Cambridge IGCSE First Language English Handouts

Aspects of narrative

a Viewpoint

Occasionally writers employ the second person when writing narrative, but this is not advisable for exam
students as it is hard to manage successfully and does not normally fit the composition title. The choice (if you
are given one), therefore, is between a first-person and third-person narrator: they both have advantages and
disadvantages which you need to be aware of before you start your story.
• First-person narrators can only know what they know themselves, and cannot say what other characters
are thinking and feeling; they cannot end the story with their death, and it is a cliché to end with their
becoming unconscious. On the other hand, a sense of authority and credibility can be conveyed by first-
person narration.

• Third-person narration has the advantage of having an all-knowing narrator who can tell us what is going
on in the heads of any of the characters (though it is still safer to stick to one perspective), but it loses the
sense of directness which can be conveyed by the use of a first person who was allegedly involved in the
action. The most important thing is for you to make a decision and stick to it, and not switch between
different types of narration.

b Voice

Whether the narrator is first or third person, the voice can be that of a character or witness to an event or
sequence of events, and the persona or narrator may adopt a style different from that of the student's own style.
This can be an effective means of characterisation, but you must be careful not to adopt a style which includes
slang or swearing, or which uses overly simple language and sentence structures, however realistic, because
these will be penalised in the assessment of complexity of style and maturity of vocabulary.

c Characters

It is advisable to have either two or three characters in an exam-length story. More than three makes it hard
for them to be adequately characterised and distinguished. It is necessary to explain the relationship between
the characters. It is usual to give their name, age (roughly), some clue about their physical appearance and
their personality, and their job if they have one and if it is relevant. These details allow the reader to picture the
characters and engage with them.

d Storyline

It is not really possible to think of a totally original story, nor do examiners expect it. All writers recycle, with
differences of setting and character, a basic set of plots. It is acceptable for students to use an idea from a book
or film, or to pretend that something which happened to someone else happened to them, provided that
the detail is their own and the story has not just been lifted without adaptation or elaboration. Real historical
events, as in the case of Text 21: The final choice, can also be turned into fiction-type narratives. You should not
attempt a story which is too long or complex to be delivered in the time available: one event or a short series
of events is all that can be managed effectively. A sequence of events should not be linked by ‘And then’ and
treated as being equally important; they should be connected by a chain of cause and effect. Less important
occurrences can be skipped over so that the focus is on the major event, which is the one causing the crisis.

e Tense

Although it is possible to write an effective narrative in the present tense, it is not advisable for exam purposes.
So often the student forgets they have begun in the present and switches to the past, or keeps switching
between the two, since it is unnatural to write about something which is supposed to have already happened in
the present, and therefore difficult to remember and sustain.

© Cambridge University Press 2018 Handouts

Aspects of narrative (cont.)

f Structure

The ordering of events is normally, and more safely, chronological. However, an ambitious and capable
student who wants to do well will need to consider using devices such as time lapses, flashbacks, and starting
at the end. Some writers start with the climax and then fill in the back story leading to that point, so the story
has a circular structure. Another narrative device, used for the opening and the ending, is to frame the story
within another story. For instance, finding a diary many years later and putting it back in its secret place at
the end of the narrative could frame the reading of it and the story it contains. In any case, characters have
to be introduced before their problem can be explained, which precedes the climax which is followed by
the resolution. The climax should come about three quarters of the way through the narrative: too soon and
insufficient tension will have been created; too late and the ending will seem rushed and unprepared.

g Openings

First sentences have to grip the reader and engage their curiosity from the beginning. If readers cannot place
themselves in a setting, they will feel unable to visualise the scene and relate to what is happening. Although the
rest of the narrative is likely to have a logical/chronological structure, there is a choice of types of narrative opening:
• the setting gives location, surroundings, time, place, weather, season

• one or two main characters can be described as an introduction to an event or action involving them

• a shocking or intriguing opening statement provokes immediate interest

• starting in the middle of an event engages the reader’s attention

• starting in the middle of a conversation makes the reader curious about the speakers and topic.

h Description

Narratives need some description as well as action. Unless the reader can always visualise the scene and the
characters, they will become disengaged. However, too much description slows down the pace and reduces the
tension. Details should be given where they are necessary to create a sense of character, place and atmosphere,
and to convey originality and credibility. For instance, it is better to say exactly what someone ate or where they
walked, rather than just that they had a meal or went for a walk.

i Dialogue

Dialogue should be used, but only sparingly, for dramatic effect or for significant exchanges between characters.
It is safer for dialogues to be between only two characters at a time, and probably only two of the characters in
a short story need to speak directly to each other. It is difficult to manage more than that, or to create distinctive
voices for them. When direct speech is used, it should be set out correctly within double quotation marks, with a
new line for every change of speaker, otherwise it becomes impossible for the reader to follow and marks will be
lost for inaccuracies of punctuation.

j Endings

Endings have to satisfy the reader by being both slightly unpredictable and yet credible in the way they have
been foreshadowed. Sometimes a twist can be used to catch the reader off-guard and provide humour, irony or
surprise, but this must be believable in the context and not a sudden turn of events which is not consistent with
the previous characterisation or situation. It is possible not to conclude a story but leave it at the climactic point
of greatest tension as a ‘cliff-hanger’. This has to be managed carefully so that it is clearly deliberate and does
not give the impression that the student has run out of time or is avoiding having to provide a resolution.

Handouts © Cambridge University Press 2018