Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 1 ||

Body of typical angiospermic plant is differentiated

into:
 Root
 Stem
 Leaf
 Flower
 Fruit
 Seed

Lecture - …………Date: ………………..

ROOT
 The main root or primary root or tap root develops from radicle of the embryo.
 General character of root:
• The root is the descending organ of the plant and are +vely geotropic.
Exception:
 Coralloid roots of cycas: ………………………………………….
 Pneumatophores or respiratory roots of Mangrove plants:…………………………
• Without nodes and internodes, with no leaves or buds.
• Bear unicellular root hairs (exogenously) and lateral roots or secondary root or root branch
(endogenously arising from pericycle). [IOM1996, BPKIHS]
 From apex to base root has 4 region or zones:

1. Root cap zone:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
 @ 2022/23
Complete Botany || 2 ||
 It is terminal boring point of root.
 Made up of regenerable thin-walled cells.
 Root cap forming histogen is calyptrogen in monocots and dermatogen/protoderm in dicots.
 Protect the young growing cells of apical region / meristem against soil particles.
 Cells of root cap contain abundant starch grain; responsible for geotropism and golgi bodies which secrete
mucilage to lubricate soil particles.
 In hydrophytes, instead of a root cap, root pocket is present which cannot be regenerated once damaged.
2. Zone of cell division or meristematic zone:
 Root meristem is sub-terminal/sub-apical and is present just behind the root cap.
 In root, there is maximum growth just behind the apex.
3. Zone of cell elongation:
 Responsible for increasing length of root.
4. Zone of cell maturation or zone of cell differentiation:
 Characterized by the presence of unicellular root hairs.
 Maximum water absorption takes place from this region.
ROOT SYSTEMS
The main root along with its branches constitutes the root system.

Root systems

Tap root Adventitious root

system system

→ Develops from radicle of an

→ Develops from any part other
embryo.
→ than radicle of embryo

 In dicots, radicle elongates, tapers, swells, becomes prominent as primary root.

 In monocots, primary root is short lived and is replaced by fibrous roots (adventitious in origin).
 Fibrous root system is better adapted than tap root system for absorption of water and minerals.
 Roots arising from callus in tissue culture are adventitious in origin.
 Adventitious roots and tap roots differ in their origin.
Modifications of tap root
a. Fleshy tap roots (for storage of food):

b. Nodulated tap roots/Tuberculate roots (Root nodules):

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 3 ||

 Found in plants of sub-family Papilionoideae of family Leguminosae.

 Bacterium ……………. lives symbiotically in the root of leguminous
plants. [IOM 2005]
 Rhizobium fixes nitrogen and makes the plant rich in …………..

c. Pneumatophores or respiratory roots or breathing roots:

 Common in mangrove plants i.e. plants growing

…………
 Shows negative geotropism.
 Minute aerating pores of pneumatophores are called
…………………...

 Pneumathodes anatomically resemble lenticels.

 e.g., Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Heritiera, etc.
d. Mycorrhizal roots:
 It is symbiotic association between fungi and roots of higher plants like Pinus, Betula etc,
 Root hair and root cap remain absent.
 Fungal hyphae provides phosphorus nutrient to host when necessary.
Modification of adventitious root
A. Modifications of adventitious roots for storage (Fleshy types):
1. Tuberous roots or single root tubers: Arise singly and are without definite shape e.g. Sweet potato
(Ipomoea batatas)
2. Fasciculated roots: Similar to tuberous root but occur in clusters. e.g. Asparagus (Kurilo), Dahlia (Lahure
phool)
3. Note: Roots of Dahlia store food in the form of Inulin (a water soluble polysachharide).

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 4 ||
B. Modifications of adventitious roots for mechanical support:
1. Pillar roots or prop roots:

 These adventitious roots arise from horizontal aerial

branches.
 Example:………………………………………………
…….

2. Stilt roots or brace roots:

e.g.,......................................................................................................

3. Climbing roots: [IOM 2002]

e.g.,……………………………………………………………………….

4. Buttress roots/ Plank roots:

e.g., Bombax ceiba (Simal),

Ficus religiosa (Peepal)

C. Modifications of adventitious roots for other vital functions:

1. Photosynthetic roots or assimilatory roots:
e.g.,…………………….………………………………………………..

2. Parasitic roots or haustorial roots or sucking roots:

 Parasitic roots of Cuscuta are called haustoria or sucking roots. [IOM 1997]
 Cuscuta is a dicot plant without differentiation of cotyledons in its embryo i.e. zero cotyledon.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 5 ||

e.g., Cuscutta
Cuscuta (Akash beli lahara) is a total stem parasite [IOM 2009, BPKIHS 2009]

3. Epiphytic roots or hygroscopic roots:

 Common in epiphytic orchids.
 Epiphytic orchids show three types of roots:

a.Fixing root/Clinging root: for fixation.

b.
Absorbing roots: for absorption of minerals.
c.Hanging roots/Epiphytic roots/Hygroscopic roots/Aerial roots: for absorption of moisture.
Hanging root is surrounded by a multilayered, dead, spongy and hygroscopic tissue called Velamen
 Epiphytic roots have no root hairs and root cap
4.Reproductive roots:
 Due to the presence of adventitious buds (radical buds), certain roots have capacity to reproduce.
e.g. Dahlia, Sweet Potato, Trichosanthes dioica (parwal)
 Reproductive tap roots occur in …………………

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 6 ||

Lecture - …………Date: ………………..

STEM
 Develops from the direct prolongation of the plumule of embryo.
 Nodes and internode are always present in the stem.

Stem

Aerial Sub-aerial Underground

Erect Weak

Aerial stem (Epiterranean):

a. Reduced aerial stem: e.g. radish, turnip, etc.
b. Erect aerial stem:
 These stem are sufficiently strong to stay erect and upright without any external support.
Types:
i. Culm:
 Jointed stem with distinct nodes and internodes. [IOM 2008] Example: ……………………………………………..
ii. Caudex:
 Stem is unbranched, thick, solid and cylindrical with a crown of leaves at the apex only.
 Trunk is marked by the scar of fallen leaf base. Example: ………………………………………….
iii. Excurrent: e.g. Pinus, Casuarina, Eucalyptus and most of the conifers.
iv. Decurrent or Deliquescent: e.g. Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Mangifera indica, etc.
v. Pseudostem:
 Pseudostem is found in acaulescent plants. e.g. Banana, Onion, Zingiber.
Weak aerial stem:

 They are thin, soft, delicate and cannot stand erect by themselves.

Weak aerial stem

Twiners Climbers
e.g. Beans, Ipomea
Scramblers → Stragglers

(hooks using plants)

Root climbers

Tendril climbers

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 7 ||

……………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………

Figure : A. Twinner (Dioscorea) and B. Climber (Vitis)

Types of Climbers:
 Posseses organs for clinging to the support. The stem is weak but not sensitive to contact. Stem tip
does not perform circumnutation.
(1) Root climbers:
Adventitious roots help in climbing.
e.g. Vanilla, Ivy (Hedra nepalnensis), Pothos (Money plant), Paan (Piper betel), etc.
(2) Tendril climbers:
Leaf tendrils Stem tendrils
• Whole leaf tendril: Wild pea (Lathyrus • Axillary bud tendril: Passiflora (passion
aphaca) flower)
• Leaflet tendrils: Garden pea (Pisum sativum), • Extra-axillary bud tendril: Cucurbita
Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus)
• Leaf tip/ leaf apex tendril: Glory lily (Glorisa) • Terminal bud/ Branch tip modified = Vitis
vinifera (Grapes)
• Petiolar tendril: Pitcher plant (Nepenthes),
Nasturtium, Clematis
• Stipular tendril: Smilax

3. Scramblers or Ramblers:
 Use pointed (sharp) structures like thorns, hooks, spines, etc. for climbing.
e.g. Bougainvillea (Glory-of-the-garden) -→ thorn climber.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 8 ||
 Atrabotrys → hook climber in which inflorescence axis (peduncle) is modified into hook.
 Bignonia ungis-cati (Cat’s nail) → hook climber
4. Lianas:
 Lianas →…………………………………………………………………………... [IOM 2006]
 Lianas are commonly found in ……………………………….. e.g., Gnetum, Bauhinia vahlli (Bhorla)

Underground (Sub-terranean) Modifications of Stems

 Basically for the purpose of perennation, food store and vegetative propagation.
 Common features of underground stem:
……………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………
1. Rhizome:

 Horizontally growing underground stem with distinct

nodes and internodes is …………………...
 Rhizome is elongated, usually branched and
diageotropic.
 Non-green, brown scaly leaves called cataphylls
protect vegetative buds in a rhizome.
 e.g. Musa paradisiaca (Banana), Zingiber officinale
(Ginger), Curcuma domestica (Turmeric), etc.

2. Corm:

 Corm is a condensed form of rhizome growing in the

vertical direction. [BPKIHS]
 It is usually spherical or globular in shape and
unbranched.
 Cataphylls are also present in a corm.
 Corm is characterized by circular nodes.
 e.g. Colocasia (pidalu), Colchicum autumnale,
Crocus sativus, Amorphophallus (elephant foot or
zaminkanda), Gladiolus (Birthday flower)
Figure : Corm of Colocasia ( “Pidalu”)

3. Bulb:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 9 ||
 Contains a extremely reduced or condensed node represented by disc with fleshy leaves.

 Bulb stores food in fleshy scaly leaves/swollen leaf bases.

 Example:…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..

4. Tuber:

 Potato is multiplied vegetatively with the help of

……………………………….. [MOE]
 Potatoes are borne on …………………………
 Eyes of the potatoes are axillary buds on the node.
 Only underground stem without adventitious roots.

Sub-aerial Modifications of Stem (Prostate weak stem modifications)

 Basically, for the purpose of vegetative propagation.
1. Runners:
 It is a long, thin, green stem with long
internodes growing horizontally on the soil
surface.
 Adventitious roots develop at intervals.
 Examples: …………………………………..
 An underground running stem is called sobole.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 10 ||
2. Sucker:
 It is a non-green underground stem which grows
obliquely upwards.
e.g. Banana, Chrysanthemum (“Godabari”),
Mentha (Mint/ “Patina”)
 New banana plants develop from sucker.
[BPKIHS]

3. Stolons:

 It is lateral branch from lower leaf, which runs and

strikes ground producing new plant.
e.g. Strawberry (Fragaria indica), Jasmine

4. Offsets:

 Similar to runner but differ in being thicker and shorter. i.e one
internode long, thick, short runner.
 Common in hydrophytes like - ……………………..
……………………………………………………
 Vegetative reproduction in Eichhornia and Pistia takes place by offset.
[MOE 2067]
 Note: The terrestrial plant that produces offset is Agave.

Aerial (Epiterranean) Modifications of Stems

1. Thorns:
 Modification of an axillary bud as in Citrus, Bougainvillea, Duranta or a terminal bud as in Carissa.
 With vascular bundles and a bark , may be branched and may even bear leaves, flowers and fruits.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 11 ||
 Thorn is a defensive organ meant to keep off grazing animals.
 In Bougainvillea, thorn is also used as a climbing organ.
 Prickles of rose differ from thorn as they are devoid of vascular bundle.
 Prickles of rose are exogenous in origin [BPKIHS 2012]

2. Phylloclade

 Phylloclade is a long, flattened or cylindrical, succulent, green and

photosynthetic, stem of unlimited growth.
 It has many nodes and internodes.
 Many xerophytic plants develop phylloclade to reduce transpiration to
a considerable extent.
 E.g., ……………………………………………
………………………………………….and
……………………………………..

3. Cladodes:
 Cladode is a short, flattened or cylindrical,
succulent, green and photosynthetic,
branch of limited growth.
 It has one or few nodes.
 Only one internode long phylloclade is
called …………………. [MOE]
 This is also a xerophytic adaptation to reduce
transpiration.
 E.g., ………………………and……………………..

4. Bulbils:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 12 ||

 It may is modification of a vegetative bud or a floral bud.

 e.g. ……………..…………………
 Vegetative reproduction in agave takes place by bulbil.
[BPKIHS]

Notes:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 13 ||

Lecture - …………….. Date: ………………….

LEAF (PHYLLOPODIUM
 Develops from a node of stem or its branches in an acropetal order.
 It generally bears a bud in its axil called axillary bud.
 The first leaf originates from the shoot meristem as leaf primordia.
 Three primary functions of are photosynthesis, transpiration and gaseous exchange.
Parts of a typical foliage leaf

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 14 ||

a. Leaf base (Hypopodium)/Vagina:

 Sheathing leaf base → ...................................................................................
 Pulvinus leaf base → swollen leaf base →. e.g. Leguminosae
 Pulvinus acts as motor organ – stores K+ ion and responsible for sleep and shock movements in
…………………………….
b. Stipules:
 Lateral appendages of the leaf borne at its base.
 Considered as vestigial leaflets and are common in dicots.
Types:
1. Free lateral stipule: Most common type e.g., China rose.

e.g.,........................ e.g.,........................
........... ............................... e.g.,...........................
e.g., ...................
...........................
e.g.,........................ ..................................
............................
............................... .....................
..
c. Petiole (Mesopodium):
...........................

 Stalk of a leaf is called petiole.

 A petiole may be modified in certain plants for specific functions:
1. Winged petiole in Citrus.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 15 ||

2. Floating petiole or spongy petiole or bulbous (swollen) petiole in Eichhornia. [IOM 2008]

3. Tendrillar petiole in Pitcher plant (Nepenthes), Nasturtium and Clematis

4. Phyllode (a flattened, green and photosynthetic petiole) in Parkinsonia, Australian acacia.

b. Lamina or leaf blade (Epipodium)
 Leaf lamina has two surfaces:
 Adaxial surface or upper surface or ventral surface: This surface is nearer to the apex of the stem.
 Abaxial or lower or dorsal surface: This surface is away from the stem tip.
 Dicot leaf – Dorsiventral and horizontal.
 Monocot leaf – Isobilateral and vertical

KINDS OF LEAF BASED ON FUNCTION

1. Foliage leaves: normal green, photosynthetic leaves.
2. Reproductive leaves:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 16 ||

e.g., Begonia, Bryophyllum

 Such leaves contain adventitious foliar buds or epiphyllous buds,

Fig. Reproductive leaf of Bryophyllum

3. Cotyledonary leaves: These are the embryonic leaves of seed, e.g. Cucumber, Bean, Castor
 Cotyledonary leaves appear during epigeal germination of seeds.

4. Sporophylls: Spore bearing leaves or leaves with sporangia. e.g. Dryopteris

5. Cataphylls: Non-green brown scaly leaves which protect vegetative buds as in rhizomes, corms, etc.
6. Scale leaves: Extremely reduced leaves as found in the cladode of Asparagus.

Venation
 The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the leaf lamina is known as venation.
 Two principal types of venation are:
1. Reticulate venation:
 Common in dicot leaves.
 Dicot leaves showing parallel venation are:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 It has 2 sub-types:
a. Pinnate or unicostate reticulate venation, e.g., Peepal, Mango, Brassica, Helianthus.
b. Palmate or multicostate reticulate venation:
i. Convergent: e.g. Cinnamomum (tejpat), Zizyphus (bayar)
ii. Divergent: e.g. Members of the family Malvaceae (China rose, Cotton), also found in castor (Ricinus), Vitis
(grape), Cucurbitaceae, etc.

 Parallel venation: Common in monocots.

 Monocot leaves showing reticulate venation are: ………………………………………………………
 It has 2 subtypes:
a. Pinnate or unicostate parallel venation: e.g. Banana, Canna.
b. Palmate or multicostate parallel venation:
i. Convergent: e.g. Bamboo, Rice, and Grasses.
ii. Divergent: e.g. Fan palm (Borassus flabellifer)

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 17 ||

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 18 ||

Simple and Compound leaves

A. Simple leaf: Leaf lamina is not divided into leaflets and marginal incisions do not touch the mid rib or
petiole.
e. g. Peepal, Mango, members of family Brassicaceae, etc.

B. Compound leaves: Marginal incisions touch the mid rib or petiole and leaf lamina is broken into a number of
segments called leaflets.
 A compound leaf may be:
1. Pinnately compound: Leaflets are pinna shaped.
 Leaflets remain attached to the central rib or mid rib called Rachis.
2. Palmately compound:
 Leaflets are attached to a common point, i.e., tip of the petiole.
 Rachis is absent.

Phyllotaxy
 Arrangement of leaves on the stem or its branches is called phyllotaxy. [MOE 2069]
 Purpose of phyllotaxy: To provide maximum exposure to the sunlight with minimum overlapping.
 Prefoliation - Arrangement of immature young leaves in bud stage.
 Vernation: Arrangement of leaves with respect to each other in bud condition.
 Ptyxis: Arrangement or infolding of an individual leaf lamina during bud condition., e.g., Circinate ptyxis in
fern leaves.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 19 ||
Types of phyllotaxy
A. Alternate (Spiral): Single leaf develops from each node. e.g. China rose, mustard, sunflower, etc.
B. Opposite: Two leaves arise at each node standing opposite to each other.
i. Opposite superposed: Two opposite leaves from adjacent nodes lie just above or just below.e.g. Syzyzium
(Jamun).
ii. Opposite decussate: The opposite leaves of adjacent node lies at right angle. e.g. Calotropis (Aank) Ocimum
sanctum (Holy basil or Tulsi).
C. Whorled or verticillate: Three (e.g. Nerium or Oleander) or more than three (e.g. Alstonia) leaves develop
at each node.

Modifications of Leaves
1. Leaf tendrils:
a. Whole leaf tendrils: e.g. Wild pea (L. aphaca)
b. Leaflet tendrils: e.g. Sweet pea (L. odoratus), Garden pea (Pisum sativum)
 Upper leaflets are modified into tendrils. [IOM 1996]
c. Petiolar tendrils: e.g. ………………………
d. Rachis and petiolule (stalk of the leaflet) tendrils: ..........................................................
e. Stipular tendrils: e.g. ……………………

2. Leaf spines:
 Whole leaf modified into spines. e.g. Opuntia.
 Margins of lamina modified into spines, e.g. Argemone maxicana.
 Stipules are modified into spines, e.g. Zizyphus, Acacia.

3. Leaflet hooks: Three terminal leaflets of compound leaf are modified hooks in Doxantha ungiscati (Bignonia
unguis-cati) commonly called cat's nail,

4. Phyllodes: Phyllode is a green, flattened leaf like structure which is the modification of petiole.
 e.g. Acacia auriculiformis (Australian acacia) and Parkinsonia

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 20 ||
5. Leaf bladders:

 They occur in the rootless aquatic insectivorous plant Utricularia (Bladderwort).

 Each bladder has a valve and sensitive hairs at its mouth.

6. Leaf pitchers: The leaf lamina is modified to form a large pitcher in pitcher plant (Nepenthes) for the purpose of
capturing insects.
 The pitcher is provided with a lid which itself is an outgrowth of the leaf-apex. The petiole is modified into a
tendrillar structure to hold the pitcher in a vertical manner.
 A pitcher like modification of leaf lamina for water storage is found in Dischidia.
[BPKIHS 2005, 2009]
7. Leaf tentacles: e.g., Drosera (Sundew plant)

8. Scale leaves: These are small, dry, brownish and membranous as in Asparagus to reduce transpiration or
thick and fleshy as inner leaves of onion to store the food material.

9. Bract leaves or hypsophylls: In Euphorbia pulcherrima (Lalu pate), the leaves borne near the cyathia are brightly
coloured to attract insects for pollination.

Notes:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 21 ||

Lecture………………..Date: ………………………..

INFLORESCENCE
 The mode of arrangement and distribution of flowers on a specialized branch of shoot (Inflorescence axis or
Peduncle) is called inflorescence.
 Stalk of inflorescence is peduncle.
 Purpose of inflorescence: to ensure pollination.
Types of inflorescence
1. Solitary
 Single flower born on peduncle. It is of two types.
A. Solitary axillary: e.g. ..........................................................
B. Solitary terminal: e.g. ………………………………………………………………………………
2. Racemose inflorescence (Indefinite type or Indeterminate type)
 Main axis never terminates into a flower and it grows indefinitely.
 Flowers are in acropetal succession i.e. older flower towards base and younger towards apex.
 Order of opening flowers is centripetal.
Types of racemose inflorescence:
A. Main axis elongated.
1. Typical raceme: Pedicellate flowers borne acropetally on a long, elongated and unbranched axis, e.g.,
Radish.
 A branched raceme or compound raceme is called ....................... e.g., Cassia fistula, Delonix regia, Agave, male
flowers in maize etc.

(1) Spike: Similar to raceme but flowers are sessile.

Examples:
..............................................................................................................................
..........................

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 22 ||

 Spikelet is a very small spike with few small, sessile flowers called florets.
 Each spikelet are covered by glumes.
 Glumes are modified bracts. [IOM 1996]
 Spike of spikelets is the compound inflorescence of grasses like Wheat. [KUMET 2007]
(2) Catkin or amentum: A unisexual spike with long pendulous peduncle is called catkin or amentum.
e.g. , ...........................................................................................................................................................................
Note: After fertilization, this catkin inflorescence of mulberry form a composite or multiple fruit called
sorosis. [MOE 2066]
(4) Spadix:

Sessile flowers borne on a thick and fleshy axis

surrounded by one or more large bracts called
...........................................................
eg..........................................................................................
..............................

(B) Main axis shortened:

(1) Umbel:
 eg.Centella,

 Flowers arise from same point but terminate at

different levels.
 Pedicels have ....................... lengths.
 A whorl of bract called ....................... is present.

Note: Compound umbel or umbel of umbels:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 23 ||

e.g., Coriander and other members of family Umbliferae.

(2) Corymb

 originate from different levels but terminate at the same level.

 Pedicels are of .......................
 e.g., ...................................................................
 Note: Edible inflorescence of Brassica oleracia var. botrytis
(cauliflower) is......................................... [BPKIHS 2010]

(vii) Head or capitulum:

 Most advanced or highly evolved inflorescence.
 Characteristic inflorescence of family ......................
 The peduncle is flattened to form a receptacle that bears centripetally arranged small, sessile flowers called
florets.
 Two types of florets:
Disc florets Ray florets

 Surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts called involucre.

3. Cymose inflorescence (Defenite type or Determinate type)

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 24 ||
 Main axis terminates into a flower and has limited growth.
 Flower are arranged in ............................................... (older at the apex and younger towards the base). [BPKIHS
2009]
Types:
(A) Monochasial cyme or uniparous cyme:
• Main axis terminates into a flower by producing a single lateral branch.
Monochasial cyme can be of two types:

(i) Helicoid cyme or one-sided cyme:Successive lateral branches are produced on same side forming a short
helix. e.g. Begonia, Drosera, Heliotropium, etc
(ii) Scorpoid cyme: Successive lateral branches are produced on both sides forming a zig-zag development of
inflorescence axis, e.g. Ranunculus

(B) Dichasial cyme or biparous cyme:

 Main axis terminates into a flower by producing two lateral branches. eg. Dianthus (Pink), Jasmine,
Bougainvillea.
(c) Polychasial cyme or multiparous cyme: Main axis terminates into a flower by producing many lateral
branches. e.g. Calotropis

Special types of inflorescence

(A) Hypanthodium: [IOM 2009]

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 25 ||

 Characteristic inflorescence of.............................

 Peduncle is flattened to form a .........................
 Enclosing three types of unisexual, sessile flowers.
 Female flower → towards the base,
 Male flowers → towards osteole and
 In between are borne gall flowers (sterile female flowers).
 It looks like a fruit and after fertilization develops into
........................

(B) Cyathium:
 Characteristic inflorescence of family...................... e.g., ................................................. [MOE 2068]
 It looks like a single flower.
 A cup-shaped involucre is formed by the fusion of bracts (usually 5).

 Single achlymadous female flower in the centre is

surrounded by many achlamydous male flowers. [BPKIHS
2003]
 Ratio of female to male flower is .............................

(C) Verticellaster: [IOM 2005]

 Characteristic inflorescence of family .................................................... e.g.,....................................
 It is a condensed dichasial cyme type of inflorescence.

Note:
 Involucre is whorl of bracts surrounding an inflorescence. e.g., capitulum, cyathium and umbel.
 Edible inflorescence:
 Compound corymb in cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis)
 Catkin in mulberry (Morus alba).
 Hypanthodium in fig (Ficus carica).
 Spadix in female maize (Zea mays).

Notes:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 @ 2022/23
Complete Botany || 26 ||
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Lecture …………… Date: ……………………….

FLOWER
 Anthoology → study of flower.
 Anthesis → Opening of floral bud after maturation.
• Cleistogamous flower: Flower donot open after maturation, e.g.,..................................................
• Chasmogamous flower: Flower open after maturation. Both cleistogamous and chasmogamous
flower occurs in Chomelina benghalensis.
 Smallest flower → Wolffia microscopica.
 Largest flower →..................................(total root parasite)
 Flower is a reproductive shoot of definite growth.
 Floral parts like sepal, petal, stamen and carpels are modified leaves.

A typical flower has 4 whorls

Non-essential or Essential or reproductive whorls

vegetative whorls Androecium and gynoecium
Calyx Pokhrel
By Dr. Kabir and corolla
 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 27 ||

 Stalk in flower = pedicel and so flower with stalk is called pedicellate flower.

Characters:
 Complete flower: All the four whorls are present, e.g., Cruciferae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Disc
florets of Sunflower etc.
 Incomplete flower: Any one of the four whorls is missing, e.g., Liliaceae, Graminae, Ray florets of
Sunflower etc.
 Bisexual or Monoclinous or Perfect flower: Both androecium and gynoeciumare present in the same
flower. e.g., Cruciferae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Disc florets of Sunflower etc.
 Unisexual or Diclinous or Imperfect flower: Flower has either androecium or gynoecium.
• Pistillate or female flower: only gynoecium.
• Staminate or male flower: only androecium.
• Ray florets of Sunflower are unisexual (female flowers or pistillate).
• Monoecious plant: Both male and female reproductive parts are borne by the same plant (but not by
the same flower). e.g., Maize (Zea mays), Ricinus, Cucurbitaceae
• Dioecious plant: Male and female reproductive parts are borne by different plants. Eg.Cycas,
papaya, mulberry, lapsi (Choreospondius).
 Bracteate: Flower covered by involucre or bract. e.g,.Compositae, Euphorbiaceae, Gramineae etc.
 Ebracteate: Flower not covered by involucre or bract. e.g., Brassicaceae, Solanaceae etc.
 Symmetry in flower:
• Actinomorphic (Regular = Symmetrical)→ radially symmetrical, e.g. Cruciferae, Mimoseaceae,
Malvaceae, Liliaceae, Compositae (disc floret).
• Zygomorphic (Mono symmetrical) → bilaterally symmetrical, eg. Graminae, Papilionaceae,
Caesalpinaceae and Composite (ray florets)
• In family Solanaceae, flower is more actinomorphic and less zygomorphic (slightly zygomorphic)
due to obliquely placed ovary.

Relative position of ovary on thalamus with respect to other floral whorls:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 28 ||

 Hypogyny: Ovary superior (rest of the floral members inferior). e.g.Brassicaceae , Solanaceae, Malvaceae,
Poaceae etc.
 Epigyny: Ovary is inferior (rest of the floral members superior). e.g. Compositae, Cucurbitace.
 Perigyny: In this condition ovary is half superior and half inferior. e. g.rose, pear, peach etc.
 Achlamydous: Absence of accessory floral whorls i.e. Calyx and Corolla remain absent.e.g. Euphorbiaceae,
Piperaceae (Piper betel).
 Monochlamydous: Single whorl of perianth covers the essential whorls. e.g., Liliaceae.
 Dichlamydous: Both calyx and corolla covers the essential whorls as in Cruciferae, Solanaceae, Leguminosae
etc.
 Dichogamy: Maturation of pollen grains and ovules at different time.
 Protandry: Maturation of pollen grains earlier than ovules. E.g., Salvia, Cotton, Helianthus.
 Protogyny: Maturation of ovules (carpels) earlier than pollen grains. E.g., Ficus, Magnolia.
PARTS OF TYPICAL flower
Calyx:
 Outermost whorl of a flower
 Unit structure → sepal.
 Sepals may be free → Polysepalousor fused → Gamosepalous.
 Function of sepal is to protect the flower during bud stage.
 Persistent sepals: Sepal do not drop down even after fertilization, e.g,. member of family Solanaceae
 In family Compositae, sepals are modified into Pappus (hairy sepals) for dispersal of fruits by Parachute
mechanism.
Corolla:
 Second whorl of a flower, brightly coloured.
 Unit structure - petals.
 Petals may be either free (Polypetalous) or fused (Gamopetalous).

Types of corolla:
1.Cruciform: Four free petals arranged in the form of a cross. e.g. Cruciferae.
 Each petal is called Clawed petal or Ungiculate petal.
2.Campanulate or bell shaped: as in Cucurbita
3.Infundibuliform or funnel shaped: as in Datura stramonium, Petunia etc.
4.Tubular: e.g., Disc florets of Sunflower.
5.Rotate or wheel shaped: as in Solanum melongena (Brinjal or egg plant).
6.Papilionaceous or butterfly-shaped: Three are five petals. The large, posterior petal is called Vexillum or
Standard.
 Vexillum covers two lateral, free petals called Wings or Alae.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 29 ||
 Wings or Alae further cover two innermost (anterior) fused petals which are together known as Keel or Carina.
Keel or Carina is a boat shaped cavity.
7. Bilabiate or two lipped: Limb of the corolla has two lips- the upper and the lower, with the mouth gaping
wide open. e.g. Members of family Labiateae
8. Personate (Masked): In this case the two lips are placed so near to each other as to close the mouth of the
corolla, as in Antirrhinum (Snap dragon) [IOM 2007]
9. Ligulate or strap shaped: e.g., Ray florets of Sunflower.

Perianth:

 Indistinct calyx and corolla is called perianth.

 Unit structure - tepal.
 Tepals free - .................................
 Tepal fused - ..........................................
 In family Graminae, tepals are reduced into ..................... and their number is usually two. [MOE 2066]
 Structures equivalent to perianth is lodicules. [MOE 2067]
Aestivation

 Mode of arrangement of floral members (sepals or petals) w.r.t to each other in the same floral whorl
during bud stage is called aestivation. [IOM 2007]
1. Valvate aestivation : ................................................................................ [IOM 2006] e.g., Brassicaceae, Mimosaceae
etc.
2. Twisted or contorted aestivation: e.g., China ros.
3. Imbricate aestivation : ............................................................................................................................................,
e.g., Caesalpiniaceae
4. Quincuncial aestivation : .........................................................................................................e.g., Calyx of
Cucurbita maxima
5. Vexillary aestivation: as in Papilonaceous corolla. [MOE 2055]

Male reproductive part (Androecium):

 Unit structure - stamen (equivalent to microsporophyll).
 Each stamen has three main parts; anther (fertile part), connective and filament.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 30 ||
 Generally, anther is dithecous (bi-lobed) and tetrasporangiate (having 4 pollen chambers or
microsporangia)
 Anther is monothecous in family....................................
 Anther is monosporangiate in.......................................
Conditions related to the length of stamens:
a. Didynamous: four stamens; outer two long and inner two short. eg., Labiateae (Ocimum).
b. Tetradynamous:..................................................................................................................................................................................
c. Heterostemony: Stamens are of variable lengths. e.g. Cassia fistula (Caesalpinaceae).
Note: In family Caesalpiniaceae, some stamens are sterile and are called..............................................................

Cohesion of stamen:
 Union of stamens among themselves.

A. Adelphous condition: Filament fused and anther free

a. Monoadelphous condition: Filamenys forming single bundle (staminal tube), e.g,, Members of family
.......................
b. Diadelphous condition: Filaments are united in two two bundles, e.g., Papilionaceae.
c. Polyadelphous condition: e.g., Citrus, Ricinus, Bombax.
B. Syngenesious condition: ........................................................................................................................

C. Synandrous condition: ..........................................................

Adhesion of stamen:
 Union of stamens with other floral parts.

A. Epipetalous condition: Stamen are fused with petals. e.g., Compositae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae.
B. Epiphyllous condition: ........................................ ......................................................................................
C. Gynandrous condition: Stamens attached with gynoeciume. e.g., Calotropis.

Attachment of filament to the anther:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 31 ||
 Basifixed: Filament attached at base of stamen. e.g., Solanaceae, Brassicaceae.
 Dorsifixed: Filament attached to back of stamen. e.g., Legumes (pea, bean).
 Adnate: Filament attached along the whole length of anther. E.g., Magnoliaceae family
 Versatile: e.g,. Graminae.

Female reproductive part (Gynoecium or Pistil)

 Unit structure is carpel.
 Each carpel has three parts; stigma, style and ovary.
 Part of pistil which receives pollen is ................ [IOM]
 Carpel free →.............................................
 Carpel fused →.........................................
 Styles originate at lateral side of ovary in........................
 Gynobasic style occurs in family.........................................
No of carpels in a pistil:
 Monocarpellary condition or simple pistil: as in Leguminosae
 Bicarpellary condition: Brassicaeae, Solanaceae
 Tricarpellary condition: Liliaceae
 Pentacarpellary or multicarpellary condition: Malvaceae
No of lucules or chambers in a ovary:
 Unilocular: e.g. Graminae, Compositae, Legume.
 Bilocular: e.g. Cruciferae, Solanaceae.
 Trilocular: e.g. Liliaceae.
 Tetralocular: e.g. Ocimum.
 Pentalocular: e.g. Malvaceae (China rose).
 Multilocular: e.g. Lady's finger.
Placentation:
 Placentation: Arrangement of ovules in ovary
 Ovules are attached to the wall of ovary by .................
 Ovule is attached to the placenta by funicle.
 Types of placentation:
1. Marginal placentation: [IOM 1999, Ind. Emb. 2003]
 Always develops in a monocarpellary, unilocular ovary. e.g., ........................................................................................

2. Parietal placentation:
 Ovary is unilocular and bears two or more longitudinal placentae. e.g.,
..................................................................................... ...........................................................................

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 32 ||
 In family Cruciferae, ovary is originally unilocular but later on becomes bilocular due to the development of a
false septum called replum.

3. Basal placentation:
 The ovary is unilocular and a single ovule is borne at the base of the ovary.
 A placenta formed directly from thalamus. [MOE]
e.g. , Asteraceae, Graminae.

4. Axile placentation:
 In a multicarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium the fusing margins grow inwards to meet in the centre of the
ovary to form an axis thus making the ovary multichambered (multilocular). The ovules are borne on
central axis. e.g,,............................. ..........................................................................................................................................

5. Superficial:
 The gynoecium is multicarpellary syncarpous. e.g. Nymphaea, Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera).
6. Free central: e.g. Dianthus, Salvia.

Notes:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 33 ||

FRUIT
 Fruit is ripened and fertilized ovary.
 Pomology is the science and practice of fruit culture.
 Largest fruits and seeds are recorded in ............. .........................................
 Smallest fruits and seeds are recorded in Orchidaceae (also called dust seeds).

Fruit

Eucarp Pseudocarp Parthenocarp

→ Entirely from ovary. → Ovary + other floral → Fruits having sterile

→ Fertile seeds present parts. seeds / no seeds.
eg. Mango → Fertile seeds present eg. Banana, grapes.
eg. Apple

 Usually, a typical fruit cosists of two parts: fruit wall (pericarp) and seeds
 Pericarp is made up of three layers epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp
 True fruit: develops from ovary

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 34 ||
 False fruits: develops from any part other than ovary.

Types of fruits:
Simple fruit:
 Develops from monocarpellary or polycarpellary syncarpous ovary.
A. Dry fruits:
 Pericarp is not distinguished into three layers.
 Dry fruits are of following three types:
I. Dry Dehiscent or Capsular fruits:
a. Legume or pod:
 Develops from monocarpellary, superior, unilocular ovary, having marginal placentation.
 Dehiscence occurs from two sutures.
 Characteristics feature of family……………
b. Follicle:
 Similar to legume but dehiscence occurs through only one suture (usually ventral suture). e.g., Calotropis.
c. Siliqua:
 Multi-seeded fruit developing from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary.
 Dehiscence occurs by both the haves from base to the apex.
 Example: ……………………………………
d. Silicula: A short, broad and flattened siliqua is called silicula. e.g., Iberis amara (Candytuft), Capsella-bursa-
pastoris (Shepherd’s purse).
d. Capsule:
 These are multi-seeded and dehisce by various methods.
1. Porocidal dehiscence: …………………...
2. Loculocidal dehiscence: ………………
II. Dry Indehiscent or Achenial fruits: These are single seeded, indehiscent dry and simple fruits.
a. Achene:
 Develops from monocarpellary pistil having superior, unilocular ovary. e.g., Mirabilis jalapa
b. Caryopsis:
Caryopsis is the characteristic fruit of family ……………………………..
c. Cypsela:
 Characteristic fruit of family ……………….
 Develops from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular and inferior ovary.
d. Samara or winged fruits:
 One or two seeded, developing from bi or tricarpellary ovary.
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
e. Nut:
 One seeded fruits with pericarp hard and woody or leathery

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 35 ||
III. Schizocarpic or Spliting fruits:
 Intermediate between dry dehiscent and dry indehiscent fruits.
 At maturity, these fruits break up into one seeded parts called mericarps.
a. Lomentum: It is a constricted pod e.g. Acacia, Mimosa, Cassia etc.
Note: Fruit of ground nut is ………................... [MOE 2066]
b. Cremocarp: e.g., Coriandrum sativum (Coriander = Dhaniya), Daucas carota (Carrot).
d. Double Samara: e.g., Acer (Maple).
e. Regma: e.g. Ricinus (castor), Euphorbia, Jatropha.

B. Succulent and Fleshy fruits:

• Pericarp is divided into three distinct regions: epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
I. Drupe or stone fruits: Mostly single seeded fruits with hard and stony endocarp.

Examples Edible parts

Mangifera indica (mango)
Cocos nucifera (coconut )
Juglans regia (wall nut = okhar) Cotyledons are edible

II. Bacca or Berry: developing commonly from syncarpous pistil (rarely from single carpel) with axile
placentation.
Examples Edible part
Lycopersicum esculentum (tomato) [MOE 2066]

Solanum melongena (brinjal = egg plant = bhanta)

Musa paradisiaca (banana)

Vitis vinifera (grapes) Pericarp and placenta edible. Parthenocarpic fruit.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 36 ||
II. Pepo:
 Characteristic fruit of family Cucurbitaceae.
 It develops from a tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary with parietal placentation.
III. Pome:
 Develops from a syncarpous, inferior ovary which is surrounded by fleshy thalamus..
 e.g. …………………………………. Edible part is …………………….

IV. Hesperidium:
 Develops from a multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous, superior, ovary with axile placentation.
 E.g.,
 Edible part is- ……………………….. …………………………………………

VI. Balausta:
 e.g., Punica granatum (Pomegranate = Anar). Edible part: …………………..

VII. Amphisarca:
 Develops from a multicarpellary, syncarpous, multilocular and superior ovary.
 e.g., Aegle marmelos (Wood apple = Bel)

Aggregate fruits (Etaerio):

 Develops from a multicarpellary apocarpous pistils (free carpels) of a flower.
a. Etaerio of follicles: Michelia, Calotropis, Vinca (periwinkle)
b. Etaerio of achenes: Rose, Fragaria spp. (Strawberry); edible part: Thalamus
c. Etaerio of drupes: Rubus idaeus (Raspberry). Edible part: Thalamus
d. Etaerio of berries Anona squamosa (Custard apple = Sharifa). Edible part: Mesocarp

Composite or multiple fruits:

Fruit develops from complete inflorescence.
a. Sorosis:
 This is a multiple fruit developing from spike, catkin or spadix inflorescence e.g.
 Ananas sativus (Pineapple = Bhuin katahar); Edible parts: Rachis, bracts and perianth.
 Morus alba (Mulberry = Kimbu = Kain kaphal); Edible part is perianth.
 A multiple fruit is exemplified by Mulberry [MOE 2066]
 Artocarpus integrifolia (Jack fruit = Rukh katahar); Bracts, perianth and seeds become succulent and are used for
eatning.
b. Syconus or Syconium:
 Develops from ............................................................. e.g,. ...................................................................

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 37 ||
Notes:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 38 ||

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany @ 2022/23 || 39 ||

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

Family CRUCIFERAE (BRASSICACEAE)

 Commonly known as ………………………

 Members includes hairy herbs with pungent
smelling watery sap.
 Pungent smell is due to suphur containing
glucosides.
 Iimportant anatomical feature is presence of
............................................................................

 Inflorescence – .............................................
...........................................................................
 Flowers are hypogynous and tetramerous,
actinomorphic. Rarely zygomorphic as in Iberis
amara. [MOE 2053]
 Petals are unguiculate (clawed) and cruciform
(cross like).
Androecium: .........................................................
Gynoecium: ..................................................................
............................................................................
 Placentation: ............................
 Fruit: ....................................................
 Floral formula (Mustard):
[IOM 2005]
Important plants of the family:
Brassica campestris (Mustard)

B. oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower): Edible part:

Inflorescence [MOE 2000, BPKIHS 2010]

B. oleracea var. capitata (cabbage). Edible part:

Vegetative bud (largest vegetative bud of plant
kingdom)

Cherianthus cheiri (Wall flower)

Lepidium sativum (Garden cress)

Iberis amara (Candytuft)

Raphanus sativus (Radish)

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany 2021/22 || 40 ||
Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s purse) Nasturtium officinale (Water-cress)

FAMILY SOLANACEAE
 Bicollateral vascular bundles in the stem.

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany 2021/22 || 41 ||
 Flowers:…………………………………….........................................
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................... ..................................................................................

 Placentation - ............................................
 Fruit: ............................................................
 Floral formula:............................ [IOM 2006, 2005]

Common plants of family Solanaceae are:

Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha / Winter cherry)

Solanum melongena (Brinjal) Nicotiana tabaccum (Tobacco) [IOM 2008]

Solanum nigrum (Black night shade / Jangali bihin) Datura metel (Dhatura or thorn apple)

Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato) Atropa belladonna (Belladona)

Capsicum annum (Khursani) Cestrum noctuermum (Night Jasmine / Raat Ki Rani)

Physalis peruviana (Rasbhari) [IOM 1996]

Family Liliaceae

 Commonly known as:

 Inflorescence usually raceme, umbellate cyme in case onion.
 Flowers…………………………....................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................
 Placentation - .........................................
 Fruits - ..........................................

Important plants of the family:

Allium cepa (Onion) Colchicum autumnale
A. sativa (Garlic) Dracaena sp.
Aloe vera (Ghiukumari) Gloriosa superba (Glory lily / Kewari)
Agave americana (Century plant/Ketuki) Lilium sp. (Lily)
Asparagus racemosus (Kurilo) Ruscus aculeatus
Smilax aspra (Kukurdaino)
Yucca gloriosa (Spinach dagger / Hattibar)

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany 2021/22 || 42 ||

FAMILY LILIACEAE

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany 2021/22 || 43 ||

FAMILY GRAMINEAE (POACEAE)

 Commonly known as ......................................
 Stem with distinct nodes and internodes (Culm) [IOM 2008]
 Leaves with sheathing leaf base and parallel venation.
 Inflorescence:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
..............................................
 Flowers are trimerous, bracteate and
bracteolate, sessile zygomorphic, bisexual,
sometimes unisexual and monoeciuous and
hypogynous.
 Perianth is represented by two
mermbranous structures called lodicules.
 Stamens are usually 3, (6 in case of rice
and bamboo), anthers are versatile.
 Gynoecium: tricarpellary, single, ovary
superior, style usually two and stigma
feathery.
 Placentation - .........................................................
 Fruits - ..........................................................
 Seeds: Endospermic (Albuminous)

Important plants of the family:

Triticum aestivum (Wheat)
Zea mays (Maize)
Oryza sativa (Rice)
Avena sativa (Oat / Jai)
Bambusa sp. (Bamboo) [MOE 2067]
Cynodon dactylon (Dog grass / Dubo)
Eleusine coracana (Finger millet / Kodo)
Hordeum vulgare (Barley / Jau)
Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane)

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Complete Botany 2021/22
|| 44 ||

Note:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel