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Work Design & Ergonomics

MDP4135 -B
Chapter 2 II
Manual Work and
Worker–Machine
Systems

Slide 1 Work Design & Ergonomics, MDP4135-B Dr. Mohamed Arafat Elashmawy

2 Worker-Machine Systems
Worker–machine system
A worker operates powered equipment
✓ A skilled machinist operating a lathe.
‫حفار‬
✓ A construction worker operating a backhoe at a construction site.
✓ A factory worker loading and unloading parts at a machine tool.
✓ A crew of workers operating a rolling mill that converts hot steel slabs into flat
plates. Each worker has an assigned function.
✓ A secretary using a personal computer with word processor in an office typing pool.
✓ A clerical worker in a billing center entering data based on checks received by mail
from customers into account records on a networked personal computer.
✓ An industrial engineer creating the design of a plant layout on a computer-aided
design (CAD) workstation.

Although the last three examples relate to service and knowledge work rather than production and
logistics work, they also illustrate the widespread use of worker–machine systems.
In these latter examples, the machine is a computer.

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2 Worker-Machine Systems

TABLE 1 Relative Strengths and Attributes of Humans and Machines

Relative Strengths of Humans Relative Strengths of Machines
Sense unexpected stimuli Perform repetitive tasks consistently
Develop new solutions to problems Store large amounts of data
Cope with abstract problems Retrieve data from memory reliably
Adapt to change Perform multiple tasks at the same time
Generalize from observations Apply high forces and power
Learn from experience Perform simple computations quickly

Make difficult decisions based on

Make routine decisions quickly
incomplete data

Slide 3 Work Design & Ergonomics, MDP4135-B Dr. Mohamed Arafat Elashmawy

2.1 Types of Worker–Machine Systems

(1) types of powered machinery used in the system,
Classification of worker–machine systems (2) numbers of workers and machines in the system, and
(3) level of operator attention required to run the machinery.

1- Types of Powered Machinery

Powered machinery is distinguished from hand tools by the fact that a source of
power other than human (or animal) strength is used to operate it.
Common power sources are: Electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, and fossil fuel

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2.1 Types of Worker–Machine Systems

2- Numbers of Workers and Machines.

3- Level of Operator Attention Required.

In this classification, we have the four categories described in Table 3. Full-time attention
means that the worker must devote virtually 100% of his time to the operation of the
equipment during the performance of the task.

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2.2 Cycle Time Analysis in Worker–Machine Systems

(1) Systems in which the machine time (2) Systems in which the machine time
depends on operator control. is constant and independent of operator
(a) repetitive or (b) nonrepetitive control, and the work cycle is repetitive.
Examples of repetitive work cycle :

✓ A typist typing a list of names and telephone numbers on a conventional electric typewriter.
✓ A metal trades worker operating a power buffer to buff the surface of a metal part
✓ A carpenter using a power saw to cut standard lengths of lumber
✓ A forklift driver moving pallet loads from the truck dock to the storage racks in a
warehouse.

Examples of nonrepetitive work cycle:

✓ A trucker driving a tractor-trailer on an interstate highway

✓ A construction worker operating a backhoe
✓ A farmer operating a threshing machine to separate seeds from crop
✓ A carpenter using portable power tools to build a deck on a newly
constructed house.

Slide 7 Work Design & Ergonomics, MDP4135-B Dr. Mohamed Arafat Elashmawy

2.2 Cycle Time Analysis in Worker–Machine Systems

Cycle Times with No Overlap Between Worker and Machine

where Tnw normal time for the worker-controlled portion of the cycle, min; and Tm machine
cycle time (assumed constant).

where Tnw normal time of the worker, min; Tm constant time for the machine cycle, min; Am
machine allowance factor, used in the equation as a decimal fraction.

A typical value used by companies for the machine allowance factor is Am =30%.
On the other hand, some companies do not see the need to use a machine allowance, in which
case Am = 0.

An argument for Am = 0 is that the worker is idle during the machine cycle, and so does not
have to expend any effort during this portion of the work cycle. Other companies simply set
the Am value to be the same as Apfd.

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2.2 Cycle Time Analysis in Worker–Machine Systems

PFD allowance: personal time, fatigue, and delay allowance

Slide 9 Work Design & Ergonomics, MDP4135-B Dr. Mohamed Arafat Elashmawy

2.2 Cycle Time Analysis in Worker–Machine Systems

Worker–Machine Systems with Internal Work Elements.

Operator elements that are performed sequentially are called external work elements while
those that are performed simultaneously with the machine cycle are called internal work
elements.

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2.2 Cycle Time Analysis in Worker–Machine Systems

where Tnw normal time for the worker’s external elements, min; Tnwi normal time for the
worker’s internal elements, min; and Tm machine cycle time.

where Apfd : the worker’s allowance factor and, Am : the machine allowance factor.

where Pw : the worker performance level during the cycle, expressed as a decimal fraction

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3 Automated Work Systems

Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without
human assistance.
Semiautomated machine performs a portion of the work cycle under
some form of program control, and a human worker tends to the
machine for the remainder of the cycle, by loading and unloading it,
or performing some other task during each cycle.
Fully automated machine is distinguished from its semiautomated
cousin by the capacity to operate for extended periods of time with
no human attention. By extended periods of time, we mean longer
than one work cycle.
Certain fully automated processes require one or more workers to
be present to continuously monitor the operation and make
sure that it performs according to the intended specifications.
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4 Determining Worker and Machine Requirements

1. Determine the total workload that must be accomplished in a certain period
(hour, week, month, year).
2. Divide the workload by the available time per worker.
Two general cases:
(1) when setup time is not a factor and
(2) when setup time must be included in the determination.

4.1 When Setup Is Not a Factor

where WL workload scheduled for a given period, hr of work/period (e.g., hr/wk); Q quantity
to be produced during the period, pc/period (e.g., pc/wk); and Tc work cycle time required per
work unit, hr/pc. Normally, the work cycle time Tc would be the standard time Tstd for the task,
and so the workload is the number of standard hours scheduled during the period.

where w number of workers, n number of workstations (e.g., worker–machine

systems); and AT available time of one worker in the period, hr/period/worker.
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4 Determining Worker and Machine Requirements

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4 Determining Worker and Machine Requirements

There are three principal factors that affect workload during a given period:
• Worker efficiency. Workload varies when the worker performs either above or below
standard performance for a given manual task.
• Defect rate. The output of the work system may not be 100% good quality. Defective units
may be produced at a certain fraction defect rate that must be accounted for by increasing the
total number of units processed.
• Learning curve phenomenon. As the worker becomes more familiar with a repetitive task,
the time to accomplish each cycle tends to decrease.

where Q quantity of good units made in the process; Qo original or starting quantity; and q
fraction defect rate.

where Ew worker efficiency, expressed as a decimal fraction; and q fraction defect rate.

where AT available time, hr/worker; Hsh shift hours during the period, hr.; and
A availability,
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4 Determining Worker and Machine Requirements

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4 Determining Worker and Machine Requirements

4.2 When Setup Time Is Included

Slide 17 Work Design & Ergonomics, MDP4135-B Dr. Mohamed Arafat

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4 Determining Worker and Machine Requirements

Number of Setups Is Unknown

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4 Determining Worker and Machine Requirements

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5 Machine Clusters
More than one machine are assigned to one worker

where n number of machines; Tm machine cycle time, min; Ts worker service time per
machine, min; Tr worker repositioning time between machines, min.

Case 1: n1 maximum integer < n

then the worker will have idle time and the cycle time of the machine cluster will be the
cycle time of the machines Tc Tm + Ts. Assuming 1 work unit is produced by each machine
during a cycle,

where Cpc (n1) cost per work unit, $/pc; CL labor cost rate, $/min; Cm cost rate per machine,
$/min; and (Tm + Ts) is expressed in min.

Case 2: n2 minimum integer > n

then the machines will have idle time, and the cycle time of the machine cluster will be the
time it takes for the worker to service the n2 machines, which is n2(Ts + Tr)

Machine idle time costs more than worker idle time, therefore Case 1 is preferred
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