2π
value: −1

maximum m y
value: 1 y = cos x

amplitude: 1
range:
−1 ≤ y ≤ 1 − 2π 3π −π π π π 3π 2π x
− −
2 2 2 2
−1
minimum period:
2π
value: −1

Core Concept
Characteristics of y = sin x and y = cos x
• The domain of each function is all real numbers.
• The range of each function is −1 ≤ y ≤ 1. So, the minimum value of each
function is −1 and the maximum value is 1.
• The amplitude of the graph of each function is one-half of the difference of
the maximum value and the minimum value, or —12 [1 − (−1)] = 1.
• Each function is periodic, which means that its graph has a repeating pattern.
The shortest repeating portion of the graph is called a cycle. The horizontal
length of each cycle is called the period. Each graph shown above has a period
of 2π.
• The x-intercepts for y = sin x occur when x = 0, ±π, ±2π, ±3π, . . ..
π 3π 5π 7π
• The x-intercepts for y = cos x occur when x = ± —, ± —, ± —, ± —, . . ..
2 2 2 2

486 Chapter 9 Trigonometric Ratios and Functions

hsnb_alg2_pe_0904.indd 486 2/5/15 1:50 PM

 Stretching and Shrinking Sine and Cosine Functions
The graphs of y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx represent transformations of their parent
functions. The value of a indicates a vertical stretch (a > 1) or a vertical shrink
(0 < a < 1) and changes the amplitude of the graph. The value of b indicates a
REMEMBER horizontal stretch (0 < b < 1) or a horizontal shrink (b > 1) and changes the period
of the graph.
⋅
The graph of y = a f (x) is
a vertical stretch or shrink y = a sin bx
of the graph of y = f (x) by y = a cos bx
a factor of a.
1
The graph of y = f (bx) vertical stretch or shrink by a factor of a horizontal stretch or shrink by a factor of —
b
is a horizontal stretch or
shrink of the graph of
1
y = f (x) by a factor of —.
b
Core Concept
Amplitude and Period
The amplitude and period of the graphs of y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx, where
a and b are nonzero real numbers, are as follows:
2π
Amplitude = ∣ a ∣ Period = —
∣b∣

2π
Each graph below shows five key points that partition the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ — into
b
four equal parts. You can use these points to sketch the graphs of y = a sin bx and
y = a cos bx. The x-intercepts, maximum, and minimum occur at these points.

y y
y = a cos bx
( 14 ∙ 2bπ , a( y = a sin bx
(0, a)
( 2bπ , 0( ( 14 ∙ 2bπ , 0( ( 2bπ , a(
(0, 0) x x
( 12 ∙ 2bπ , 0( ( 34 ∙ 2bπ , 0(
( 34 ∙ 2bπ , −a( ( 12 ∙ 2bπ , −a(

Graphing a Sine Function

Identify the amplitude and period of g(x) = 4 sin x. Then graph the function and
REMEMBER describe the graph of g as a transformation of the graph of f (x) = sin x.
A vertical stretch of a
graph does not change its SOLUTION
x-intercept(s). So, it makes The function is of the form g(x) = a sin bx where a = 4 and b = 1. So, the amplitude
sense that the x-intercepts 2π 2π
of g(x) = 4 sin x and is a = 4 and the period is — = — = 2π.
b 1
f (x) = sin x are the same. y
4
g
1
( ⋅
Intercepts: (0, 0); — 2π, 0 = (π, 0); (2π, 0)
2 ) 4

π
−
π
4
f
9π
4
(⋅ ) ( )
1
Maximum: — 2π, 4 = —, 4
4 2
π
2
3π
2
x

3π
Minimum: ( ⋅ 2π, −4 ) = ( , −4 )
3
— —
4 2
−4
The graph of g is a vertical stretch by a factor of 4 of the graph of f.

Section 9.4 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions 487

hsnb_alg2_pe_0904.indd 487 2/5/15 1:50 PM

 Graphing a Cosine Function
1
Identify the amplitude and period of g(x) = — cos 2πx. Then graph the function and
2
describe the graph of g as a transformation of the graph of f (x) = cos x.

SOLUTION
1
The function is of the form g(x) = a cos bx where a = — and b = 2π. So, the
2
1 2π 2π
amplitude is a = — and the period is — = — = 1.
2 b 2π
STUDY TIP
After you have drawn
one complete cycle of
(
1
) ( )( ⋅ ) ( )
⋅1 3 3
Intercepts: — 1, 0 = — , 0 ; — 1, 0 = — , 0
4 4 4 4

Maximums: ( 0, ); ( 1, )
the graph in Example 2 1 1 y
— — 1
on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 2 2
you can extend the graph
Minimum: ( ⋅ 1, − ) = ( , − )
1 1 1 1
by repeating the cycle as — — — —
2 2 2 2 1 2 x
many times as desired to
the left and right of −1
0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

1
The graph of g is a vertical shrink by a factor of — and a horizontal shrink by a
2
1
factor of — of the graph of f.
2π

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Identify the amplitude and period of the function. Then graph the function and
describe the graph of g as a transformation of the graph of its parent function.
REMEMBER 1 1 1
1. g(x) = —4 sin x 2. g(x) = cos 2x 3. g(x) = 2 sin πx 4. g(x) = —3 cos —2 x
The graph of y = f (x) + k
is a vertical translation of
the graph of y = f (x).
The graph of y = f (x − h)
is a horizontal translation
Translating Sine and Cosine Functions
of the graph of y = f (x). The graphs of y = a sin b(x − h) + k and y = a cos b(x − h) + k represent
translations of y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx. The value of k indicates a translation up
(k > 0) or down (k < 0). The value of h indicates a translation left (h < 0) or right
(h > 0). A horizontal translation of a periodic function is called a phase shift.

Core Concept
Graphing y = a sin b(x − h) + k and y = a cos b(x − h) + k
To graph y = a sin b(x − h) + k or y = a cos b(x − h) + k where a > 0 and
b > 0, follow these steps:
2π
Step 1 Identify the amplitude a, the period —, the horizontal shift h, and the
b
vertical shift k of the graph.
Step 2 Draw the horizontal line y = k, called the midline of the graph.
Step 3 Find the five key points by translating the key points of y = a sin bx or
y = a cos bx horizontally h units and vertically k units.
Step 4 Draw the graph through the five translated key points.

488 Chapter 9 Trigonometric Ratios and Functions

hsnb_alg2_pe_0904.indd 488 2/5/15 1:50 PM

 Graphing a Vertical Translation

Graph g(x) = 2 sin 4x + 3.

LOOKING FOR SOLUTION

STRUCTURE Step 1 Identify the amplitude, period, horizontal shift, and vertical shift.
The graph of g is a Amplitude: a = 2 Horizontal shift: h = 0
translation 3 units up of
the graph of f (x) = 2 sin 4x. 2π 2π π
Period: — = — = — Vertical shift: k = 3
So, add 3 to the b 4 2
y-coordinates of the Step 2 Draw the midline of the graph, y = 3.
five key points of f.
Step 3 Find the five key points.
π π π π
( 4 4 ) ( )(
On y = k: (0, 0 + 3) = (0, 3); —, 0 + 3 = —, 3 ; —, 0 + 3 = —, 3
2 2 ) ( )
π π
Maximum: ( , 2 + 3 ) = ( , 5 )
— —
y
8 8
5
3π 3π
(
Minimum: —, −2 + 3 = —, 1
8 8 ) ( )
1
Step 4 Draw the graph through the key points.
−1 π π x
4 2

Graphing a Horizontal Translation

1
Graph g(x) = 5 cos — (x − 3π).
2

SOLUTION
LOOKING FOR Step 1 Identify the amplitude, period, horizontal shift, and vertical shift.
STRUCTURE
The graph of g is a Amplitude: a = 5 Horizontal shift: h = 3π
translation 3π units 2π 2π
right of the graph of Period: — = — = 4π Vertical shift: k = 0
b 1
—
f (x) = 5 cos —12 x. So, add 3π 2
to the x-coordinates of the Step 2 Draw the midline of the graph. Because k = 0, the midline is the x-axis.
five key points of f.
Step 3 Find the five key points.
y
On y = k: (π + 3π, 0) = (4π, 0); 6
(3π + 3π, 0) = (6π, 0)
2
Maximums: (0 + 3π, 5) = (3π, 5); x
(4π + 3π, 5) = (7π, 5) π 3π 5π 7π 9π
−2
Minimum: (2π + 3π, −5) = (5π, −5)
−6
Step 4 Draw the graph through the key points.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Graph the function.

1 π
5. g(x) = cos x + 4 (
6. g(x) = — sin x − —
2 2 ) 7. g(x) = sin(x + π) − 1

Section 9.4 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions 489

hsnb_alg2_pe_0904.indd 489 2/5/15 1:50 PM

 Reflecting Sine and Cosine Functions
You have graphed functions of the form y = a sin b(x − h) + k and
y = a cos b(x − h) + k, where a > 0 and b > 0. To see what happens when a < 0,
consider the graphs of y = −sin x and y = −cos x.
y
y = −sin x
y y = −cos x
( 32π , 1( (π, 1)
1 1
REMEMBER (0, 0) (2π, 0) ( π2, 0( ( 32π , 0( x
This result makes sense π x π 2π
(π, 0)
because the graph of 2
−1
y = −f (x) is a reflection in (0, −1) (2π, −1)
the x-axis of the graph of
( π2 , −1(
y = f (x).
The graphs are reflections of the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x in the x-axis. In
general, when a < 0, the graphs of y = a sin b(x − h) + k and y = a cos b(x − h) + k
are reflections of the graphs of y = ∣ a ∣ sin b(x − h) + k and y = ∣ a ∣ cos b(x − h) + k,
respectively, in the midline y = k.

Graphing a Reflection

2 π
Graph g(x) = −2 sin — x − — .
3 2 ( )
SOLUTION
Step 1 Identify the amplitude, period, horizontal shift, and vertical shift.
π
Amplitude: ∣ a ∣ = ∣ −2 ∣ = 2 Horizontal shift: h = —
2
2π 2π
Period: — = — = 3π Vertical shift: k = 0
b 2
—
3
Step 2 Draw the midline of the graph. Because k = 0, the midline is the x-axis.
2 π
Step 3 Find the five key points of f (x) = ∣ −2 ∣ sin — x − — . ( )
3 2
π π 3π π π 7π
( ) ( )(
On y = k: 0 + —, 0 = —, 0 ; — + —, 0 = (2π, 0); 3π + —, 0 = —, 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 )
) ( ) (
STUDY TIP Maximum: (
3π π
—
5π
+ , 2) = ( , 2) Minimum: (
—
9π π
+ , −2 ) = (
—
11π
, −2 ) — — —
In Example 5, the 4 2 4 4 2 4
maximum value and Step 4 Reflect the graph. Because a < 0, y
minimum value of f the graph is reflected in the midline
are the minimum value 5π 5π
and maximum value, ( )
y = 0. So, —, 2 becomes —, −2
4 4 ( ) 1

respectively, of g. 11π 11π

( )
and —, −2 becomes —, 2 .
4 4 ( ) −1
π 3π x

Step 5 Draw the graph through the key points.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Graph the function.

π 1
8. g(x) = −cos x + — ( 2 ) 9. g(x) = −3 sin — x + 2
2
10. g(x) = −2 cos 4x − 1

490 Chapter 9 Trigonometric Ratios and Functions

hsnb_alg2_pe_0904.indd 490 2/5/15 1:50 PM

 9.4 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE The shortest repeating portion of the graph of a periodic function is
called a(n) _________.
1
2. WRITING Compare the amplitudes and periods of the functions y = —2 cos x and y = 3 cos 2x.

3. VOCABULARY What is a phase shift? Give an example of a sine function that has a phase shift.

4. VOCABULARY What is the midline of the graph of the function y = 2 sin 3(x + 1) − 2?

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

USING STRUCTURE In Exercises 5–8, determine whether In Exercises 13–20, identify the amplitude and period of
the graph represents a periodic function. If so, identify the function. Then graph the function and describe the
the period. graph of g as a transformation of the graph of its parent
function. (See Examples 1 and 2.)
5. y 6. y

1
13. g(x) = 3 sin x 14. g(x) = 2 sin x
1
x
15. g(x) = cos 3x 16. g(x) = cos 4x
π
2
2 4 x
17. g(x) = sin 2π x 18. g(x) = 3 sin 2x

1 1
19. g(x) = —3 cos 4x 20. g(x) = —2 cos 4πx
7. y 8. y
1 4 21. ANALYZING EQUATIONS Which functions have an
amplitude of 4 and a period of 2?
2
10 x
A y = 4 cos 2x
○
−1
B y = −4 sin πx
○
2 4 6 x
C y = 2 sin 4x
○
D y = 4 cos πx
○
In Exercises 9–12, identify the amplitude and period of
the graph of the function. 22. WRITING EQUATIONS Write an equation of the form
9. y 10. y y = a sin bx, where a > 0 and b > 0, so that the graph
0.5 has the given amplitude and period.
1
a. amplitude: 1 b. amplitude: 10
2π x period: 5 period: 4
1 2 x

c. amplitude: 2 d. amplitude: —12

period: 2π period: 3π

11. y 12. y 23. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The motion

4 of a pendulum can be modeled by the function
2 d = 4 cos 8π t, where d is the horizontal displacement
(in inches) of the pendulum relative to its position at
π π x π 4π 7π x
−2 2 rest and t is the time (in seconds). Find and interpret
−4 the period and amplitude in the context of this
situation. Then graph the function.

Section 9.4 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions 491

hsnb_alg2_pe_0904.indd 491 2/5/15 1:50 PM

 24. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A buoy bobs up USING STRUCTURE In Exercises 37– 40, describe the
and down as waves go past. The vertical displacement transformation of the graph of f represented by the
y (in feet) of the buoy with respect to sea level can be function g.
π
modeled by y = 1.75 cos —t, where t is the time
3
(in seconds). Find and interpret the period and ( π2 )
37. f (x) = cos x, g(x) = 2 cos x − — + 1
amplitude in the context of the problem. Then graph π
the function. 38. f (x) = sin x, g(x) = 3 sin( x + ) − 2 —
4
39. f (x) = sin x, g(x) = sin 3(x + 3π) − 5

40. f (x) = cos x, g(x) = cos 6(x − π) + 9

In Exercises 41–48, graph the function. (See Example 5.)

41. g(x) = −cos x + 3 42. g(x) = −sin x − 5
1
43. g(x) = −sin —x − 2 44. g(x) = −cos 2x + 1
2
In Exercises 25–34, graph the function. (See Examples 45. g(x) = −sin(x − π) + 4
3 and 4.)
46. g(x) = −cos(x + π) − 2
25. g(x) = sin x + 2 26. g(x) = cos x − 4

27. g(x) = cos x − — ( π

2 ) (
28. g(x) = sin x + —
π
4 ) ( π4 )
47. g(x) = −4 cos x + — − 1

π
29. g(x) = 2 cos x − 1 30. g(x) = 3 sin x + 1 48. g(x) = −5 sin( x − ) + 3 —
2
31. g(x) = sin 2(x + π) 49. USING EQUATIONS Which of the following is a
point where the maximum value of the graph of
32. g(x) = cos 2(x − π) π
(
y = −4 cos x − — occurs?
2 )
1 π π
33. g(x) = sin —(x + 2π) + 3
2 ○ A (
−—, 4
2 ) ○B —, 4
2 ( )
1 C (0, 4) D (π, 4)
34. g(x) = cos —(x − 3π) − 5 ○ ○
2

35. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in 50. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS Match each function
2 with its graph. Explain your reasoning.
finding the period of the function y = sin —x.
3 a. y = 3 + sin x b. y = −3 + cos x

✗
π π
∣b∣ ∣ — ∣= 1
2 (
c. y = sin 2 x − —
2 ) (
d. y = cos 2 x − —
2 )
3
Period: —
2π —
=
2π —
3π A. y B. y
4
1

36. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in π π x

2 1
determining the point where the maximum value of −1
π
(
the function y = 2 sin x − — occurs.
2 ) π 2π x

C. y D. y

✗ Maximum: π 2π x 1
−1

( ( —14 ⋅2π ) − —π2, 2 ) = ( —π2 − —π2, 2 ) π

2
π
x

= (0, 2) −4

492 Chapter 9 Trigonometric Ratios and Functions

hsnb_alg2_pe_0904.indd 492 2/5/15 1:50 PM

 WRITING EQUATIONS In Exercises 51–54, write a rule 57. USING TOOLS The average wind speed s (in miles per
for g that represents the indicated transformations of hour) in the Boston Harbor can be approximated by
the graph of f.
π
s = 3.38 sin — (t + 3) + 11.6
51. f (x) = 3 sin x; translation 2 units up and π units right 180
where t is the time in days and t = 0 represents
52. f (x) = cos 2πx; translation 4 units down and 3 units left
January 1. Use a graphing calculator to graph the
function. On which days of the year is the average
1
53. f (x) = —3 cos πx; translation 1 unit down, followed by wind speed 10 miles per hour? Explain your
a reflection in the line y = −1 reasoning.

1 3 58. USING TOOLS The water depth d (in feet) for the Bay
54. f (x) = —2 sin 6x; translation —2 units down and 1 unit
π
3 of Fundy can be modeled by d = 35 − 28 cos —t,
right, followed by a reflection in the line y = −—2 6.2
where t is the time in hours and t = 0 represents
55. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The height h midnight. Use a graphing calculator to graph the
(in feet) of a swing above the ground can be modeled function. At what time(s) is the water depth 7 feet?
by the function h = −8 cos θ + 10, where the pivot is Explain.
10 feet above the ground, the rope is 8 feet long, and
θ is the angle that the rope makes with the vertical.
Graph the function. What is the height of the swing
when θ is 45°?

10 − h 8 ft θ high tide low tide

8 ft
10 ft

h
59. MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS Find the average rate of
Front view Side view change of each function over the interval 0 < x < π.
a. y = 2 cos x
56. DRAWING A CONCLUSION In a particular region, the
population L (in thousands) of lynx (the predator) and b. π 3π
the population H (in thousands) of hares (the prey) x 0 — π — 2π
2 2
can be modeled by the equations
f (x) = −cos x −1 0 1 0 −1
π
L = 11.5 + 6.5 sin — t
5 c. y
π
H = 27.5 + 17.5 cos — t
5 1
f
where t is the time in years.
π x
a. Determine the ratio of hares to lynx when
t = 0, 2.5, 5, and 7.5 years.
b. Use the figure to explain how the changes in the
two populations appear to be related.
60. REASONING Consider the functions y = sin(−x) and
y = cos(−x).
Animal Populations
y
a. Construct a table of values for each equation
using the quadrantal angles in the interval
(thousands)
Population

H
40 −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π.
20 b. Graph each function.
L
0 c. Describe the transformations of the graphs of the
0 4 8 12 16 t
parent functions.
Time (years)

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 61. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS You are riding a 66. THOUGHT PROVOKING Use a graphing calculator
Ferris wheel that turns for 180 seconds. Your height to find a function of the form y = sin b1x + cos b2x
h (in feet) above the ground at any time t (in seconds) whose graph matches that shown below.
can be modeled by the equation
π y
h = 85 sin —(t − 10) + 90.
20
a. Graph the function.
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6x
b. How many cycles
does the Ferris wheel −2
make in 180 seconds?
c. What are your maximum
and minimum heights?
67. PROBLEM SOLVING For a person at rest, the blood
pressure P (in millimeters of mercury) at time t (in
62. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the graph to answer seconds) is given by the function
each question.
8π
P = 100 − 20 cos —t.
y 3
6 Graph the function. One cycle is equivalent to one
heartbeat. What is the pulse rate (in heartbeats per
minute) of the person?
−π π x

−6

a. Does the graph represent a function of the form

f(x) = a sin bx or f(x) = a cos bx? Explain.
b. Identify the maximum value, minimum value,
period, and amplitude of the function.
68. PROBLEM SOLVING The motion of a spring can
be modeled by y = A cos kt, where y is the vertical
63. FINDING A PATTERN Write an expression in terms of displacement (in feet) of the spring relative to its
the integer n that represents all the x-intercepts of the position at rest, A is the initial displacement (in feet),
graph of the function y = cos 2x. Justify your answer. k is a constant that measures the elasticity of the
spring, and t is the time (in seconds).
64. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend states that for a. You have a spring whose motion can be modeled
functions of the form y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx, by the function y = 0.2 cos 6t. Find the initial
the values of a and b affect the x-intercepts of the displacement and the period of the spring. Then
graph of the function. Is your friend correct? Explain. graph the function.
65. CRITICAL THINKING Describe a transformation of the b. When a damping force is applied to the spring,
graph of f (x) = sin x that results in the graph of the motion of the spring can be modeled by the
g(x) = cos x. function y = 0.2e−4.5t cos 4t. Graph this function.
What effect does damping have on the motion?

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Simplify the rational expression, if possible. (Section 7.3)

x2 + x − 6 x3 − 2x2 − 24x x2 − 4x − 5 x2 − 16
69. — 70. —— 71. — 72. —
x+3 2 x − 2x − 24 x + 4x − 5
2 2x + x − 20

Find the least common multiple of the expressions. (Section 7.4)

73. 2x, 2(x − 5) 74. x2 − 4, x + 2 75. x2 + 8x + 12, x + 6

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 9.1–9.4 What Did You Learn?

Core Vocabulary
sine, p. 462 standard position, p. 470 amplitude, p. 486
cosine, p. 462 coterminal, p. 471 periodic function, p. 486
tangent, p. 462 radian, p. 471 cycle, p. 486
cosecant, p. 462 sector, p. 472 period, p. 486
secant, p. 462 central angle, p. 472 phase shift, p. 488
cotangent, p. 462 unit circle, p. 479 midline, p. 488
initial side, p. 470 quadrantal angle, p. 479
terminal side, p. 470 reference angle, p. 480

Core Concepts
Section 9.1
Right Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Functions, p. 462
Trigonometric Values for Special Angles, p. 463

Section 9.2
Angles in Standard Position, p. 470 Degree and Radian Measures of Special Angles, p. 472
Converting Between Degrees and Radians, p. 471 Arc Length and Area of a Sector, p. 472

Section 9.3
General Definitions of Trigonometric Functions, p. 478 Reference Angle Relationships, p. 480
The Unit Circle, p. 479 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions, p. 480

Section 9.4
Characteristics of y = sin x and y = cos x, p. 486
Amplitude and Period, p. 487
Graphing y = a sin b(x − h) + k and y = a cos b(x − h) + k, p. 488

Mathematical Practices
1. Make a conjecture about the horizontal distances traveled in part (c) of Exercise 39 on page 483.
2. Explain why the quantities in part (a) of Exercise 56 on page 493 make sense in the context of
the situation.

Study Skills

Form a Final Exam

Study Group
Form a study group several weeks before the final exam.
The intent of this group is to review what you have already
learned while continuing to learn new material.

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