CHE 534

Loss Prevention
(Process Safety and Loss
Prevention/Safety Engineering)

By

Dr. F. B. ELEHINAFE
 Module 2
 Design of Inherently Safe Plants
(Safety Techniques/Strategies)
Industrial Hazards
Occupational Health Hazards
 Design of Inherently Safe Process Plants
(Safety Techniques/Strategies)

Inherently Safer Design

The traditional approach to safety in plant
design for many years was to wait until an accident
would occur, and then add on protective equipment
to control future accidents or to protect people from
their consequences. These protective equipment
were often quite complex and expensive, and required
regular testing and maintenance.
They also interfered with smooth operations of
plant and were sometimes by-passed. And above all
the protective and preventive equipment
themselves, could fail!
The objective in inherently safer plant design is
to identify, then avoid materials and conditions that
may be hazardous, or to reduce them to acceptable
levels. This will reduce or eliminate over
dependence on protective/preventive equipment.
User-friendly approaches to plant design are
described in the following sub-sections.
 However, in order to apply design strategies
effectively the designer needs to be aware that there
is a scope for improving the friendliness of the plants
they design. There are also limitations imposed by
economics, availability of technology, etc. Safety
considerations must strike a proper balance
between operability and economics of the entire
system. Hence, a detailed critical examination and
systematic consideration of all possible alternatives
should be undertaken at an early stage of the
design.
 Strategies of Designing Inherently
Safe Process Plants
A) Process Intensification
Intensification is the most effective way of
designing user-friendly plant. Its objective is to avoid,
when possible, large inventories of hazardous materials in
process or storage. This involves using so little hazardous
material that does not matter much, when it leaks. “What
you don’t have cannot leak”. This strategy, generally,
aims at making the process smaller in size and more
efficient in operations. For examples: In 1984, at Bhopal
in India, methyl isocyanate (MIC) leaked and killed over
2,000 at instant and the death-toll from illness, rose over
15,000 persons. MIC is an intermediate for which it was
convenient, but not essential to store.
B) Substitution
This is the substitution of a safer material for a
hazardous one, if intensification is not possible. Thus, it
may be possible to replace hazardous solvents,
refrigerants and heat transfer media by non-flammable or
less flammable (high boiling point) ones; hazardous
products by safer ones; and processes which use
hazardous raw materials or intermediates by those that
do not.
For example:
The product manufactured at Bhopal, (Carbaryl – an
insecticide), was made from three raw materials, MIC is
an intermediate. It is possible to react the same raw
materials in a different order so that a different non-
hazardous intermediate is formed.
 C) Attenuation
This is another alternative to intensification. It is
the use of hazardous materials under the least
hazardous conditions.
For example:
Liquefied petroleum gas, chlorine and ammonia
can be stored as refrigerated liquids at atmospheric
pressure instead of under high pressure at ambient
temperature. Or dyestuffs, which form explosive
dusts, can be handled as slurries.
D) Limitation of Effect
This is the strategy to limit the effects of events
when they occur by equipment design or change in
process conditions, rather than by adding on
protective equipment.
For examples:
• Spiral wound gaskets are safer than fibre gaskets
because, if the bolts work loose or are not
tightened correctly, the leak rate is much lower.
• Tubular reactors are safer than tank or pot reactors,
as the inventory is usually lower and a leak can be
stopped by closing a valve.
• Vapour phase reactors are safer than liquid phase
reactors, as the mass flow rate through a hole of a
given size is much less (also example of
attenuation).
• A small, deep-diked area around a storage tank is
safer than a large shallow one, as the evaporation
rate is lower and area of any fire is smaller.
• Heating media such as hot oil or steam should not
be hotter than the auto-ignition temperature of
the material being heated.
• Strike a balance between reliability and
maintenance. Reduce the frequency of hazardous
operations like maintenance, sampling, etc.
E) Simplification
Complex plants present more opportunities for
errors. The objective here is to make the plant as
simple as possible, because a less number of
equipment does not tend to fail.
Simplified plants should be designed, such that
incidents that may occur do not produce knock-on or
domino effects.
For Examples:
• Providing firebreaks of about 15 m wide, between
sections of the plant, like firebreaks in a forest, to
restrict fire.
• Siting of equipment, which is liable to leak outdoors
so that leaks of flammable gases and vapours are
dispersed by natural ventilation a (roof over
equipment such as compressor may be permitted
but not walls). However, if leaks of toxic gases are
liable to occur it may be safer to locate the
equipment indoors, unless leaks will disperse before
they reach the public or employees).
• Construct storage tanks so that the roof-wall weld
will fails before the base-wall weld, thus, preventing
the spillage of contents.
 F) Tolerance
Wherever possible, equipment should tolerate
poor installation or operation without failure.
For example:
• If flexibility is necessary, fixed pipes and articulated
arms are friendlier that hoses.
• For most applications metals are more user-friendly
than glass or plastic.
• Bolted joints are friendlier than quick release
couplings.
G) Avoid Incorrect Assembly
Plants should be designed such that incorrect
assembly is made difficult or impossible. Avoid the
use of marking on pieces of equipment that are
liable to interchange, to indicate positions (up, down,
in, out, etc). These arrows are hardly visible under
the dirt; design it such that it cannot be interchanged
for another.
 Industrial Hazards
Hazard: a chemical or physical condition that has the
potential to cause damage to people, property, or the
environment.
Types of Hazards
• Natural hazards: arise from the natural disorder or
distortion of nature. And examples of the natural
hazards include Earthquake, Tsunami [recall the heavy
ocean waves movement of December 26, 2004 in
Thailand], Tornado [an extremely destructive funnel-
shaped rotating column of air filled with dust from
ground turned the cloud black, with speed of about
480km/hr], Volcano [natural opening of earth
surface through which molten, gaseous and solid
materials are released], Excessive moisture, Snow,
Draught, Floods, Landslide and Hurricane.
• Man-made hazards: threats with an element of
human intent, negligence, error or failure of a
system . Examples of the Man-made hazards
include Ikeja bomb blast, [2002], River Ogunpa
flood disaster [1980 ] and Industrial hazards.
 Industrial Hazards
These are hazards from the human activities
undertaken to explore natural resources for benefits
of man. Almost all the industrial activities undertaken
result in hazards. Such hazards threaten the lives and
well being of man, materials, machines, funds,
products as well as the environment.

Types of Industrial hazards:

• Hazards of Industrial Accidents
• Hazards of Byproducts/ Industrial wastes
Hazards of Industrial Accidents
They are the hazards arising from industrial accidents.
They are unpredicted, unexpected or unplanned events
that results in damage to products or plants, loss of
production, pollution of the environment and
injuries/death to people.
Industrial accidents are hazardous and are usually
brought about by faulty plants, unsafe conditions and
unsafe actions of workers.
Unsafe conditions include ineffective (or lack of) safety
devices, detective machines, tools or equipment, poor
ventilation, and dirty working environment. While unsafe
actions of workers include ignorance, carelessness,
fatigue and improper dressing.
 Examples of Hazards of
Industrial Accidents
• Flixborough Disaster [June 1st 1974]

• Bhopal Gas Tragedy [December 3rd 1984]

• Chernobyl Disaster [April 26th 1986]

• Tokyo Tsunami/Nuclear disaster [March 11th

2011]
 Flixborough Disaster [June 1st 1974]
This disaster took place in a chemical industry in
England. On Saturday June 1st, around 4:55pm. There
was a massive explosion resulting from the escape of
cyclo-hexane from the Nypro Work Limited, UK at
Flixborough. Within a minute, about 40 tonnes of the
plant's 400 tonnes store of cyclohexane leaked from a
pipe and formed a vapour cloud 100–200 metres
(320-650 feet) in diameter. The cloud, on coming in
contact with an ignition source (probably a furnace at
a nearby hydrogen production plant) exploded, and
completely destroyed the plant.
The force of the explosion was estimated to be
between 15 and 25 tons of TNT. It killed 28 persons
and injured 36 persons on the site.
Outside the work area, record showed that hundreds
of people got injured, 1,821 houses, 167 shops and
many factories were damaged.
The village of Flixborough was 600 yards from the
plant. 644 houses out of the 756 houses located
there were damaged. The chemical industry suffered
less because it was a Saturday afternoon and there
were only about 70 people on site instead of the
normal 200 people of a day shift, otherwise more
people on site would have been killed.
Nypro (UK) was operated jointly by the British
National Coal Board and Dutch State Mine, it made
Caprolactam (an intermediate in nylon manufacture)
which was being used to manufacture Nylon.
 Bhopal Gas Tragedy [December 3rd 1984]
At the early hours of December 3rd, there was a
sudden released of about 40 tonnes of methyl
isocyanate (MIC gas), a toxic gas, from an American-
owned Union Carbide Pesticide Plant three miles (4.8
km) from the central Indian city of Bhopal. About
3,000 people living in the vicinity died and over
20,000 people suffered severe respiratory and eye
damage. Hospitals within and outside the big city
were jam packed with over 50,000 people that
needed medical attention, and not less than 200,000
people fled from the city. The groundwater around
the plant area remains contaminated, and the
question of cleaning up the area is still unresolved.
 Chernobyl Disaster [April 26, 1986]
Fire occurred on the 26 of April, 1986 in Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union (a nuclear
reactor company). This led to the dispersal of large
quantity of radio-active substances. This caused serious
contamination of the neighborhood and slight
contamination across many European countries. 32
people died, 239 people were hospitalized out of which
203 people were exposed to 100 rem of radiation.
Exposure of populates to the radio-active substances
increased the number of cancer-death by some tens of
thousands in Europe and USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics), for which no compensation could be paid
since they could not be precisely predicted/estimated.
12,000 people were evacuated from the vicinity of the
incidence and 135,000 people and their livestock were re-
housed.
Tokyo Tsunami/Nuclear Disaster [11 Mar 2011]
There was a tsunami, an undersea volcanic
eruption raising the sea level and sweeping on shore.
Highly powerful earthquake of 9.0 magnitude hit
Japan and fourth most powerful ever recorded in the
history of the world. It destroyed a nuclear power
plant which led to major environmental disaster that
claimed lives.
The accident put a temporary end to all forms of
agricultural activities in the immediate environment
and caused USSR over 8 billion rubles.
 Rules to Avoiding Industrial Hazards
• Everyone (management, employee, customers)
should be responsible and accountable for the safe
conduct of their own activities.
• There should be clear roles and lines of
responsibility, authority and accountability at all
levels of the organization. And everyone has the
right to tell someone to stop a potentially
dangerous or environmental threatening activity.
• Everyone in the work force must have adequate
experience, knowledge, skills and abilities to
perform their work safely and competently.
• Management must allocate adequate resources
(money, time, effort) to ensure work can be
performed safely.
• Hazards should be evaluated and appropriately
controlled before work is performed to provide
adequate protection to staff, public and
environment.
• No work should be performed unless it can be done
safely.
• Working environment must be safe enough for
operation.
• Training of staff, at all levels and at regular time
interval, must not be compromised.
 Hazards of By-products/Industrial
Wastes
Industrial processes invariably generate wastes as
their byproducts. These wastes could be hazardous if
improperly managed or disposed off and may
therefore pose substantial hazard to the
environment and human health.
Hazardous waste is any waste or combination of
wastes that poses a substantial danger, now or in the
future, to human, plant or animal life and which
therefore cannot be handled or disposed off without
special precautions.
 A waste is considered hazardous if it exhibits one
or more of the following properties:
• Ignitability
• Corrosivity
• Reactivity
• Toxicity
Ignitable (flammable) wastes can cause fire under
certain conditions. They are have potentials for fire
hazards. Petroleum distillates and many organic
solvents are ignitable. Ethyl ether, once used as an
anesthetic, is highly flammable and its volatility adds
to its danger.
Corrosive wastes include those that are acidic/alkaline
and those capable of corroding metals, such as tanks,
drums and barrels. A corrosive substance can cause
grievous injury at the point of contact (skin, eyes, lungs,
or mouth). Strong acids and alkalis are corrosive, so also
chlorine and hydrogen peroxide.
A reactive substance reacts violently with water, air, or
other substances to cause explosion. Reactive wastes
are unstable under normal condition. Ethers (chemicals
used in industry and laboratories) can form explosive
peroxides if left in the containers for years. More familiar
reactive substances are dynamite, gun, ammunition and
firecrackers. Chlorine bleach and ammonia, if mixed
together, will react to form toxic fumes.
While toxic wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested
or absorbed, and pollute the ground when disposed
off, on land. A toxic substance can adversely affect the
health of the living organisms exposed to it. Examples
of toxic substances are arsenic, cyanide, pesticides
and many metals.
For an hazardous waste to be a risk, a person,
animal, or plant must be exposed to it. Unless the
waste has escaped into the environment, the greatest
hazard is usually experienced by the workers handling
such hazardous waste.
Examples of hazardous wastes generated
by businesses and industries

INDUSTRIAL WASTES SOURCE WASTE TYPE

• Chemical Manufacturing Strong Acids & Bases,
industries Spent solvents and reactive
wastes.
• Printing Industries Heavy metal solution,
spent solvents, spent
electroplating waste, ink
sludge containing heavy
metals.
• Leather Factories Waste toluene and benzene
• Construction Industries Ignitable paint waste,
spent solvents, strong
acids and bases.
• Cleaning Agent & Heavy metal dusts,
Cosmetic Industries ignitable wastes,
flammable solvents,
strong acids and bases.
• Automobile Companies Metals, paint wastes,
ignitable waste, used
lead acid batteries,
spent solvents.
• Metal Manufacturing Paint wastes containing
Industries heavy metals, strong
acids and bases,
cyanide and sludge
containing heavy metals
Note:
The predominant waste streams generated by
industries are spent acids, corrosive wastes, heavy
metals, spent halogenated and non-halogenated solvents,
waste water treatment sludge and alkaline materials used
in the chemical, metal finishing and petroleum refinery
industries. For instance, large petroleum refineries and
chemical manufacturers generate a great deal of (about
90% of the total 270 million tons) hazardous wastes that
the United States produced in 1998.
 Manufacturers of metal products are large
generators of wastewater having great concentration
of metals categorized as hazardous. Other small-
quantity generators include small businesses such as
gas stations, photographic developers, dry cleaners,
sometimes even beauty parlors. Others are paint
thinners and strippers, pesticides, cleaners and
polishes that contain petroleum distillates, and
alkaline drain and oven cleaners. Even some discarded
cosmetics contain wastes such as acetone, nail-polish
removers are considered hazardous wastes.
 Characteristics of an Ignitable Substance
• It is a liquid, other than an aqueous solution
containing less than 24 percent alcohol by volume,
and has a flash point less than 600C.
• It is not a liquid and is capable, under standard
temperature and pressure, of causing fire through
friction, absorption of moisture or spontaneous
chemical changes; and, when ignited burns so
vigorously and persistently that it creates a hazard.
• It is an ignitable, compressed gas.
• It is an oxidizer.
• It could be a solid that part of it exhibits any of the
properties mentioned above.
 Characteristics of a Corrosive Substance
• It is aqueous and has a pH less than or equal to 2
or greater than or equal to 12.5.
• It is liquid that corrodes steel at a rate greater
than 6.35mm per year and at a test temperature
of 550C.
• Solid whose part of it exhibits any of the two
properties above.
• Characteristics of a Toxic Substance
• It could be gaseous, liquid or solid that causes
serious harm or death when in contact.
• It destroys cells when in contact.
 Characteristics of a Reactive Substance
It possesses any of the following properties:
• It is normally unstable and readily undergoes
violent change spontaneously.
• It reacts violently with water.
• It forms potentially explosive mixture with water.
• When mixed with water, it generates toxic gases,
vapours or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present
a danger to human health or the environment.
• It is a cyanide or sulfide-bearing substance that,
when exposed to pH between 2 and 12.5, can
generate toxic gases, vapours or fumes in a quantity
sufficient to present a danger to human health or
the environment.
• It is capable of detonation or explosive reaction if it
is subjected to a strong initiating source or if heated
under confinement.
• It is readily capable of detonation or explosive
decomposition or reaction at standard temperature
and pressure.
 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS
An occupational health hazard is an occupational
illness and is defined as a condition that results from
exposure in a workplace to a physical, chemical or
biological agent to the extent that the normal
physiological mechanisms are affected and the health
of the worker is impaired.
Occupational illness normally develops over a
period of time because of workplace conditions. Such
conditions might include exposure to disease-causing
bacteria and viruses, for example, or to chemicals or
dust
So, an occupational health hazard is a hazard
experienced in the workplace
Occupational health hazards are divided into four
categories:
• –Physical Hazards
• –Chemical Hazards
• –Biological Hazards
• –Psychological Hazards
A) Physical Hazards
Physical agents that are hazardous to health include
noise, vibration, temperature (too low or too high) and
radiation.
 Noise has the potential to permanently impair hearing.
Acoustic trauma is caused by a sudden and excessive
noise such as an explosion. It can lead to deafness. A
threshold shift is the result of damage to the cochlea, a
tiny organ in the inner ear. The cochlea may be
damaged by prolonged exposure to noise. The ear's
sensitivity to the higher frequency ranges is the first to
be impaired.
 Vibration is a rapid alternating or reciprocating motion.
Whole body vibration is usually caused by moving
vehicles. Hand-arm vibration results from contact with
hand tools, such as jackhammers and chain-saws.
• Exposure to extreme temperatures can lead to heat
stress or cold stress, as the body struggles to
maintain its internal temperature. Heat stress can
lead to cramps, exhaustion and eventually heat
stroke when the body's temperature regulation
system fails. Cold stress results in restlessness,
decreased alertness and lack of concentration, any
of which can contribute to other health and safety
hazards.
• Radiation is energy that travels in
electromagnetically. This energy can enter the body
and damage tissue and organs. Ionizing radiation,
such as gamma rays and X-rays, are the most
harmful. It can damage the cells and cause genetic
damage. Exposure to ionizing radiation can cause
cancer, birth defects and genetic damage to a
worker's children. Non-ionizing radiation is in the
lower end of the frequency spectrum. It includes
ultraviolet, infrared, microwave and low frequency
radiation, can cause burns to the skin or eyes, and
cause other health effects.
B) Chemical Hazards
Most of the chemicals which constitute hazards in
the working environment are in the form of gases,
vapour, films, mist, dust and solid. These chemicals
gain entry into the body through three main routes:
• INHALATION
• ABSORPTION and
• INGESTION
There are many classifications of hazardous
chemicals, including neurotoxins, immune agents,
dermatologic agents, carcinogens, reproductive
toxins, systemic toxins, asthmagens, pneumoconiotic
agents, and sensitizers.
 The numbers of chemical compounds which
workers are exposed to are very many and their
effects are diverse. Many health problems are caused
by the exposure of workers to these chemicals. These
effects can be complicated by the synergistic effects
of exposure to multiple hazards.
Inherent Toxicity of a Material (Chemical)
The inherent toxicity of a material (chemical) is
measured by tests on animals. It is always expressed
as a lethal dose at which 50% of the test animals are
killed, the LD50 (lethal dose fifty) value.
The dose is expressed as the quantity in milligram
of the toxic substance per kilogram of the body
weight of the test animal.
 Some LD50 values
• Compounds mg/kg
• Potassium cyanide 10
• Tetra-ethyllead 35
• Lead 100
• Aspirin 1500
 Exposure monitoring for chemicals is most often
accomplished by monitoring or testing workplace air.
Chemical hazards are controlled at the source,
along the path or at the worker.
Chemical hazards can also be controlled at the
source by redesigning the work process and by the
isolation of the hazard.
Local exhaust ventilation is the principal means of
controlling chemical hazards along the path. Properly
designed local ventilation systems can be very
effective, because they can remove the hazard from
the workplace before it reaches a worker’s breathing
area. Such systems must be carefully maintained and
adjusted to operate effectively.
Control at the worker takes the form of personal
hygiene practices and facilities, administrative
controls and personal protective equipment. Good
hygiene practices reduce the amount of chemical that
is absorbed by the worker’s body after exposure. They
also ensure that contaminants are not carried home.
Personal protective equipment should not be a
substitute for engineering controls. But it can be used
during emergencies, while controls are being installed
or maintained, or during maintenance and repair.
Ways of exposure to chemical processes
• spills from drums or oil tankers, or is dumped
• evaporates into air
• runs off into surface water
• percolates down into groundwater
• absorbs into the soil
• drinking water: (surface water, well water, or
bottled water)
• food contaminated by pollutant
• eating grain or produce contaminated by pollutant
deposited from air, or taken up from soil or water
• people or animals breathe in air contaminated by
the evaporation of the waste
• eating meat, milk, and eggs polluted by air, from
the soil or in the animals’ food
C) Biological Hazards
These include infectious and parasitic agents, such as
bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi which workers are
exposed to in their work environment. Work-related
infectious and parasitic diseases commonly occur in the
following working places:
• Agriculture and Animal husbandry
• Hospital and Laboratories
• Work involving handling of animals and their products
(veterinary, clinics, slaughter slabs, meat and fish
markets)
• Sewage-handling workplace
• Mining industry
• Eatery.
D) Psychological Hazards
Any stress-producing situation in the work
environment may lead to psychological disorder among
the workers. Monotonous work, poor inter-personal
relationship at work, bad management practice, under (or
over) promotion, and many more are examples of such
stresses that can cause psychological hazards.
For instance, a worker that is highly favoured by his
boss and suddenly experience multiple (or undue)
promotion may not have the adequate experience, skills
or knowledge required to cope with demand of his new
post (incompetency). And unsuccessful attempts to cope
with the demands of his job may lead to psychological or
even physical disorder.
 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAM
Occupational health program is concerned with the
promotion, protection and maintenance of the health
of workers including the control of hazards in the
work environment that may affect their health, safety
and productivity.
• Occupational health program must be given high
level of priority in working environment to ensure
safety of the workers at all time.
• Among many others, these rules must be carefully
observed to ensure good occupational health
program for workers:
 General rules to follow:
• 1. Never take shortcuts when handling, using,
storing or disposing of hazardous substances. Know
emergency alarm signals and procedures. Take work
place safety seriously.
• 2. Replace a hazardous substance with a less
hazardous one.
• 3. Use covers or lids on processes to contain
hazards.
• 4. When cleaning, control dusts by wet mopping or
using a vacuum cleaner with suitable filters.
• 5. Make sure the ventilation systems are working.
• 6. Make sure that the respirator or other protective
equipment you wear is suitable to protect you from
the hazardous substance you are dealing with.
• 7. Remember to clean up small spills right away using
established procedures. Report serious spills to
trained clean-up personnel. Warn others of the spill.
• 8. Promptly report leaking chemical containers to
your supervisor.
• 9. Always consult a qualified person before handling
an unlabelled or damaged container.
• 10. All wastes must be identified, contained and
disposed of safely. Equally important, all unidentified
substances should be considered hazardous and
identified for safe use or disposal.
• 11. Make sure you wash yourself and your clothing
often enough to protect your health and the
health of others.
• 12. Do not eat, drink or smoke near hazardous
substances.
• 13. If you have skin problems, headaches,
breathing problems like a cough or shortness of
breath, or other health concerns, discuss them as
soon as you can with your doctor and your
supervisor.
• 14. Good housekeeping is important in the control
of hazardous substances. Remember to leave the
work site in a safe condition after work.