Celestial Sphere

Celestial Sphere & Equinoctial system of co-ordinates

In this system the reference great circles are:
(a) the Equinoctial and (b) the celestial meridian through the first point of
Aries or the celestial meridian of Greenwich or the celestial meridian of the
observer.
The co-ordinates used are declination, and hour angle.
- SHA when measured from the First point of Aries
- GHA measured from that of Greenwich
- LHA when measured from that of the observer

Celestial Sphere
Is a sphere of infinite radius with the centre of the Earth as its centre.

Celestial Poles
Are the two points on the celestial sphere where the axis of the Earth produced meet it.

Celestial Equator (Equinoctial)

 Is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same plane as the plane of the Earth’s Equator.

 Thus the Equinoctial is a projection of the Equator on the celestial poles.

 Every point on the Equinoctial is 90⁰ from the poles.

Parallel of declinations
 Are small circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which are parallel to the of the Equinoctial.

 These correspond to parallels of latitudes on the Earth’s surface.

Celestial meridians
 Are semi great circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which pass through the celestial poles.

 These correspond to meridians (longitudes) on the Earth’s surface.

 Is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same plane as the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the
Sun.````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````

 Thus the Sun’s apparent annual path on the celestial sphere is the Ecliptic.

 It is so called because the Sun, Moon and Earth must be on this plane for a solar or lunar eclipse to
occur.

Obliquity of the Ecliptic

Is the angle between the plane of the Equinoctial and that of the Ecliptic. Its value is approx. 23½°

If no value is given in a problem, assume 23° 26.7’

Declination0
Of a celestial body is the arc of a celestial meridian or the angle at the centre of the Earth contained
between the Equinoctial and the parallel of declination through the body.
Declinations are measured from 0 deg to 90 deg N or S of the Equinoctial.

First point of Aries (γ) and First point of Libra(Ω)

The two points on the celestial sphere, where the Ecliptic intersects the Equinoctial are called the
Equinoctial points.

On 21st March, at Vernal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the equinoctial form S and N. This point is
known as the First point of Aries.

On 23rd Sept, at Autumnal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the equinoctial form N and S. This point is
known as the First point of Libra.
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AMPLITUDE

 THE AMPLITUDE OF A BODY IS THE ANGLE AT THE OBSERVER’S ZENITH OR THE

ARC OF HIS RATIONAL HORIZON
 CONTAINED BETWEEN THE OBSERVER’S PRIME VERTICAL AND THE VERTICAL
CIRCLE THROUGH THE BODY, AT THEOROTICAL RISING OR SETTING.
 WHEN OBSERVING THE AMPLITUDE OF A BODY, ITS CENTRE SHOULD BE ON THE
RATIONAL HORIZON,
 THAT IS, ITS TRUE ALTITUDE SHOULD BE EXACTLY 0° WHICH IMPLIES THAT ITS
ZENITH DISTANCE WILL BE EXACTLY 90°.
 AMPLITUDE IS MEASURED FROM THE OBSERVER’S PRIME VERTICAL, AS SHOWN IN
THE FIGURE, AND NOT FROM THE OBSERVER’S MERIDIAN.
 AMPLITUDE IS THEREFORE NAMED FROM EAST TOWARDS N or S WHEN RISING AND
 FROM WEST TOWARDS N or S WHEN SETTING.
 AND THEN COVERTED TO 360° NOTATION.
 FOR A BODY WITH NORTHERLY DECLINATION, THE AMPLITUDE WILL BE
NORTHWARD OF E or W AND
  FOR A BODY WITH SOUTHERLY DECLINATION, THE AMPLITUDE WILL BE
SOUTHWARD OF E or W

 WHEN THE DECLINATION OF THE SUN REMAINS UNCHANGED BETWEEN RISING

AND SETTING,
 THE TRUE AMPLITUDE AT RISING SHOULD EQUAL THE TRUE AMPLITUDE AT
SETTING.

 THEREFORE SUM OF THE TRUE RISING BEARING AND TRUE SETTING BEARING IS
ALWAYS EQUAL TO 360°.
 THE MEAN BETWEEN THE TWO BEARINGS WILL THEREFORE ALWAYS BE EQUAL TO
180°.
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 180° AND THE MEAN OF THE TWO COMPASS BEARINGS
WILL THEREFORE GIVE THE ERROR.

 Prove : Sin amp= sin Dec . sec lat

Using Napier’s Rule, IN QUADRANTAL SPHERICAL ∆PZX,

Sin(90-PX)=cos(90-PZ).cosZ
Sin dec = cos lat . Sin(90-Z)
Sin dec = cos lat . Sin Amp
Sin Amp = Sin dec / cos lat
Sin Amp = Sin dec . sec lat

 Obtain GMT
 Obtain declination of body
 Calculate amp as per above.
 Convert to 360° notation.
 The amplitude of a rising body and also setting body will be the same for a particular
declination
 for a stationary observer
 at a particular latitude in the north and
 also for the same value latitude in the south.
 e.g. Consider a body having a declination 15 N
 and an observer at lat 20 N or 20 S
 – Amplitude of the body will be the same in both the latitudes because,
 SIN AMP = SIN DEC . SEC LAT
 THEREFORE IT IS IRRESPECTIVE WHETHER THE LAT IS NORTH OR
SOUTH
 For a particular declination, the amplitude will be the same, whether the lat is N or S
provided they are of the same value.

1. Required the declination of the Sun, if at theoretical rising it bore 080°(T) in latitude 12°N?

At theoretical sunrise,
Az = 080°(T), Amplitude = E10°N

Sin Amp = Sin Dec / Cos lat

Sin Dec = Sin Amp x Cos lat
= Sin 10° x Cos 12°
Declination =

2. A vessel moored between two buoys found the compass bearing of the Sun at Sunrise to be
104°(C), and that at sunset, 243°(C). If the variation at the place was 7°W, find the deviation
of the compass.
Assuming the declination of the Sun remained unchanged between rising and setting, the true
Amplitude at rising should equal the true Amplitude at setting.
Therefore the sum of the true rising bearing and true setting bearing is always equal to 360°
The mean of the two will therefore always be equal to 180°.
 The difference between 180° and the mean of the two compass bearings will therefore give the
error.
Rising bearing 104°(C)
Setting bearing 243°(C)
Sum of brgs 347°(C)
Mean of brgs 173.5°(C)
Mean of True brgs 180.0°(C)
Compass Error 6.5°(E)
Variation 7.0°(W)
Deviation 11.5°(E)
3. To an observer in the Northern hemisphere, in May of a certain year, the Sun bore 059°(T) at
theoretical rising, Sun’s declination 20° 10’N. The vessel then steered 050°(T), 140miles, till
sunset, during which period the Sun’s declination altered by 5’. Calculate the bearing of the
Sun at theoretical sunset.

059°(T) = E31°N = amp

Sin amp = Sin Dec / Cos Lat
Cos Lat = Sin amp / Sin Dec = Sin 31° / Sin 20° 10’
Lat = 47° 58.85’ N
D’lat = Cos Co. x dist = Cos 50° x 140 = 1° 30.00’N
Lat at Sunset = 49° 28.85’N
Dec at Sunrise = 20° 10’N
Change in dec = 5’(in May, the Sun’s dec increases northwards)
Dec at Sunset = 20° 15’N

At Sunset, Sin amp = Sin Dec / Cos lat = Sin 20° 15’ / Cos 49° 28.85’
Amp = W32° 11.4’N
Bearing = 302° 11.4’(T)

MMD Questions:
1. For a stationary vessel on a fixed heading Sun rose bearing 095(C) and set bearing 082(T).
If the variation was 10E, calculate the deviation.
2. To an observer in S-hemisphere in November of a certain year, the rising Sun bore
121°(T). Sun’s declination was 20° 10’S. The vessel then steered 050°(T), 150 miles till
sunset. If during that time, the Sun’s declination by 5’, calculate the Sun’s bearing at
sunset ?
3. If the sun rose at 0645hrs LMT and set at 1745hrs LMT, at a place, calculate the equation
of time.
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Daily motion & horizontal system of co-ordinates

Horizon system of co-ordinates

In this system the reference great circle is the a) Observer’s Rational or Celestial Horizon and
b) his Celestial meridian.The co-ordinates used are a) altitude or zenith distance and b)
Azimuth.

Celestial or Rational Horizon : The observer’s rational horizon is a great circle on the celestial
sphere every point on which is 90° away from his zenith.
The Observer’s Zenith and Nadir : Is the point on the celestial sphere vertically above the
observer i.e. the point at which a straight line from the centre of the Earth through the observer
meets the celestial sphere.

 The Observer’s Nadir is the point on the celestial sphere vertically opposite his Nadir.

Vertical circles

 Are great circles on the celestial sphere passing through the observer’s zenith and Nadir.

Prime vertical

 The observer’s Prime vertical is the vertical circle passing through the East and west
points of the rational horizon.

 Condition for a body to pass/cross the observer’s prime vertical:

- Latitude and Declination should be of same name

- Declination is should be less than latitude

 It is advantageous to take a sight when a body is on the prime vertical because:

- The Azimuth of the body is E or W and so the Position Line will be N - S.

- Thus, there will be no longitude correction.

Elevated pole

 The pole above the observer’s rational horizon.

Depressed pole

 The pole below the observer’s rational horizon.

True altitude

 Of a body is the arc of the vertical circle through that body contained between the rational
horizon and the centre of the body.

True Zenith distance

 Of a body is the arc of the vertical circle through the body contained between the
observer’s zenith and the centre of the body.

 Zenith distance = 90° - altitude

Polar distance

 Is the arc of the celestial meridian of the body or the angle at the centre of the earth
contained between the parallel of declination of the body and the celestial pole of the same
name as the declination.

 Polar distance = 90° - Declination

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 Azimuth

 Of a Celestial body is the arc of the observer’s rational horizon or the angle at his zenith
contained between the observer’s celestial meridian and the vertical circle through that
body.

 When the body is on the observer’s meridian or inferior meridian i.e. its LHA is 360° or
180°, its azimuth is 000° or 180°.

 And when the body is on the observer’s prime vertical, its azimuth will be 090° or 270°.

 Since LHA is measured westwards from the observer’s meridian, the azimuth of a body
whose LHA is between 000° and 180° will be westerly and that of a body whose LHA is
between 180° and 360° will be easterly.

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Maximum Azimuth

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 When the latitude and declination of body are opposite name, maximum azimuth will be
when the body is on the rational horizon.

 - When the latitude & declination of body are same name and declination value is
more than the latitude, its azimuth will increase initially, reach a maximum value and
thereafter decrease.
- At maximum azimuth(angle NZX’), the vertical circle through the body is at a tangent to
the declination circle and (PX’) the radius of the declination circle meets (ZX’) the vertical
circle (and tangent) at 90°.
- When the body is at maximum azimuth, the angle at the body therefore is 90° and we can
solve the PZX triangle using Napier’s rules for right angle spherical triangles.
 Latitude and declination same name Latitude and declination opposite
name

PZX triangle

 Is a spherical triangle on the celestial sphere which is formed by the intersection of 3 great
circles,

1. Celestial meridian through the body (PX)

2. Celestial meridian of the observer (PZ)

3. Vertical circle through the body (ZX)

 There are three types of PZX triangles:

- Spherical triangle

- Right angled triangle

- Quadrantal triangle

PZX spherical triangle

PZX spherical triangle

 Cos ZX = Cos P . Cos lat . Cos lat +/- Sin

lat . Sin dec

( + if lat & dec same name, - if different name )

PZX spherical triangle

 Cos P= Sin T.alt -/+ Sin lat . Sin dec / (Cos

lat . Cos dec)

(- if lat & dec same name, + if different name)

PZX Right angled triangle

 PZX Right angled triangle

 Sin mid part = Tan adjacent part x Tan adjacent part

 Sin mid part = Cos opp part x Cos opp part

PZX Quadrantal triangle

 PZX Quadrantal triangle

 Sin mid part = Tan adjacent part x Tan adjacent part

 Sin mid part = Cos opp part x Cos opp part

1. Find the maximum azimuth of a star of declination 66° 47’S for an observer in
latitude 43° 39’S.

In right angled ∆PXZ, X=90°

By Napier’s rule
Sin PX = Cos(90-PZ) x Cos(90-Z)
Sin PX = Cos lat x Sin Z
Sin Z = Sin PX / Cos lat
= Sin 23° 13’ / Cos 43° 39’
Angle Z = 33° 00.7’
Maximum azimuth = S33° 00.7’E or S33°
00.7’W

2. To an observer, star Fomalhaut, dec 29° 44.6’S bore 180°(T) when on the meridian. If
its true altitude when at maximum azimuth was 26° 03’, find the observer’s latitude.
 In right angled ∆PXZ, X=90°
By Napier’s rule
Sin(90-PZ) = Cos PX x Cos ZX
Sin lat = Cos 60° 15.4’ x Cos 63° 57’
Lat = 12° 35’S

Exercise:

1. Find the true altitude of a star, declination 19° 18.4’N when at its maximum azimuth,
in latitude 12° 14’N. (Ans.39° 51.5’)

In right angled ∆PXZ, X=90°

By Napier’s rule
Sin(90°-PZ) = Cos PX x Cos ZX
Cos ZX = Sin lat / Cos PX
= Sin 12° 14’ / Cos 70° 41.6’
ZX = 50° 08.5’
True altitude = 90° – ZX = 90° – 50° 08.5’ = 39° 51.5’

2. In latitude 20°S, a star had a maximum azimuth of S70°E, find its declination.
(Ans.27° 59.3’S)
 In right angled ∆PXZ, X=90°
By Napier’s rule
Sin PX = Cos(90°-PZ) x Cos(90°-Z)
Sin PX = Cos lat x Sin Z
= Cos 20° x Sin 70°
PX = 62° 00.7’
Declination = 90° – PX = 90° – 62° 00.7’ = 27° 59.3’S

MMD Questions:

1. A star of declination 60° 05’N is on the meridian of an observer, below the pole,
having True altitude 09° 42’. Calculate its bearing at maximum azimuth and the time
period after which it will occur.

Lower transit NX’ = 09° 42’

Polar distance (PX or PX’) = 90° – dec = 90° – 60° 05’ = 29° 55’
Latitude = Altitude of pole (NP) = NX’ + PX’ = 09° 42’ + 29° 55’ = 38° 37’N
 In right angled ∆PXZ, X=90°
By Napier’s rule
Sin PX = Cos(90-PZ) x Cos(90-Z)
Sin PX = Cos lat x Sin Z
Sin Z = Sin PX / Cos lat
= Sin 29° 55’ / Cos 38° 37’
Angle Z =
Bearing at maximum azimuth =

Sin(90-P) = tan PX x tan(90-PZ)

Cos P = tan PX x tan lat
= tan 29 55’ x tan 38 37’
P=
Period of time = 180 – P / 15⁰ 02.5’ = / 15⁰ 02.5’ =

2. A star of declination 28° 05’N has a maximum azimuth 295°(T) when LHA Aries is
075°. Calculate the latitude of the observer & SHA of the
star.

Maximum azimuth = 295(T) = N65W

In right angled ∆PXZ, X=90°

By Napier’s rule
Sin PX = Cos(90°-PZ) x Cos(90°-Z)
Sin PX = Cos lat x Sin Z
Cos lat = Sin PX / Sin Z
= Sin 61° 55’ / Sin 65°
Lat = 13° 13.6‘N

Sin(90-Z) = Cos PX x Cos(90-P)

Cos Z = Cos PX x Sin P
Sin P = Cos Z / Cos PX
= Cos 65 / Cos 61 55’
P=
LHA star = P =
LHA Aries = 075 00.0’
SHA star

3. To an observer in North latitude a star (dec 19° 13’N) bore North when on the
meridian. If the true altitude at maximum azimuth was 20° 30’. Find the observer’s
latitude.
 In right angled ∆PXZ, X=90°
By Napier’s rule
Sin(90-PZ) = Cos PX x Cos ZX
Sin lat = Cos 70° 47’ x Cos 69° 30’
Lat = ‘N
-
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Circumpolar bodies
For a body to be circumpolar, the body should always be above the rational horizon i.e the body
should not set. Therefore a circumpolar body will have upper transit (upper meridian passage)
which is above the elevated pole and lower transit (lower meridian passage) which is below the
elevated pole.

Condition required for a body to be circumpolar:

- Lat + Dec > 90° (For the body not to set)

- Latitude and declination should be same name.

North Latitude - Lat < Dec Lat > Dec

South Latitude - Lat < Dec Lat > Dec

Upper and Lower transit of circumpolar bodies

 Upper transit (NX) or (SX) of a circumpolar body is above the elevated pole.

 For North latitudes,

Upper transit (NX) bearing is North, when lat < dec
= Altitude of pole + Polar distance (NP + PX)
= Latitude + Polar distance (Lat + PX)
= Declination circle + lower transit (XX’ + NX’)
= 90° – Zenith Distance (ZX)
Upper transit (SX) bearing is South, when lat > dec
= 180° – (Altitude of pole + Polar distance) = 180° - (NP + PX)
= 180° – (Latitude + Polar distance) = 180° - (Lat + PX)
= 180° – (Declination circle + lower transit) = 180° - (XX’ + NX’)

 For South latitudes,

Upper transit (SX) bearing is South, when lat < dec
= Altitude of pole + Polar distance (SP + PX)
= Latitude + Polar distance (Lat + PX)
= Declination circle + lower transit (XX’ + SX’)
= 90° – Zenith Distance (ZX)
Upper transit (NX) bearing is North, when lat > dec
= 180° – (Altitude of pole + Polar distance) = 180° - (SP + PX)
= 180° – (Latitude + Polar distance) = 180° - (Lat + PX)
= 180° – (Declination circle + lower transit) = 180° - (XX’ + SX’)

 Lower transit (NX’ or SX’) is below the elevated pole.

 For North latitudes,

Lower transit (NX’) bearing is North, same as elevated pole or latitude or declination.
= Altitude of pole – Polar distance (NP – PX’)
= Latitude – Polar distance (Lat – PX’)
= 90° – (PX’ + PZ)
  For South latitudes,
Lower transit (SX’) bearing is South, same as elevated pole or latitude or
declination.
= Altitude of pole – Polar distance (SP – PX’)
= Latitude – Polar distance (Lat – PX’)
= 90° – (PX’ + PZ)

 If the altitudes of a circumpolar body at upper and lower meridian passage are
observed,
- then the observer’s latitude and
- body’s declination can be calculated.

 Draw the rational horizon, place the body at the upper transit (X) and lower transit (X’)

 Place elevated pole midway between the 2 positions and draw declination circle, with the
pole as the centre and the circle passing through X and X’.

 Draw equinoctial, WQE, where PQ is 90°

 Diameter of declination circle (XX’)

 = Upper altitude (NX) – lower altitude (NX’)

(when Lower & Upper mer pass, brg is same) or

 = 180° - (Upper altitude (SX) + lower altitude (NX’))

(when Lower & Upper mer pass, brgs are opposite)

 The diameter, divided by 2 gives the polar distance PX and PX’.

 (PX or PX’) = XX’ / 2

 Polar distance (PX) = altitude of the pole (NP) - lower meridian altitude (NX’)

 Polar distance (PX) = 90° – Declination

 90° – polar distance (PX) = Declination, named same as elevated pole.

 Polar distance(PX) + lower meridian altitude (NX’)

 = Altitude of the pole (NP)

 = Latitude of observer, named same as elevated pole.

Q. Define: a)Rational Horizon b)True altitude c)Zenith distance d)Prime vertical e)Azimuth
f)Vertical circle g)Zenith

Q. Distinguish between : - Sensible horizon & Rational horizon

 Q. Describe circumpolar bodies. With the
help of figures, explain the condition under
which such a body may or may not cross the
prime vertical.

Q.a. What conditions are necessary for a

body to be circumpolar?

Q. Under what condition a heavenly body

will:-
i) Be circumpolar ii) Cross prime vertical iii)
rise bearing true east.

1. A star when on the meridian above the pole, bore North with a true altitude of 70 04’,
and when on the meridian, below the pole, bore North with true altitude 22 05’. Find
the observer’s latitude and the star’s declination.

Upper meridian altitude, NX = 70° 04’

Lower meridian altitude, NX’ = 22° 05’
Declination circle (XX’) = NX – NX’ = 47° 59’

Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2 = 47° 59’/2

= 23° 59.5’
Declination (QX) = 90° – Polar distance (PX)
= 90° – 23° 59.5’
= 66° 00.5’N
Observer’s Latitude (QZ) = Altitude of pole (NP) = NX’ + PX’
= 22° 05’ + 23° 59.5’
= 46° 04.5’N

2. During the same night, a star bore South with true altitude 28° 34’ and again with a
true altitude 76° 46’. Calculate the star’s declination and the latitude of the observer.

Upper transit (SX) = 76° 46’

Lower transit (SX’) = 28° 34’
Declination circle (XX’) = SX - SX’ = 48° 12’
Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2
= 48° 12’/2
= 24° 06’
Declination (QX) = 90° – PX
= 90° – 24° 06’
= 65° 54’S
Latitude (QZ) = Altitude of pole (SP)
= SX’ + PX’
= 28° 34’ + 24° 06’
= 52° 40’S
3. To a stationary observer, an unknown star bore 000°(T) with true altitude 78° 12’.
After about 12 hour, the same star bore 180°(T) with true altitude 18° 54’. Calculate
the observer’s latitude and the declination of the star.

Upper transit (NX) = 78° 12’

Lower transit (SX’) = 18° 54’
Declination circle (XX’) = 180° – (NX + SX’)
= 180° – (78° 12’ + 18° 54’)
= 180° – 97° 06’
= 82° 54’
Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2
= 82° 54’/2
= 41° 27’
Declination (QX) = 90 – PX
= 90° – 41° 27’
= 48° 33’S
Latitude (QZ) = Altitude of pole (SP)
= SX’ + PX’
= 18° 54’ + 48° 33’
= 60° 21’S
4. A star with declination 52° 12’ S had a true altitude of 24° 15’ at lower transit. Find
the sextant altitude of the same star at upper transit. I.E. 1.5’ off the arc. HE 10m.

Lower transit (SX’) = 24° 15’

Polar distance (PX or PX’) = 90° – dec = 90° – 52° 12’ = 37° 48’
Declination circle (XX’) = 2 x PX = 2 x 37° 48’ = 75° 36’
SX = SX’ + XX’ = 24° 15’ + 75° 36’ = 99° 51’
True altitude at upper transit (NX) = 180° – SX = 180° – 99 51’
= 80° 09.0’
Total correction = + 0.2’
App alt. = 80° 09.2’
Dip (HE 10m) = + 5.6’
Obs alt = 80° 14.8’
IE (off) = - 1.5’
Sext altitude = 80° 13.3’

5. To an observer at the North Pole, the Moon had a true altitude of 20° 12’. In what
latitude would the meridian altitude of the Moon be double this.

For an observer at the North Pole, his zenith is coincident with the North Celestial Pole and
therefore his rational horizon coincides with the Equinoctial.
The altitude of the Moon above the rational horizon therefore corresponds to the angular
distance of the Moon from the Equinoctial,i.e. its declination. Therefore declination of the
Moon is 20° 12’N.
For the Moon to have a meridian altitude of 40° 24’, in two latitudes, when its declination is
20° 12’N, the observer has to be in North latitude in one case and a South latitude in the
other.

(The Moon can have a meridian altitude of 40° 24’ bearing North and bearing South. It will
have a meridian altitude of 40° 24’ bearing ‘North’ in South latitude and when bearing
‘South’ in North latitude. Refer to figure.)
 North
latitude – body brg South South latitude – body brg North

a) SX = 40° 24’ b) NX = 40° 24’

QX = 20° 12’ QX = 20° 12’
SQ = 20° 12’ NQ = 60° 36’
Lat (QZ) = 90° – SQ Lat (QZ) = 90° – SQ
= 90° – 20° 12’ = 69° 48’N = 90° – 60° 36’ = 29° 24’S

6. Find two latitudes in which a star having a declination of 68° 46’N will bear North
with true altitude of 16° 12’.

For a star to bear the same, and have the same altitude when on the meridian, it
would have to be above the pole in one case and below the pole in the other. Refer
the figures.
a) NX = 16° 12’ b) NX’ = 16° 12’
QX = 68° 46’ PX’ = 90 – Dec = 90 – 68 46’ = 21° 14’
NQ = 84° 58’ Latitude (NP) = NX’ + PX’ = 37° 36’N
Latitude (QZ) = 90° – NQ
= 90° – 84° 58’
= 05° 02’S
 Above the pole Below the pole
7. A star when on the meridian above the pole had 4 times the altitude as it had when
on the meridian below the pole. Calculate the observer’s latitude and the declination
in terms of the lower meridian altitude, if the star bore North on both occasions.

Let Lower transit (NX’) = A°.

Then Upper transit (NX) = 4A°
Declination circle (XX’) = NX – NX’ = 4A° – A° = 3A°
Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2 = 3A°/2 = 1.5A°
Observer’s Latitude (NP) = NX’ + PX’ = A° + 1.5A° = 2.5A° = 2.5 (Lower transit) N

Declination = 90° – PX = (90° – 1.5A°) = {90 – 1.5(lower transit)} N

8. For a star to be circumpolar to an observer in a certain North Latitude, its altitude at

upper transit should not exceed 47° 16’ . Find the observer’s latitude and the star’
declination.

For a body to be circumpolar, it should be of same name and should not set, i.e it
should not go below the rational horizon.
Therefore its lower transit would be 0°, i.e. it would just graze the rational horizon.
Refer figure.
 Lower transit (NX’) = 0°
Upper transit (NX) = 47° 16’
Declination circle (XX’) = NX – NX’ = 47° 16’ – 0° = 47° 16’
Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2 = 47° 16’/2 = 23° 38’
Latitude (QZ) = Altitude of pole (NP) = PX’ = 23° 38’N
Declination (QX) = 90° – PX = 90° – 23° 38’ = 66° 22’N

MMD Questions:

1. To an observer the true altitude of a star when on the meridian at upper and lower
transits were 80° 09’S and 11° 45’N respectively. Calculate the true altitude when on
the prime vertical.

Upper transit (SX) = 80° 09’

Lower transit (NX’) = 11° 45’
SX + NX’ = 91° 54’

Declination circle (XX’) = 180° - ( SX + NX’) = 180° - 91° 54’ = 88° 06’
Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2 = 88° 06 / 2 = 44° 03’

Declination (QX) = 90° – PX = 90° – 44° 03’ = 45° 57’N

Latitude (QZ) = NP = NX’ + PX’ = 11° 45’ + 44° 03’ = 55° 48’ N
 In right angled ∆PZX’’, Z=90°
By Napier’s rule
Sin (90-PX’’) = Cos PZ x Cos ZX’’
Cos PX’’ = Cos PZ x Cos ZX’’
Cos ZX’’ = Cos PX’’ / Cos PZ
= Cos 44° 03’ / Cos 34°12’
ZX’’ = ° ’
True alt. = 90° – ZX’’ = 90° – ° ’ =

2. a) An observer on the North Pole finds the true altitude of a star to be 15° 25’. In
what latitudes will an observer find the meridian altitude of the same star to be
double this value?

For an observer at the North Pole, his zenith is coincident with the North Celestial Pole and
therefore his rational horizon coincides with the Equinoctial.
The altitude of the Star above the rational horizon therefore corresponds to the angular
distance of the Star from the Equinoctial, i.e. its declination. Therefore declination of the
Star is 15° 25’N.
For the Star to have a meridian altitude of 30° 50’, in two latitudes, when its declination is
15° 25’N, the observer has to be in North latitude in one case and a South latitude in the
other.

(The Star can have a meridian altitude of 30° 50’ bearing North and bearing South. It will
have a meridian altitude of 30° 50’ bearing ‘North’ in South latitude and when bearing
‘South’ in North latitude. Refer to figure.)
North latitude – body brg South South latitude – body brg North

b) SX = 30° 50’ b) NX = 30° 50’

QX = 15° 25’ QX = 15° 25’
SQ = 15° 25’ NQ = 46° 15’
Lat (QZ) = 90° – SQ Lat (QZ) = 90° – SQ
= 90° – 15° 25’ = 74° 35’N = 90° – 46° 15’ = 43° 45’S

3. a) An observer obtains the meridian altitude of a circumpolar body above the pole
70° 00’ to the South and below the pole 21° 23’ to the North. Calculate the observer’s
latitude and declination of the body.

Upper transit (SX) = 70° 00’

Lower transit (NX’) = 21° 23’
SX + NX’ = 91° 23’

Declination circle (XX’) = 180° - ( SX + NX’) = 180° - 91° 23’ = 88° 37’
Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2 = 86° 37 / 2 = 44° 18.5’

Declination (QX) = 90° – PX = 90° – 44° 18.5’= 45° 41.5’ N

Latitude (QZ) = NP = (NX’ + PX’) = 21° 23’ + 45° 41.5’ = 67° 04.5’ N
 4. a) A star was to have a true altitude, on the meridian above the pole 81° 04’ bearing
‘S’ and it had true altitude on the meridian below the pole 16° 00’ bearing ‘S’. Find
the latitude of observer and declination of star.

Upper transit (SX) = 81° 04’

Lower transit (SX’) = 16° 00’
Declination circle (XX’) = SX - SX’ = 65° 04’
Polar distance (PX or PX’) = XX’/2
= 65° 04’ / 2
= 32° 32’
Declination (QX) = 90° – PX
= 90° – 32° 32’
= 58° 38’S
Latitude (QZ) = Altitude of pole (SP)
= SX’ + PX’
= 16° 00’ + 32° 32’
= 48° 32’S

5. If the latitude was 64° 27’S and declination of a star was 39° 47’S. Find out if the
body is circumpolar; if so calculate the upper and lower meridian altitude.

Condition required for a body to be circumpolar:

- Lat + Dec > 90° (For the body not to set)
- Latitude and declination should be same name.

- Lat + Dec = 64° 27’ + 39° 47’ = 103° 14’ & Lat & declination are both ‘S’, therefore
body is circumpolar.

Polar distance = 90 – declination

= 90 – 39 47 = 50 13

__________________________________________________________________________

Earth – Moon system

The Moon revolves about the Earth, in the same direction as the Earth revolves about the Sun.
The Earth and Moon revolve about each other around the common COG of the Earth-Moon
system. This point is known as the “barycentre” lies about thousand miles within the Earth.

The orbit of the Moon around the Earth is elliptical with the Earth situated at one of the foci of the
ellipse. At ‘apogee’ the Moon is about 253,000 miles from the Earth, and at perigee it is about
221,000 miles. The average distance of the Moon from the earth may be taken as 240,000 miles.

 Sidereal period of the Moon

 Is the period of time taken by the Moon to complete one revolution of 360 around the
Earth.

 The sidereal period is of constant duration equal to 27days 07hrs 43min 12secs. i.e.
approximately 27.33days.

 Synodic period of the Moon

 Is the period of time between two consecutive New Moons or two consecutive Full Moons.

 Has an average length of about 29days 12hrs 44mins.

 It is called a ‘Lunar Month’, a ‘Lunation’ or a ‘Synodic Month’.

 It is not of constant duration with a maximum variation of about 13hours from mean value,
due to the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit & that of the Earth’s orbit and other
disturbances.

Why is the duration of Synodic period of the Moon not of constant duration?

 As the Moon revolves about the Earth, the Earth is also moving in its orbit around the Sun.

 When the Earth is at E1 in its orbit, and the Moon at M1, the Moon is in conjunction with
the Sun and we have New Moon.

 Let as now assume that as viewed from the Earth, the Sun and Moon are now in direction
of a star. Because the star is at infinite distance, the direction is considered constant
irrespective of the Earth’s motion in its orbit.

 By the time the Moon completes one revolution 360° around the earth, the earth has
moved in its orbit to position E2. One Sidereal period is complete but not a Synodic period.

 To complete a Synodic period the Moon has to move further in its orbit till it is again in
conjunction with the Sun (at M3).

 Thus to complete a Synodic period of the Moon has to revolve 360° + the angular motion
of the Earth around the Sun, during that period.

 The Synodic period of the Moon is therefore of longer duration than its sidereal period. The
amount of the angular motion in excess of 360°, required to complete a synodic period,
varies depending on whether the Earth is then near aphelion or perihelion because, in the
same interval the angular motion of the Earth around the Sun near perihelion will be larger
than that near aphelion. This is one of the reason, the synodic period of the Moon is
longer when the Earth is near perihelion and shorter when the Earth is near aphelion.
  The eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit also causes a variation in the synodic period as the
Moon would cover the angular motion in excess of 360 in a shorter period when at perigee,
and in a longer period when at apogee.




 The moon rotates on its own axis, completing one rotation in exactly in its sidereal period.
This is the reason why the Moon always presents the same surface to us on the Earth.

 We therefore see the same features in the same position on the Moon.

 The orbit of the Moon is inclined at an average of about 5 08’ (varies from 5 18½’ to 4
59½’) to the plane of the ecliptic.

Phases of the Moon

 Moon is not self luminous.
 We see it, as it reflects sunlight
 It is spherical, so 50% of the its surface is always illuminated
 Amount of illuminated hemisphere visible from the earth, varies with the relative position of
the sun and moon with respect to the earth.
 The varying shapes of the illuminated portion of the moon visible from the earth is termed
as ‘the phases of the moon’.
 At position 1, when the moon is in conjunction, its illuminated hemisphere is turned away
from the earth.
 The moon is said to be ‘New’.
 At New Moon, the Sun and Moon rise and set at approximately the same time and they
culminate at 1200hours LAT.
 As the moon moves to position 2 in its orbit, a small of the illuminated surface is visible
from the earth in the form of a crescent at the western side of the moon’s disc.
 About 7 ½ days from New Moon, when the Moon is in Quadrature as in position 3, exactly
half the illuminated disc of the moon is visible from the earth.
 The moon appears dichotomised. This is the 1 st quarter of the moon.
 When the moon moves to position 4, more than half the illuminated disc of the moon is
visible from the earth.
 The moon’s appearance then is described as ‘gibbous’.
 About 14.75 days after New Moon in position 5, the Moon in opposition with the sun.
 The entire illuminated surface of the moon now faces the earth.
 The moon is said to be ‘Full’.
 As the sun and moon are in opposition at Full Moon, the moon would rise at about sunset,
culminate at 0000hrs LAT and set at about sunrise.
 During the 2nd half of the lunation, at position 6, the illuminated surface of the moon visible
from the earth decreases so that the moon appears ‘gibbous’.
 At position 7 at the 3rd quarter , it appears ‘dichotomised’, after about 22days from New
moon day.
 At position 8, the moon appears crescent shaped.
 Finally it returns to New Moon.
 The average duration of this cycle is about 29 ½ days.
 From New Moon to Full Moon, since the visible area of the moon’s illuminated surface is
increasing, the moon is said to be “Waxing”.
 It is the western portion of the Moon’s disc that is visible then.
 From Full Moon to New Moon, since the visible area of the moon’s illuminated surface is
decreasing, the moon is said to be “Waning”.
 It is the eastern portion of the Moon’s disc that is visible then.
 At anytime the rounded convex part of the moon is seen from the earth is always turned
towards the sun.
 When the moon is in conjunction with the Sun and the centers of the three bodies are
nearly in line, the moon appears directly over the Sun as viewed from the Earth, blocking
off the Sun’s disc, wholly or partly.
 Such an occurrence is called a ‘Solar Eclipse’.
 The shadow cast by the moon is conical in shape.
 The tapering cone within which no light from the Sun reaches is called the ‘Umbra’.
 The widening cone shaped region around the umbra, where a part of the Sun’s rays reach,
is called the ‘Penumbra’.
 ‘Solar Eclipse’ are of three types:
 - Total Eclipse
 - Partial eclipse
 - Annular Eclipse
 People on the earth within the area over which the umbra cone of the moon falls, will have
total darkness.
 Such an occurrence is called ‘Total eclipse’ of the Sun.
 People on the earth outside the umbra region, but within the Penumbra region, would be
able to see a part of the sun’ disc with the remainder covered by the moon.
 Such an occurrence is called ‘Partial eclipse’ of the Sun.

 The moon’s orbit around the Earth is elliptical and eccentric.

 When the moon is near apogee, it may so happen that the umbra cone of the moon does
not reach the Earth’s surface.
 So people on the Earth, directly beyond the umbra cone would then see the Sun with
Moon obscuring the central portion of the Sun’s disc, as the apparent diameter of the
moon then is smaller than that of the Sun.
 We then see the sun as a narrow bright ring.
 Such an occurrence is called ‘Annular eclipse’ of the Sun.
 The max. dia. of the umbra cone on the Earth’s surface is about 170 miles.
 Dia. of Penumbra cone is upto about 4000 miles.
 Therefore Solar eclipse is visible only over a very small portion of the Earth’s surface, at
any one time.
 The Umbra and Penumbra cone become visible over a belt on the earth’s surface, as the
earth and moon move in their orbits and the earth rotates about its axis.
 A Total or Annular Eclipse always begins and ends with a partial Eclipse.
 The period of Total Eclipse can never exceed 8 minutes at any one time.
  Conditions for Solar eclipse to occur
 the moon must be in conjunction with the Sun.
 For shadow of Moon to fall on the Earth,
- SHAs or GHAs must be equal

- declination must be equal and of same name

of the Sun and the Moon.

 Solar Eclipse can take place only on a New Moon day, but not necessary on every New
Moon day.
 Because though the condition of SHA or GHA is fulfilled on each New Moon day,
 the condition of declination may not be satisfied simultaneously,
 Because the orbit is inclined at 5¼° to the of the Earth (Ecliptic).
 So Solar Eclipse will take place only if the Moon is on or near the Ecliptic,
 i.e at or near its nodes on the day of New Moon

LUNAR ECLIPSE

 The earth cast a shadow behind itself.

 The shadow consists of a cone shaped, tapering umbra, where no sunlight reaches,
surrounded by a widening penumbra region where some sunlight does reach.
 As the moon is not self luminous, a lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through
the earth’s shadow.
 This can happen only when the moon is in opposition with the sun.
 Lunar Eclipse of the moon are of three types:
 - Total Eclipse
 - Penumbral Eclipse
 - Partial Eclipse
 When the moon is entirely in the umbra of the earth, the entire moon becomes invisible.
 Such an occurrence is termed as ‘Total eclipse’ of the moon.
 When the moon is entirely in the penumbra of the earth, a part of the sun’s rays fall over
the entire illuminated disc of the moon
 Then we see the Full Moon but with greatly diminished brilliance.
 Such an occurrence is termed as ‘Penumbral eclipse’ of the moon.
 When the moon is partly entirely within the umbra and partly within the penumbra of the
earth, that part of the moon within the umbra becomes invisible, while that part within the
penumbra will be visible with very diminished brilliance.
 Such an occurrence is termed as ‘Partial eclipse’ of the moon.
  Conditions for Lunar eclipse to occur
 the moon must be in opposition with the sun.
 SHA or GHA should differ by 180° and
 Declination should be nearly equal but of opposite name, of the sun and moon.
 Lunar Eclipse need not take place on all Full Moon days,
 Because though the condition of SHA or GHA is fulfilled on each Full Moon day, the
condition of declination may not be satisfied simultaneously,
 Because the orbit is inclined at 5¼° to the of the Earth (Ecliptic).
 So Lunar Eclipse will take place only if the Moon is on or near the Ecliptic,
 i.e at or near its nodes on Full Moon day.

Solar & Lunar Eclipse

 The max. no. of Eclipse that can take place in a year are 7, of which 4 or 5 must be Solar.
 Min. 2, both of which must be Solar.

Occultaion
 Occultation is an occurrence somewhat similar to Solar Eclipses.
 The Moon in its apparent motion in the sky frequently passes over stars and planets. The
star or planet is then said to be occulted.
 For an occultation to occur, the SHAs or GHAs of the Moon and the occulted body should
be equal and their declinations equal and same name.
_____________________________________________________________________________

Hour Angles
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
 Of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles
contained between the celestial meridian of Greenwich and that of the body,
measured westward from Greenwich.
Local Hour Angle (LHA)
 Of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between
the observer’s celestial meridian and that of the body, measured westward from the observer.

 If the angle or arc is measured eastward from the observer, it is known as the Easterly Hour Angle
(EHA).

 Therefore LHA of a body = 360° - its EHA

Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)

 Of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between
the celestial meridian of the First point of Aries and that through the body, measured westward from
Aries.

Right Ascension (RA)

 Of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained
between the celestial meridian of the First point of Aries and that through the body,
measured eastward from Aries.

 SHA or RA nay also be expressed in hours, minutes and seconds instead of, in arc.

 SHA + RA = 360°

 LHA * = GHA * + Long E LHA * = GHA* - LONG W

 GHA * + LHA * = Long E GHA* - LHA * = LONG W

 GHA * = GHA γ + SHA *

 LHA * = GHA* + Long E LHA * = GHA* - Long W

 LHAγ = GHAγ + Long E LHAγ = GHAγ - Long W

 GHA ‘SUN’ = GHAγ + SHA ‘SUN’

 LHA ‘SUN’ = GHA ‘SUN’ + Long E

 LHA ‘SUN’ = GHAγ + SHA ‘SUN’ + Long E

  LHA ‘SUN’ = GHA ‘SUN’ - Long W

 LHA ‘SUN’ = GHAγ + SHA ‘SUN’ - Long W

Rate of change GHA –Sun and Aries

 As the period of Sidereal day is 23h 56m 04.1s of mean solar time and

 Mean Solar day is 24 hrs

 Rate of change of GHA of Sun is 15° 00’ and of Aries is 15° 02.46’

‘v’ correction
 The assumed hourly increase of GHA of Sun and planets stated in the nautical almanac is 15° 00’,
that of Aries is 15° 02.46’ and that of the moon 14° 19’.

 The values of ‘v’ tabulated in the daily pages of the almanac are the actual hourly increase in the
GHA of these bodies in excess of the assumed values stated above.

 ‘v’ is generally +ve, except sometimes in the case of Venus, when its hourly increase in GHA is less
than 15°.

 This happens in the case of Venus alone, due to its proximity to the earth causing the apparent direct
motion of Venus to be more rapid than those of the other planets.

 Though the Moon is closer than Venus, its ‘v’ is never negative, because the assumed value of 14°
19’ is lesser than the least actual hourly increase in the Moon’s GHA.

 ‘V’ IS NOT TABULATED FOR ARIES, AS ITS ACTUAL HOURLY INCREASE IN GHA
NEVER INCREASES FROM THE VALUE OF 15°02.46’ USED FOR THE INCREMENT
TABLE.

 ‘V’ IS NOT TABULATED FOR THE SUN EITHER BECAUSE ITS RATE OF INCREASE OF
GHA PER HOUR IS ALWAYS VERY NEARLY EQUAL TO THE ASSUMED VALUE OF
15°00’.

 ANY SMALL DIFFERENCE IS MADE UP FOR IN THE NEXT TABULATED HOURLY

VALUE OF THE SUN’S GHA.

‘d’ correction
 ‘d’ IS THE HOURLY CHANGE IN THE DECLINATION OF THE VARIOUS BODIES.

 WHETHER IT IS AN INCREASE OR A DECREASE CAN BE FOUND BY INSPECTION OF

THE ALMANAC AROUND THE TIME.

 ‘d’ IS NOT TABULATED FOR ARIES AS IT IS ALWAYS ON THE EQUINOCTIAL, WITH A

CONSTANT NIL DECLINATION.

 FOR THE SUN & PLANETS, THE ‘d’ LISTED IS THE MEAN VALUE OF THEIR HOURLY
CHANGE OF DECLINATION FOR 3 DAYS ON THE PAGE.
  FOR MOON IT IS TABULATED HOURLY DUE TO THE RAPID CHANGE IN ITS RATE OF
CHANGE OF DECLINATION.

Geographical Position
 Of a celestial body is the point on the surface of the Earth, vertically beneath that body i.e. the point
at which a straight line from the centre of the Earth to the celestial body meets the Earth’s surface.

 The GP of a celestial body is expressed in terms of Latitude and longitude.

 The centre of the celestial sphere is the Earth’s centre and as the equator and the Equinoctial are in
the same plane,

 the latitude and longitude of a celestial body’s geographical position (GP) is equal to the body’s
declination and GHA.

 GHA is measured from 0° and 360°, westwards from Greenwich, while longitude is measured from
0° and 180°E and 0° and 180°W from Greenwich.

 If GHA is less than 180°, GP longitude of the body will be West.

 If GHA is more than 180°, GP longitude of the body will be (360°- GHA) East.

Solar system
 Consists of the Sun, the planets, the planetary satellites, asteroids, comets and meteors.
 Sun has a dia (865,000 miles) of more than 700 times larger than all the other bodies taken
together.
  It is the only body of the solar system which radiates light.
 It rotates about its own axis, completing one rotation in about 25 days.
 There are eight non-luminous planets which we see only because they reflect light and they exhibit
phases like the moon.
 In order of distance from the sun, they are, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune .
 Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there are a large number of minor planets called asteroids.

 The planets are divided into 2 groups.

 The 4 small planets of the inner group (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) and
 The 4 large planets of the outer group (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune).

 Inferior planets – Mercury and Venus which are closer to the sun than the Earth.
 Superior Planets – The 6 planets which are further away from the Sun than the Earth.
 All planets rotate on their own axis and revolve around the sun in a anti-clockwise direction
(eastward) in elliptical orbits.
 In general the moons revolve about the parent planet in the same direction (anti-clockwise) as the
planets revolve about the Sun.
 Like our Moon, satellites are not self luminous. We see them due to the sunlight they reflect.

Q. State the Kepler’s Law of Planetary motion.

Q. State Kepler’s 3rd Law of Planetary motion. What interference can we draw about the sidereal
periods of superior and inferior planets using this law?
Planetary Motion

Kepler’s First Law

 States that all planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one of the
foci of the eclipse.
 An ellipse is a locus of a point, such that the sum of the distances from the point to the two foci
of the ellipse is always constant, as shown in the fig.
 Though very correctly, the orbits of planets are elliptical, they are infact nearly circular .
 The ellipticity of the Earth’s orbit is only about 1/7200.
 The orbits of various planets are always coplaner.

Q. Explain, Speed of planet in its orbit varies.

Kepler’s Second Law
  States that the radius vector of a planet (a line joining the centre of the sun to the centre of the
planet) sweeps out equal areas in equal periods.
 For equal areas to be swept out in equal periods, the planets moves faster in its orbit when it is
closer to the Sun and slower when it is further away.
 A planet is said to be at Aphelion, when in its orbit it is further away from the Sun.
 A planet is said to be at Perihelion, when in its orbit it is nearest to the Sun.
 Because of the Sun is eccentric (not at the centre) within the Earth’s orbit, at aphelion, the Earth is
94.45 million miles and at the perihelion 91.35 million miles from the Sun. Average distance is 93
million miles.
 The eccentricity (not concentric) of the Earth’s orbit is about 1/60.
 In the terms aphelion and perihelion we use the suffix ‘helion’ (from the Sun) as the distances were
expressed from the Sun.
 If the distances are expressed from the Earth, we use the suffix ‘gee’ (for geographic).
 Thus, when the Sun is in its apparent orbit or the Moon in its orbit around the Earth, is nearest the
Earth, they are said to be at perigee, and
 When farthest away from the Earth, they are said to be in apogee.
 Similarly when distance are expressed from the Moon , we use the suffix ‘cynthion’ or ‘lune’
leading to the terms apocynthion or apolune and pericynthion or perilune.

Kepler’s Third Law

 Gives the relationship between the distance of a planet from the Sun and the time it takes to
complete one revolution around the Sun.
 According to this law, planets which are closer to the Sun have a greater angular velocity than
planets which are further away.
 Angular velocity is the angle by which an object revolves in a certain time.
 Angular velocity can be expressed in degrees per unit time (second, minute, hour, etc.), radians per
unit time, or even revolutions per unit time.

The planets used for celestial navigation

are Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.
 Apart from the Sun and Moon, Venus is the brightest celestial body, visible in the mornings before
sunrise or evenings after sunset .
 Some of the planets have satellites or moons. Mercury, and Venus have no moons.

Q. Explain with suitable sketches, how days & night are caused.
If the earth’s axis was perpendicular to the plane of it’s orbit (around
the sun), what effect would it have on days & night and on the
seasons, if any.
Q. Explain with suitable sketches the effect of declination of Sun & latitude of observer on
the duration of day & night.
Q. Explain the factors which govern period of daylight for any observer.

Day and Night and seasons of the Earth

 The Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
 At the same time, the Earth is rotating about its axis from West to East, completing a rotation in
about 24 hrs.
 Since the Earth is nearly spherical, 50 % of the Earth’s surface is illuminated by the Sun’s rays at
any time.
 The other 50% of the Sun is in darkness.
 The circle bounding the illuminated hemisphere is known as the circle of illumination .
 As the earth rotates, places on the Earth’s surface successively pass through the illuminated zone
and the zone of darkness, causing day and night respectively.

 Refer to the
above figs.
 The axis of the Earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit at about 66½⁰.
 While the axis maintains its direction in space, its direction wrt the sun, changes according to the
position of the Earth in its orbit.
  Let us consider the Earth in its orbit at 4 different positions.
- Summer Solstice, 21st June
- Autumnal Equinox, 23rd Sept
- Winter Solstice, 22nd Dec
- Vernal Equinox, 21st March

Summer Solstice,
 On 21st June, when the North end of the Earth’s axis
i.e. the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun by the maximum amount of 23½⁰,
the circle of illumination encloses the entire Arctic circle.
 On this date, the Sun attains its maximum declination North and
the Sun’s rays fall vertically over the Tropic of Cancer.
 The Sun is said to be at the “Summer Solstice”.
 All places in the Northern Hemisphere then have the longest day and shortest night, while in the
Southern hemisphere have the shortest day and the longest night.
 Places within the Arctic circle have continuous daylight, while places within the Antarctic circle
have continuous night.

Autumnal Equinox
 On 23rd Sept, the tilt of the North end of the Earth’s axis is in the direction at right angles to the
direction from the Earth to Sun.
 The Sun’s rays then fall vertically over the Equator and
 Sun’s declination is 0⁰.
 The circle of illumination passes through the poles.
 All places on the Earth have equal day and night of 12 hours duration each.
 i.e. the Sun would rise at 6 am and set at 6 pm throughout the world.
 The Sun is said to be at the “Autumnal Equinox”.

Winter Solstice,
 On 22nd Dec, when the South end of the Earth’s axis
i.e. the south Pole is tilted towards the Sun by the maximum amount of 23½⁰, the circle of
illumination encloses the entire Antarctic circle.
 On this date, the Sun attains its maximum declination South and the Sun’s rays fall vertically over
the Tropic of Capricon.
 The Sun is said to be at the “Winter Solstice”.
 All places in the Southern Hemisphere then have the longest day and shortest night, while in the
Northern hemisphere have the shortest day and the longest night.
 Places within the Antarctic circle have continuous daylight, while places within the Arctic circle
have continuous night.

Vernal Equinox
 On 21st March, the tilt of the North end of the Earth’s axis is in the direction at right angles to the
direction from the Earth to Sun.
 The Sun’s rays then fall vertically over the Equator and Sun’s declination is 0⁰.
 The circle of illumination passes through the poles.
 All places on the Earth have equal day and night of 12 hours duration each.
i.e. the Sun would rise at 6 am and set at 6 pm throughout the world.
 The Sun is said to be at the “Vernal Equinox”,

 From Vernal Equinox to Autumnal Equinox, the North pole is tipped towards the Sun.
 Places in the N-Hemisphere, would therefore remain in the illuminated hemisphere for longer
periods and in the zone of darkness for shorter periods.
 Therefore they would have longer periods of day light and shorter periods of night.
 In the Southern Hemisphere the case is reverse.
  From Autumnal Equinox and Vernal Equinox, the South pole is tipped towards the Sun.
 Places in the S-Hemisphere, would therefore remain in the illuminated hemisphere for longer
periods and in the zone of darkness for shorter periods.
 Therefore they would have longer periods of day light and shorter periods of night.
 In the Northern Hemisphere the case is reverse.

 Thus in latitudes of same name as the Sun’s declination, the period of daylight is longer than
the period of night,
while in latitudes contrary in the name to Sun’s declination, the period of night is longer than the
period of daylight.

 As the Sun’s declination increases, the inequality between the periods of daylight and night in all
latitudes (both North and South hemisphere) will increase because the circle of illumination
would then divide the various circles of latitudes into more and more unequal, illuminated and
dark segments.

 For any declination of the Sun, other than nil, the illuminated and dark segments into which the
circles of latitude are divided by the circle of illumination become more and more unequal as the
latitude increases.
 The inequality between the period of daylight and period of night therefore also increases as the
latitude increases.
 Whatever the declination of the Sun, the circle of illumination always divides the Equator into
two equal halves, so places on the equator have 12 hrs of daylight and 12 hrs of night, throughout
the year.

Seasons of the Earth

 From Vernal Equinox to Summer Solstice,
 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun increases from 0° to its maximum value of 23½° N,
the Northern Hemisphere is said to have Spring season.

 From Summer Solstice to Autumnal Equinox ,

 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun decreases from a maximum value of 23½° N to 0°,
the Northern Hemisphere is said to have Summer season.

 From Autumnal Equinox to Winter Solstice,

 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun increases from 0° to its maximum value of 23½° S,
the Northern Hemisphere is said to have Autumn season.

 From Winter Solstice to Vernal Equinox ,

 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun decreases from a maximum value of 23½° S to 0°,
the Northern Hemisphere is said to have Winter season.

 The Earth is at Perihelion on 1st January and at aphelion on the 4th July.
 The Earth moves faster in its orbit, when it is closer to the sun and slower when it is further way.
 The varying speed of the Earth in its orbit causes the seasons to be unequal lengths, approximately
as follows,
 Spring: 93days, Summer: 94days, Autumn: 90days, Winter: 89days.

Q. What do you understand by the “Real & Apparent” motion of the heavenly bodies?
Give an example each.
Apparent diurnal motion of celestial bodies
  Earth rotates on its axis anti-clockwise i.e. west to east completing one rotation in 23h 56m 04.1s of
Mean Solar time .
 Thus the entire celestial sphere appears to rotate in the opposite direction i.e. east to west
completing an apparent rotation of 360° in about 24hrs.
 GHA’s of celestial bodies increase by about 15° per hr.

 This apparent rotation of the celestial sphere causes all celestial sphere to rise over the eastern
horizon.
 Thereafter they appear to sweep across the sky, increasing in altitude, till they reach the observer’s
meridian bearing due N or S of the observer.
 When the body is on the observer’s meridian, it is said to culminate. Also referred to as the
‘Meridian Passage’ or the ‘Meridian Transit’ of the body.
 At culmination, a body attains its max altitude for a stationary observer, and therefore, it attains its
min zenith distance.

 After culmination, the body appears to continue its westward motion reducing in altitude, till it sets
below the western horizon.
 The apparent diurnal (daily) paths of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere, are along the Celestial
Pole as their centre.

Apparent motion of the celestial bodies due to the motion of the earth
 Besides the apparent motion of the celestial bodies due to the Earth’s rotation, the motion of the
Earth in it’s orbit also causes an apparent change in the position of nearby celestial bodies on the
celestial sphere.

 The true orbital motion of the planets and the Moon further modifies the apparent motion of these
nearby bodies caused by the movement of the Earth in it’s orbit.
 Because of the immense distances of the stars from the Earth, the motion of the Earth in its orbit
does not produce any appreciable change in the directions to the stars as seen from the Earth.
 Thus, to an observer on the Earth, the stars appear as fixed objects on the celestial sphere.
 Similarly, the position of the First point of Aries also fixed stars, on the celestial sphere.
 On this background of the stars, the Sun, Moon and planets appear to move.

Q. Why does the SHA of Sun always decrease, whereas the SHA of Jupiter sometimes increases &
other times decrease. Explain with suitable sketches.
Q. Why does the SHA of Sun always decrease, whereas the SHA of Mars increases sometimes &
reduces at other times. Explain with suitable sketches.
Apparent motion of the sun

 The Earth orbits the Sun in an eastward direction.

 Therefore, as observed from the Earth, the Sun appears to move eastwards on the celestial sphere,
due to the Earth’s orbit.

 The Fig. shows the apparent motion of the Sun along the Ecliptic on the celestial sphere, due to
Earth’s orbital motion.
 The projection of the Sun on the Ecliptic from successive positions of the Earth in its orbit, appears
to constantly move eastwards.

 In its apparent orbit around the Earth, the declination of the Sun, varies from 23½⁰ N to 23½⁰ S.

 Because the Earth completes a revolution of 360⁰ around the Sun in about 365 ¼ days, the angular
motion of the Earth around the Sun and therefore the apparent angular motion of the Sun among the
stars is approximately 1⁰ per day.
 Since SHA is a westward measurement from the First point of Aries, and since the Sun appears to
move eastwards on the celestial sphere, the SHA of the Sun reduces constantly by about 1⁰ per day.
 All planets revolve about the Sun, at different speeds depending on their distances from the Sun.
 As viewed from the Earth however, their motion appears very different because the Earth itself is
not stationary, but is also moving in its own orbit around the Sun.
 Let us first consider the apparent motion of a superior planet such as Jupiter.
 From the Earth, at position E1, in fig , Jupiter at position J1 appears to be at position J1’ on the
celestial sphere.
 Though both planets are moving eastwards in their orbits, the Earth moves faster according to
Kepler’s third law.
 Thus as viewed from the Earth, after Jupiter moves to position J2 when it appears at J2’on the
celestial sphere, it appears to stop its apparent eastward motion and then appears to move westwards
to position J3’ and J4’ on the celestial sphere.
 Thereafter, as the Earth continues to move in its orbit to position E5 and E6, Jupiter once again
appears to stop and then move eastwards on the celestial sphere to positions J5’, J6’ and so on.

 It can thus be seen that superior planets exhibit a large apparent direct (eastward) motion followed
by a small backward or retrograde motion westwards, once again followed by a large direct motion
and so on.

 If the apparent position of the planet was plotted amongst the stars, over a period of many months, it
would display an erratic motion as explained above.

 Depending on the change in declination of the planet during this period, the apparent path of the
planet among stars would appear to consist of loops or kinks as shown in the figure.
Q. Describe the retrograde and direct motion of Venus

 An inferior planet, such as Venus or Mercury moves at a faster rate in its orbit than the Earth.
 Consider the Earth to be stationary, while Venus moves in its orbit.
 When Venus is at position V1, it appears at V1’ on the celestial sphere.
 As it moves to position V2, it appears to have moved westwards to V2’ on the celestial sphere.
 Thereafter, as Venus returns to position V3 and V4 to V5, it appears to move eastwards through
V3’, V4’ to V5’ on the celestial sphere.
 Thereafter, Venus returns to position V1 and then V2, it again appears to move westward on the
celestial sphere.
 Thus, if the Earth was stationary, Venus would appear to swing forwards and backwards in the same
sector of the sky.
 But since the Earth itself moves eastwards in its orbit, this whole sector, continuously swings
eastwards.
 Thus, inferior planets also exhibit a large apparent direct motion followed by a direct motion and so
on.
 Unlike superior planets, the inferior planets Venus and Mercury appear to swing back and forth
across the Sun.
 Thus the SHA of the Sun decreases continuously whereas the SHA of planets however
sometimes decreases and at other times increases.

Q. Write short notes with sketches. a) Max. elongation west of an inferior planet.
ELONGATION
  Elongation is the angle at the centre Earth contained between the centre of the Sun and the centre of
the planet or the Moon, measured along the plane of the ecliptic.
 It can be seen that inferior planets can never have a large elongation.
 The max. elongation of Venus is about 47° and that of Mercury is about 26°.
 Superior planets can have elongations upto 180° East and 180° West.
 Jupiter, at positions J1 through J2 to J3 and Venus at positions V1 through V2 to V3 are said to
have westerly elongations, even as they appear to be ‘eastward’ of the Sun in the figure.
 Due to the motion of the Earth, indicated by the arrow in the figure, to an observer on the Earth’s
surface, Venus would transit his meridian earlier than the Sun.
 It would therefore also set earlier than the Sun and is thus obviously to the westward of the Sun.
 At positions J3 through J4 to J1 and V3 through V4 to V1, Venus is said to have easterly
elongations, as it would rise and set after the Sun and therefore is to the eastward of the Sun.
 In the figure, V2 indicates Venus at the position of its max. elongation West and V4, the position of
Venus at its max. elongation on East.
 A planet or the Moon is said to be in conjunction with the Sun when viewed from the Earth, it is in
the same direction as the Sun (i.e. their celestial longitudes are the same).
 A planet or the Moon is said to be in opposition with the Sun when as viewed from the Earth, it is
opposite in direction in direction to the Sun (i.e. their celestial longitudes are 180° apart).
 A planet or the Moon is said to be in quadrature when its elongation is exactly 90° East or West.
 In figure, Jupiter is in quadrature at positions J2 and J4.

 Inferior planets such as Venus may be in conjunction twice during one revolution around the Sun.
i.e. at positions V1 and V3.
 The planet is said to be in inferior conjunction at position V1, when it is closer to the Earth than the
Sun, and in superior conjunction at V3, when it is further away from the Earth than the Sun.

 Inferior planets can never be in opposition or in quadrature.

 Superior planets like Jupiter can only be in superior conjunction with the sun.
 They can never be in inferior conjunction. They can however be in opposition and in quadrature.

Q. Explain why Venus is called a morning star or a evening star?

Venus is called morning star and evening star
 The figure shows the Sun, the Earth and Venus at 3 positions in its orbit.

 When Venus is in conjunction with the Sun, as at position V1, to an observer on the Earth, they
would appear to rise, culminate and set together, if Venus could be seen.
 When Venus has a westerly elongation, as at position V2, a person on the Earth would see Venus
rising, when he is at Z1.
 The Sun would still be below his horizon.

 For the Sun to rise, the Earth would have to rotate further, till the observer is brought round to
position Z2.
 Thus Venus would be visible above the eastern horizon, for few hours before sunrise.
 Once the Sun rises, though Venus is above the horizon, it is not visible to the naked eye, because of
the brilliance of the Sun.
 Having risen before the Sun, Venus would also set before the Sun and will therefore not be visible
in the evening after sunset.
 At such times, therefore, Venus is said to be a morning star, as it is visible only in the mornings
before sunrise.

 When Venus has an easterly elongation, as at position V3, a person on the Earth would experience
sunset, when he is at position Z3.
 Venus would still be above the horizon and will set only when the Earth rotates further, and the
observer is brought round to position Z4.
 Thus, Venus would be visible, for a few hours, over the western horizon, after sunset.
 Having set after the Sun, it will also rise the next morning, after sunrise, and therefore will not be
visible during the day due to the Sun’s brilliance.
 At such times, Venus is said to be an evening star, as it is visible only in the evenings after sunset.
  At position V2, Venus has a westerly elongation and would set before the Sun and is therefore
obviously to the westward of the Sun.
 At position V3, Venus rises and sets after the Sun, it is therefore to the eastward of the Sun, and is
said to have an easterly elongation.

 From inferior conjunction to superior conjunction, Venus has a westerly elongation, and is a
morning star.
 From superior conjunction to inferior conjunction, Venus has a easterly elongation, and is an
evening star.
 Venus appears to swing forwards and backwards across the Sun.
 Due to the Sun’s brilliance, it becomes invisible to the naked eye, when its elongation is small.
 Since the max elongation of Venus is about 47° only, it would be above the observer’s horizon for
approximately 3 hours only, before sunrise or after sunset.

RISING & SETTING OF CELESTIAL BODIES

 As the Earth rotates on its axis from west to east, all heavenly bodies appear to rise in the
east, move westwards, gaining in altitude until it is on the observer’s meridian (culminate
or transit the meridian). After culmination, it continues to move westwards decreasing in
altitude till it sets over the western horizon.

 For a stationary observer, the interval between rising and culmination of a body will
be equal to the interval between its culmination and setting, provided its declination
remains unchanged.

 Also under the same circumstances, its amplitude at rising will be equal to that at
setting.


 When the observer is at the pole, his zenith coincides with the celestial north pole, and
his rational horizon would coincide with that of equinoctial.

 A celestial body with 0° declination would appear to the observer to move along his
rational horizon completing a circle in exactly the same period as the Earth completes a
rotation of 360 i.e. 23h 56m 04s of Mean Solar Time.
 Body with ‘N’ declinations would also appear to move along a circle maintaining
constant altitudes equal to their declinations. They would remain above the horizon at all
times.

 As the Earth rotates from W to E the celestial bodies appear to move E to W with
constant altitudes and so the true altitude of the body is equal to the declination of the
body and named same as the pole.

 Body with ‘S’ declinations would always remain below the horizon and would not
therefore be visible.

 When the observer is on the equator, the rational horizon would be in the plane of the
Earth’s axis, passing through the celestial poles.

 The equinoctial and all declination circles will bisect at right angles, by his rational horizon.

 All celestial bodies whether having N’ly, S’ly or 0° declination will therefore remain above
the horizon for exactly half the day and below the horizon for the remaining half.

 All bodies will rise and set perpendicular to the horizon.

 When the body is on the observer’s celestial meridian, its declination is equal to
(90°-True alt) and named same as the bearing of the body.
 When the observer is in intermediate ‘N’ latitude, the ‘N’ celestial pole would be
between the zenith and his horizon.

 The RH will bisect the equinoctial at his east and west points.

 A celestial body with 0° declination would be above the horizon for exactly half the day and
below the horizon for the other half.

 The altitude of the celestial pole is equal to the latitude of the observer As the observer’s
latitude increases, the elevated pole approaches his zenith.

 Therefore a major part of the declination circles of bodies with N’ly declination (same
name as latitude) would lie above the horizon and a smaller arc below it.

 Bodies with N’ly declinations would therefore remain above the horizon for greater part of
the day.

 They would rise and set bearing northwards of his east and west points respectively.

 If the N’ly declination of the body is large enough, its declination circle would lie entirely
above the horizon. Such bodies would not therefore rise or set, but would remain above
the horizon throughout the day. They are then said to be circumpolar.

 Declination circles of bodies with a S’ly declination (of the opposite name to the observer’s
latitude) will lie with a major arc of the circle below the horizon and a minor arc above.
They would appear to rise and set bearing southwards of the observer’s east and west
points respectively. If the S’ly declination was large enough, the declination circle would lie
entirely below the horizon and the body would then not be visible during any part of the
day.

 Twilight
 Q.Explain different types of twilights?

 Q.Differentiate between , Nautical and Astronomical twilight?




 Twilight is the light received from the sun, when the sun is below the horizon, i.e. before
the sunrise and after the sunset.

 Twilight completely ceases in the evening, when the sun is 18° vertically below the
horizon.

 After that there is total darkness.

 In the mornings, twilight commences when the sun is 18° vertically below the horizon and
ceases at sunrise.

 The entire period of twilight has 3 stages, Civil, Nautical and Astronomical.

- Astronomical commences when sun is 18° below the horizon.

- Nautical - 12° below the horizon.
- Civil - 6° below the horizon.

 Each twilight lasts until visible sunrise.

 In the evening they all commence at visible sunset and

 Civil continues till – sun is 6° below the horizon

 Nautical continues till – sun is 12° below the horizon

 Astronomical continues till - sun is 18° below the horizon.

 Tables of the timings are provided in the Nautical almanac for commencement and end of
Civil, Nautical and Astronomical twilight before sunrise and after sunset for different
latitudes.
 Q.Is the duration of twilight constant all over the world?

 Q.Why does the duration of twilight vary with latitude, Explain with sketches?

 Q.Why to an observer, in lower latitudes the duration of twilight is shorter than in

higher latitudes?

 Q. Draw plane of meridian of observer, explain the reason for twilight to last longer
in higher latitudes as compared to lower latitudes?

 As is evident from the below fig. when the observer is in low latitude, the sun rises and
sets almost perpendicular to the horizon covering the 18° twilight belt in a rather short arc
and therefore in a rather short period of time.

 When the observer is higher latitude however the sun rises and sets at a more oblique
angle to the horizon, thus covering the 18° twilight belt over a much larger arc and
therefore over a much larger period of time.


 Lower latitude


 Higher Latitude
  Q. What conditions are necessary for twilight all night?

 For an observer to have twilight, the sun must set, therefore he must have some night.

 An observer would have some night for some part of the 24 hours, either -

1. If the observers latitude and the sun’s declination are of opposite name.

2. If, they are of the same name and the sum of the latitude and declination is less than
90°.

 For continuous twilight, throughout the night, the observer’s latitude and sun’s
declination should be of the same name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:

1. lat + dec </= 90° (so that the sun will set) and

2. i. lat + dec + 18° >/= 90° (so that the sun will not go below the astronomical twilight
belt and will have astronomical twilight throughout the night). Or

ii. lat + dec + 12° >/= 90° (so that the sun will not go below the nautical twilight belt
and will have nautical twilight throughout the night). Or

iii. lat + dec + 6° >/= 90° (so that the sun will not go below the civil twilight belt and will
have civil twilight throughout the night).

 Q. What conditions are necessary for continuous Daylight (Midnight Sun)?

 For continuous DAYLIGHT (Midnight Sun), the observer’s latitude and sun’s
declination should be of the same name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:

 1. lat + dec >/= 90° (so that the sun will NOT set)

 Q. What conditions are necessary for continuous Night?

 For continuous Night, the observer’s latitude and sun’s declination should be of the
different name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:

 1. lat + dec >/= 90° (so that the sun will NOT RISE)

Theoretical and Visible Sunrise and Sunset

- Occurs when the True sun’s centre is on the observer’s rational horizon.
- Then the true altitude of the Sun is 0° and the true zenith distance 90°.
- The times of theoretical sunrise or sunset, can be obtained by solving the PZX triangle
in which ZX is 90°.
- Visible sunrise and sunset is not 0, because of corrections for refraction, semi-
diameter, dip, etc.
- Assuming the Sun to be at the sea level, the true altitude of the Sun at visible sunrise
and sunset is about 0 50’, the true zenith distance then is therefore 90 50’.
- Because of this visible sunrise occurs before theoretical sunrise and visible sunset after
theoretical sunset.
- The nautical twilight lists the times for visible sunrise and sunset for various latitudes.
Interpolation is required for intermediate latitudes.
  Q. Explain how will you identify a star which you have sighted during evening
twilight, if you do not have any kind of a star constellation charts?

 By referring to the Nautical Almanac

 Take an bearing & altitude of the star

 The correct GMT to be calculated.

 Then the LHA Aries is calculated.

 Using the PZX spherical triangle, lat, azimuth, altitude we first calculate the declination of
the star and then the LHA star by calculating the angle P.

 LHA star – LHA Aries = SHA star

 Therefore using the declination and SHA of the star we can find the star by referring to the
day page of the Nautical almanac.

Or

 By referring to the Sight Reduction tables.

 First we have to calculate the correct GMT.

 Then find out the LHA Aries.

 Take visual bearing of the star and also take the approx. altitude of the star.

 Using the LHA Aries, bearing and altitude of the star enter the Sight Reduction Tables for
the present Latitude of the vessel.

 We can then identify the star having the closest values of LHA Aries, Azimuth and Altitude.

Q. What are the conditions required for a body to rise bearing east?

- Irrespective of the observer’s latitude, the body will rise bearing east and set bearing west,
when the body’s declination is 0⁰. Under this condition the body will rise in the east, appear to
move along the equinoctial and will set bearing west. Refer to below fig.
 Also when the observer is at the equator, a body with 0° declination will rise bearing east and
continue to bear east till the body is at the observer’s zenith and thereafter will be bearing west till
is sets.

Refer to below fig.

4. To an observer in a certain latitude the Sun (Dec 12° 24’N), bore 076°(T) at theoretical
rising. Required the observer’s latitude.

Dec = 12° 24’N

Polar distance (PX) = 90° – Dec = 90° – 12° 24’ = 77° 36’
Z = 76°
In ∆PZX, ZX =90°, using Napier’s rule,
Sin (90-PX) = Cos(90-PZ) x CosZ
CosPX = Sin PZ x CosZ
Sin PZ = CosPX / CosZ = Cos 77° 36’ / Cos 76°
PZ = 61° 08.9’
Latitude (QZ) = 90° – PZ = 90° – 61° 08.9’ = 28° 51.1’ N or S
5. In latitude 37° 38’N, at theoretical sunrise, the Sun had a declination of 22° 01’N and GHA
112° 13’. Required the observer’s longitude.

In ∆PZX, ZX=90°, using Napier’s rule,

Sin(P-90°) = tan(90°-PZ) x tan(90°-PX)
-CosP = tan lat x tan dec
Cos(180°-P) = tan 37° 38’ x tan 22° 01’
180°-P = 71° 50’
P = 108° 10’ (EHA)\
LHA Sun = 360° – P = 360° – 108° 10’ = 251° 50’
GHA Sun = 112° 13’
Longitude = 139° 37’E

6. If the Sun’s amplitude at Summer solstice was E31°N, to a stationary observer, find its
altitude when on the prime vertical.

Sin amp = Sin Dec / Cos lat

Cos lat = Sin amp / Sin Dec = Sin 31°/ Sin 23° 26.7’
Lat = 39° 25.2’

In ∆PZX, Z=90, by using Napier’s rule,

Sin(90-PX) = CosPZ x CosZX
CosPX = CosPZ x CosZX
CosZX = Cos PX / Cos PZ = Cos 66° 33.3’ / Cos 50° 34.8’
 ZX = 51° 12.2’
T.alt = 90° – ZX = 90° – 51° 12.2’ = 38° 47.8’

7. To an observer in the Northern hemisphere, in May of a certain year, the Sun bore 059°(T)
at theoretical rising, Sun’s declination 20° 10’N. The vessel then steered 050°(T),
140miles, till sunset, during which period the Sun’s declination altered by 5’. Calculate the
bearing of the Sun at theoretical sunset.

059°(T) = E31°N = amp

Sin amp = Sin Dec / Cos Lat
Cos Lat = Sin amp / Sin Dec = Sin 31° / Sin 20° 10’
Lat = 47° 58.85’ N
D’lat = Cos Co. x dist = Cos 50° x 140 = 1° 30.00’N
Lat at Sunset = 49° 28.85’N
Dec at Sunrise = 20° 10’N
Change in dec = 5’(in May, the Sun’s dec increases northwards)
Dec at Sunset = 20° 15’N

At Sunset, Sin amp = Sin Dec / Cos lat = Sin 20° 15’ / Cos 49° 28.85’
Amp = W32° 11.4’N
Bearing = 302° 11.4’(T)

8. In what latitude will the longest day be three times the shortest night?
An observer will have longest day when the Sun’s dec is maximum and the latitude and
declination are of the same name and the observer will have the shortest night.
Therefore on that day, day : night = 3:1 i.e. 18hours of day and 6 hours of night.

The angle at P between X and X’ = 18hours

Half that angle (XPZ) = 9hours = 9 x 15° = 135°

In ∆PZX, ZX=90, by using Napier’s rule

Sin(P-90°) = tan(90°-PZ) x tan(90°-PX)
-Cos P = tan lat x tan dec
Tan lat = -Cos P / tan dec = -Cos 135° / tan 23° 26.7’
Latitude = 58° 28.8’N or S

9. Required the latitude in which the period of darkness will be twice the period of daylight,
when the Sun’s declination is 22° 40’S.
 For the period of darkness to be more than the period of daylight, latitude and declination
should be of opposite names.
Darkness : daylight = 2 : 1, i.e. 16hours of darkness & 8hours of daylight
In PZX, P=4hrs = 4 x 15° = 60°
By using Napier’s rule,
Sin(P-90°) = tan(90°-PZ) x tan(90°-PX)
-Cos P = Cot PZ x Cot PX
-Cot PZ = -Cos P / Cot PX = Cos P x tan PX = Cos 60° x tan (90°+22° 40’)
-Cot PZ = Cos 60° x –Cot 22° 40’
PZ = 39° 52.2’
Latitude = 90° –PZ = 90° – 39° 52.2’ = 50° 07.8’N

10. To an observer in latitude 42° 10’N a star of declination 20° 17’N was on the observer’s
meridian at 02h 15m 00s LAT. At what LAT will the star set?

In quandrantal ∆PZX , ZX=90°

By using Napier’s rule,
Sin(P-90°) = tan(90°-PZ) x tan(90°-PX)
-Cos P = tan lat x tan dec = tan 42° 10’ x tan 20° 17’
P = 109° 33.4’

The first point of Aries and stars increase their GHA at the rate of 15° 02.5’/hour.
Time interval = 109 33.4’ / 15 02.5’ = 7.2835 hrs
= 07h 17m 01s
Time of Mer Pass = 02h 15m 00s
Time of setting = 09h 32m 01s

11. A star bore 065°(T) when rising. Its true altitude when bearing 090°(T) was 42°. Required
the observer’s latitude.
 In quandrantal ∆PZX, ZX=90°
By using Napier’s rule
Sin(90°-PX) = Cos(90°-PZ) x Cos Z
Cos PX = Sin PZ x Cos Z ------------------------------------(1)

In right angled PZX’, Z=90°

By using Napier’s rule
Sin(90°-PX’) = Cos PZ x Cos ZX’
Cos PX’ = Cos PZ x Cos ZX’ -----------------------------------(2)

Since PX = PX’, therefore

(1) = (2)
Sin PZ x Cos Z = Cos PZ x Cos ZX’
Tan PZ = Cos ZX’ / Cos Z = Cos 48° / Cos 65°
PZ = 57° 43.4’
Latitude = 90° – PZ = 90° – 57° 43.4’ = 32° 16.6’N

12. To a stationary observer, the Sun was at his zenith, ‘h’ hrs after theoretical rising. Prove
that –Cos h = tan² decln

For the Sun to be on the observer’s zenith, the latitude (QZ) and declination (QX) should
be equal and of same name. Therefore lat = dec

In quandrantal ∆PZX, ZX=90°,

By using Napier’s rule
Sin(P-90°) = tan(90°-PZ) x tan(90°-PX)
 -Cos P = tan lat x tan dec

P = ‘h’ hrs and lat = dec.

Therefore, -Cos h = tan² decln

13. A vessel moored between two buoys found the compass bearing of the Sun at Sunrise to
be 104°(C), and that at sunset, 243°(C). If the variation at the place was 7°W, find the
deviation of the compass.

Assuming the declination of the Sun remained unchanged between rising and setting, the
true Amplitude at rising should equal the true Amplitude at setting.
Therefore the sum of the true rising bearing and true setting bearing is always equal to
360°
The mean of the two will therefore always be equal to 180°.
The difference between 180° and the mean of the two compass bearings will therefore
give the error.

Rising bearing 104°(C)

Setting bearing 243°(C)
Sum of brgs 347°(C)
Mean of brgs 173.5°(C)
Mean of True brgs 180.0°(C)
Compass Error 6.5°(E)
Variation 7.0°(W)
Deviation 11.5°(E)

14. The Sun’s declination being 20S, calculate the latitude above which
(a) There will be continuous daylight
(b) There will be continuous night.

(a) For continuous DAYLIGHT (Midnight Sun), the observer’s latitude and sun’s
declination should be of the same name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:
lat + dec > 90° (so that the sun will NOT set)
lat + 20° > 90°
Lat > 90° – 20° > 70°S
Continuous daylight in latitude 70°S or more.

(b) For continuous Night, the observer’s latitude and sun’s declination should be of the
different name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:
lat + dec > 90° (so that the sun will NOT RISE)
lat + 20° > 90°
Lat > 90° – 20°
> 70°N
Continuous night in latitude 70°N or more.

15. Find the latitudes within which an observer would have twilight throughout the night, when
the Sun’s declination is 15°N.

- For continuous twilight, throughout the night, the observer’s latitude and sun’s
declination should be of the same name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:

1. lat + dec < 90° (so that the sun will set)
 Lat + 15° < 90°
Lat < 90° – 15° < 75°N

2. lat + dec + 18° > 90° (so that the sun will not go below the astronomical twilight belt
and will have twilight throughout the night).
Lat +15° + 18° > 90°
Lat > 90° – 33° > 57°N

Therefore in all latitudes between 57°N and 75°N will have continuous twilight throughout
the night.

16. On 22nd December, find the latitudes within which twilight will last all night.
On 22nd December the Sun has maximum S’ly declination of 23.5°.
For continuous twilight, throughout the night, the observer’s latitude and sun’s
declination should be of the same name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:

1. lat + dec < 90° (so that the sun will set)
Lat + 23.5° < 90°
Lat < 90° – 23.5° < 66.5°S

2. lat + dec + 18° > 90° (so that the sun will not go below the astronomical twilight belt
and will have twilight throughout the night).
Lat + 23.5° + 18° > 90°
Lat > 90° – 41.5° > 48.5°S

Therefore in all latitudes between 48.5°S and 66.5°S will have continuous twilight
throughout the night.

17. Calculate the limiting latitudes within which an observer would have nautical twilight
throughout the night, when the Sun had a declination of 17N.

For continuous nautical twilight, throughout the night, the observer’s latitude and
sun’s declination should be of the same name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:

1. lat + dec < 90° (so that the sun will set)
Lat + 17° < 90°
Lat < 90° – 17° < 73°N

2. lat + dec + 12° > 90° (so that the sun will not go below the nautical twilight belt and will
have nautical twilight throughout the night).
Lat + 17° + 12° > 90°
Lat > 90° – 29° > 61°N

Therefore in all latitudes between 61°N and 73°N will have continuous nautical twilight
throughout the night.

18. If on the longest day the Sun’s centre just touches the observer’s rational horizon when on
the meridian below the pole, find the observer’s latitude.
On the longest day the Sun’s declination is maximum i.e. 23.5N or S.
 If the Sun just touches the observer’s rational horizon, it is the limiting condition for
continuous daylight.
For continuous DAYLIGHT, the observer’s latitude and sun’s declination should be of
the same name and the limiting latitude is obtained as:
lat + dec = 90°
lat + 23.5° = 90°
Lat = 90° – 23.5° = 66.5°N or S

19. Calculate the duration of astronomical twilight in latitude 35°N on the day of spring
equinox, assuming twilight ends in the morning and commences in the evening at
theoretical sunrise and theoretical sunset respectively.

Astronomical twilight commences when the Sun’s centre is 18° below the horizon
i.e. when ZX’ = 108°
In quadrantal ∆PZX’, ZX’ = 108°, PZ = 55°, PX’ = Polar distance = 90°
By using Napier’s rule
Sin(90°-ZX’) = Cos P x Cos(90°-PZ)
Cos ZX’ = Cos P x Sin PZ
Cos P = Cos PX’ / Sin PZ = Cos 108° / Sin 55°
P = 112° 09.7’

In the PZX by the sine rule, angle p will be 90° since ZX = 90°, PX = 90° and Z = 90°.

The duration of astronomical twilight is the angle XPX’

i.e. 112° 09.7’ - 90° = 22° 09.7’, converted to time = 1h 28m 39s

Exercise
1. In what latitude would the longest day be 5hrs more than the shortest?
On the longest day the Sun will have maximum declination N and S i.e. 23.5° N or S.
For an observer to have longest day than night, the latitude and declination should be of
same name.

2. Required the declination of the Sun, if at theoretical rising it bore 080°(T) in latitude 12°N?
3. Required the LAT at the end of civil twilight in the evening, in latitude 20°S. Declination of
the Sun 20°S.
 4. At what Lat will astronomical twilight cease in the evening, in latitude 15° 10’N, when the
Sun’s declination is 07° 05’N.

5. If the Sun’s declination is 15°S, in what latitudes will there be:

(a) The phenomenon of Midnight Sun’
(b) Twilight all night
(c) Continuous night

MMD questions:

1. (a) Calculate the period of Nautical twilight for an observer in latitude 30°N and declination
of Sun 20°N.
2. (a) Given declination of Sun 22°N. Between what latitudes will there not be total darkness
all night. (Ans. 50°N & 68°N)
3. An observer in unknown latitude observes the period of daylight to be 3 times the period of
darkness. If the Sun’s declination is 21°N . Find the observer’s latitude.
4. Find between what latitude there will be no
(i) Astronomical twilight
(ii) Nautical twilight
If declination of Sun is 21° 35.6’N.
5. (a) Given declination of Sun 22°N. Between what latitudes will there be continuous twilight
all night.
6. If Sun’s declination is 19° 30’S, in what latitude will there be
(i) Phenomenon of midnight sun
(ii) Twilight all night
(iii) Continuous night
7. Amplitude of a body is E14°S. The altitude of the body when on the Prime Vertical of the
observer is 21°. Find the latitude of the observer and declination of the body?
8. Find the observer’s position if the altitude of the Sun is 44° 10’ when bearing 090°(T) and
its declination at this instant is 11° 13’ and GHA Sun 00° 06.3’?
9. If the Sun’s amplitude at Summer Solstice was E21⁰N, to a stationary observer.
Find its altitude when on the Prime Vertical?
10. An observer on the north pole finds the true altitude of a star to be 15⁰ 25’ N. In what
latitudes will be an observer find the meridian altitude of the same star double.
11. An unknown star rose bearing 123⁰(T). When bearing east, it had a true altitude of 24⁰ 30’.
Find the latitude of observer & declination of body?
12. A star bore 065⁰(T) when rising and its true altitude was 42⁰ when it bore 090⁰(T). Find the
latitude of observer?
13. For a stationary observer, amplitude of a body was E25°N. When the Sun was on the
Prime Vertical, the true altitude was 38°. Find the approximate true altitude of pole star?
14. In lat 36⁰N, the time of theoretical Sunrise was 05h 20m LAT. At what LAT should the sight
be taken so that the PL obtained is N-S.
15. A stationary observer observes a star (dec 30°S) pass through his zenith at the time of its
meridian passage. Calculate its amplitude when west of the observer’s meridian?
16. In lat 37⁰N, the time of theoretical Sunrise was 05h 40m LAT. At what LAT should a sight
be obtain to get a PL running N-S.
17. In lat 48⁰ 20’N the Sun’ dec was 23⁰ 06’N and a GHA when on the rational horizon East of
the observer was 287⁰. Find the observer’s longitude.
18. Star A (SHA 120⁰ 12’, dec 38⁰ 40’N) bore 090⁰(T) to an observer in lat 46⁰ 12’N. At that
instant another star bore 000⁰(T) with true altitude 28⁰ 05’. Find the SHA and dec of that
star?
19. For an observer in long 30⁰W, the EHA of the Sun was 30⁰ when GHA aries was 212⁰ 14’.
Calculate the Sun’s SHA.
20. To an observer, the Sun bore 090°(T) with an altitude 32° 12’ when it had a declination of
06° 12’ and GHA Sun 44° 06.2’. Find the observer’s position?
21. In lat 43⁰S, the time of theoretical Sunrise was 04h 40m LAT. At what LAT should a sight
of the sun be taken in order that there would be no longitude correction?