Module 1 - GEOTECH
Module 1 - GEOTECH
To the agriculturist, soil is the top thin layer of earth within which organic A BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
forces are predominant and which is responsible for the support of plant
life. Many structures that were built centuries ago are monuments of curiosity
To the geologist, soil is the material in the top thin zone within which even today. Egyptian temples built three or four thousand years ago still
roots occur. exist though the design of the foundations were not based on any presently
From the point of view of an engineer, soil includes all earth materials, known principles. Romans built notable engineering structures such as
organic and inorganic, occurring in the zone overlying the rock crust. harbors, breakwaters, aqueducts, bridges, large public buildings and a vast
The behavior of a structure depends upon the properties of the soil network of durable and excellent roads . The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy
materials on which the structure rests. The properties of the soil materials completed during the 14th century is still a center of tourist attraction.
depend upon the properties of the rocks from which they are derived. A Many bridges were also built during the 15th to 17th centuries. Timber piles
brief discussion of the parent rock is, therefore, quite essential in order to were used for many of the foundations.
understand the properties of soil materials.
Another marvel of engineering achievement is the construction o f the
Topic Outcomes famed mausoleum Taj Mahal outside the city of Agra. This was constructed
Define soil mechanics and its importance to Civil Engineering in the 17th century by the Mogul Emperor of Delhi, Shahjahan, to
Identify the different processes involved in rock cycle and understand the commemorate his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal. The mausoleum is built on
origin of soils the bank of the river Jamuna. The proximity of the river required special
attention in the building of the foundations. I t is reported that masonry
INTRODUCTION cylindrical wells have been used for the foundations. It goes to the credit of
the engineers who designed and constructed this grand structure which is
• soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and still quite sound even after a lapse of about three centuries.
decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles. The first rational approach for the computation of earth pressures on
retaining walls was formulated by Coulomb (1776), a famous French
• Soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering scientist. He proposed a theory in 1776 called the "Classical Earth Pressure
projects, and it supports structural foundations. Theory". Poncelet (1840 ) extended Coulomb' s theory by giving an elegant
graphical method for finding the magnitude of earth pressure on walls.
• Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of Later, Culmann (1875) gave the Coulomb-Poncelet theory a geometrical
the physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses formulation, thus supplying the method with a broad scientific basis.
subjected to various types of forces. Rankine (1857) a Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Glasgow,
proposed a new earth pressure theory, which is also called a Classical Earth
• Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil Pressure Theory.
mechanics to practical problems. Darcy (1856), on the basis of his experiments on filter sands, proposed a law
for the flow of water in permeable materials and in the same year Stokes
• Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering (1856) gave an equation for determining the terminal velocity of solid
that involves natural materials found close to the surface of the particles falling in liquids. The rupture theory of Mohr (1900) Stress Circles
are extensively used in the study of shear strength o f soils. One of the most The comments made by Terzaghi are very significant and should b e taken
important contributions to engineering science was made by Boussinesq note of by all practicing Architects and Engineers. Architects or Engineers
(1885) who proposed a theory for determining stress distribution under who do not wish to make use of the growing knowledge of foundation
loaded areas in a semi-infinite , elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic design are not rendering true service to their profession. Since
medium . substructures are as important as superstructures, persons who are well
qualified in the design of
Atterberg (1911), a Swedish scientist, proposed simple tests for determining
the consistency limits o f cohesive soils . Fellenius (1927 ) headed a Swedish substructures should always be consulted and the old proverb that a 'stitch
Geotechnical Commission for determining the causes of failure of many in time saves nine ' should always be kept in mind.
railway and canal embankments. The so-called Swedish Circle method or
otherwise termed as the Slip Circle method was the outcome of his The design of foundations is a branch of Civil Engineering. Experience has
investigation which was published in 1927 . shown that most of these branches have passed i n succession through two
stages, the empirical and the scientific, before they reached the present one
The development of the science of Soil Mechanics and Foundation which may be called the stage of maturity.
Engineering from the year 1925 onwards was phenomenal. Terzaghi laid
down definite procedures in his book published in 1925 for determining The stage of scientific reasoning in the design of foundations started with
properties and the strength characteristics of soils . The modern soil the publication of the book Erdbaumechanik (means Soil Mechanics) by Karl
mechanics was born i n 1925 . The present stage o f knowledge in Soil Terzaghi in 1925. This book represents the first attempt to treat Soil
Mechanics and the design procedures of foundations are mostly due to the Mechanics on the basis of the physical properties of soils.
work s of Terzaghi and his band of devoted collaborators. Mechanics and Foundation Engineering is so vast that he may truly be
called the Father o f Soil Mechanics, His activity extended over a period o f
about 50 years starting from the year 1913 . He was born on October 2,
Karl Terzaghi 1883 in Prague and died on October 25, 1963 in Winchester, Massachusetts,
USA. His amazing career is well documented i n the book 'From Theory to
Karl Terzaghi writing in 1951 on “The Influence of Modern Soil Studies on Practice in Soil Mechanics'.
The Design and Construction Foundations” commented on as follows:
Many investigators in the field of Soil Mechanics were inspired by Terzaghi.
Foundations can appropriately be described as a necessary evil. If a building Some of the notable personalities who followed his footsteps are Ralph B .
is to be constructed on an outcrop of sound rock, no foundation is required. Peck , Arthur Casagrande , A. W. Skempton, etc. Because of the unceasing
Hence, in contrast to the building itself which satisfies specific needs, efforts of these and other innumerable investigators, Soil Mechanics and
appeals to the aesthetic sense, and fills its matters with pride, the Foundation Engineering has come to stay as a very important part of the
foundations merely serve as a remedy for the deficiencies of whatever Civil Engineering profession.
whimsical nature has provided for the support of the structure at the site
which has been selected. On account of the fact that there is no glory The transition o f foundation engineering from the empirical stage to that of
attached to the foundations, and that the sources of success or failures are the scientific stage started almost at the commencement of the 20th
hidden deep in the ground, building foundations have always been treated century . The design of foundations during the empirical stage was based
as step children; and their acts of revenge for the lack of attention can be mostly on intuition and experience. There used to be many failures since the
very embarrassing. procedure of design was only by trial and error.
However, in the present scientific age, the design of foundations based on an extremely erratic manner producing thereby an infinite variety of
scientific analysis has received much impetus. Theories have been possible combinations which would affect the choice and design of
developed based on fundamental properties of soils. Still one can witness foundations. The foundation engineer must have the ability to interpret the
unsatisfactory performance of structures constructed even on scientific principles of soil mechanics to suit the field conditions. The success or
principles. The reasons for such poor performance are many. The soil mass failure of his design depends upon how much in tune he is with Nature.
on which a structure is to be built is heterogeneous in character and no
theory can simulate field conditions . The fundamental properties o f soil
which we determine i n laboratories may not truly reflect the properties of Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil
the soil in-situ. A judicial combination o f theory and experience i s essential
for successful performance o f any structure built on earth. Another method In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical properties
that is gaining popularity is the observational approach. This procedure of soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles
consist s in making appropriate observations soon enough during and, hence, the rock from which it is derived.
construction to detect signs of departure of the real conditions from those
assumed by the designer and in modifying either the design or the method The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil aggregate are the
of construction in accordance with the findings. product of rock weathering. The size of the individual grains varies over a
wide range. Many of the physical properties of soil are dictated by the size,
Terzaghi defined Soil Mechanics as follows: shape, and chemical composition of the grains. To better understand these
factors must be familiar with the basic types of rock that form the earth’s
Soil Mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to crust, the rock-forming minerals, and the weathering process. On the basis of
engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into three basic types: igneous,
accumulations of solid particles produced by sedimentary, and metamorphic. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the formation
cycle of different types of rock and the processes associated with them. This
the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks regardless of whether is called the rock cycle.
or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.
The term Soil Mechanics is now accepted quite generally to designate that Figure 1. Rock Cycle
discipline of engineering science which deals with the properties and
behavior of soil as a structural material.
All structures have to be built on soils. Our main objective in the study of
soil mechanics is to lay down certain principles, theories and procedures for
the design of a safe and sound structure. The subject of Foundation
Engineering deals with the design of various types of substructures under
different soil and environmental conditions.
During the design, the designer has to make use of the properties of soils , Igneous Rocks
the theories pertaining to the design and his own practical experience to Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected
adjust the design to suit field conditions. He has to deal with natural soil from deep within the earth’s mantle. After ejection by either fissure
deposits which perform the engineering function of supporting the eruption or volcanic eruption, some of the molten magma cools on the
foundation and the superstructure above it . Soil deposits in nature exist in
surface of the earth. Sometimes magma ceases its mobility below the Chemical weathering is the process of chemical decomposition of the
earth’s surface and cools to form intrusive igneous rocks that are called original rock. In the case of mechanical weathering, the rock breaks into
plutons. Intrusive rocks formed in the past may be exposed at the surface as smaller pieces without a change in its chemical composition. However, in
a result of the continuous process of erosion of the materials that once chemical weathering, the original material may be changed to something
covered them. entirely different. For example, the chemical weathering of feldspar can
produce clay minerals. Most rock weathering is a combination of
Table 1. Composition of Some Igneous Rocks mechanical and chemical weathering.
Name of Mode of Texture Abundant Minerals Less Soil produced by the weathering of rocks can be transported by physical
Rock Occurrence abundant processes to other places. The resulting soil deposits are called transported
minerals soils. In contrast, some soils stay where they were formed and cover the
Granite Intrusive Coarse Quartz, Sodium Biotite, rock surface from which they derive. These soils are referred to as residual
Rhyolite Extrusive Fine Feldspar, Potassium Muscovite, soils.
Feldspar Hornblende
Gabbro Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Pyroxines, Hornblende, Residual Soil
Basalt Extrusive Fine Olivine Biotite, Residual soils are found in areas where the rate of weathering is more than
Magnetite the rate at which the weathered materials are carried away by transporting
Diorite Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Biotite, agents. The rate of weathering is higher in warm and humid regions
Andesite Extrusive Fine Hornblende Pyroxenes compared to cooler and drier regions and, depending on the climatic
(quartz conditions, the effect of weathering may vary widely.
usually
absent) Residual soil deposits are common in the tropics. The nature of a residual soil
Syenite Intrusive Coarse Potassium Feldspar Sodium deposit will generally depend on the parent rock. When hard rocks, such as
Trachyte Extrusive Fine feldspar, granite and gneiss, undergo weathering, most of the materials are likely to
Biotite, remain in place. These soil deposits generally have a top layer of clayey or
Hornblende silty clay material, below which are silty or sandy soil layers. These layers in
Peridotite Intrusive Coarse Olivine, Pyroxenes Oxides of turn, are generally underlain by a partially weathered rock, and then sound
Iron bedrock. The depth of the sound bedrock may vary widely, even within a
distance of a few meters.
Weathering of Rocks and Types of Soils In contrast to hard rocks, there are some chemical rocks, such as limestone,
that are chiefly made up of calcite (CaCo3) minerals. Chalk and dolomite
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and have large concentrations of dolomite minerals [Ca Mg(Co3)2]. These rocks
chemical processes into smaller pieces. Most of the soils that cover the earth have large amounts of soluble materials, some of which are removed by
are formed by the weathering of various rocks. There are two general types groundwater, leaving behind the insoluble fraction of the rock. Residual
of weathering: (1) mechanical weathering and (2) chemical weathering. soils that derive from chemical rocks do not possess a gradual transition
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rocks are broken into zone to the bedrock. The residual soils derived from the weathering of
smaller and smaller pieces by physical forces, including running water, wind, limestone-like rocks are mostly red in color. Although uniform in kind, the
ocean waves, glacier ice, frost, and expansion and contraction caused by the depth of weathering may vary greatly. The residual soils immediately above
gain and loss of heat. the bedrock may be normally consolidated. Large foundations with heavy
loads may be susceptible to large consolidation settlements on these soils.
Transported Soil process, these streams may build up a complex tangle of converging and
diverging channels, separated by sandbars and islands.
Transported soils can be subdivided into five major categories based on the
transporting agent: gravity transported soil/ colluvial soil, lacustrine (lake) The deposits formed from braided streams are highly irregular in
deposits, alluvial or fluvial soil deposited by running water, glacial deposited stratification and have a wide range of grain sizes. Figure 2 shows a cross
by glaciers, aeolian deposited by the wind, marine soils formed by section of such a deposit. These deposits share several characteristics:
deposition in the sea
The grain sizes usually range from gravel to silt. Clay-sized particles are
Gravity Transported Soil generally not
found in deposits from braided streams.
Residual soils on a steep natural slope can move slowly downward, and this Although grain size varies widely, the soil in a given pocket or lens is rather
is usually referred to as creep. When the downward soil movement is uniform.
sudden and rapid, it is called a landslide. The soil deposits formed by
landslides are colluvium. Mudflows are one type of gravity transported soil. At any given depth, the void ratio and unit weight may vary over a wide
In this case, highly saturated, loose sandy residual soils, on relatively flat range within a lateral distance of only a few meters.
slopes, move downward like a viscous liquid and come to rest in a more dense
condition. The soil deposits derived from past mud flows are highly
heterogeneous in composition.
Lacustrine Deposits
Water from rivers and springs flows into lakes. In arid regions, streams carry
large amounts of suspended solids. Where the stream enters the lake,
granular particles are deposited in the area forming a delta. Some coarser
particles and the finer particles; that is, silt and clay that are carried into the
lake are deposited onto the lake bottom in alternate layers of coarse-
grained and fine- grained particles. The deltas formed in humid regions Figure 2. Cross section of braided stream deposit
usually have finer grained soil deposits compared to those in arid regions. Meander Belt Deposits
Meander Belt Deposits
Alluvial soil deposits deri The term meander is derived from the Greek work maiandros, after the
Alluvial Deposits Maiandros (nowThe Menderes) River in
term meander Asia, famous
is derived from for
theits winding
Greek workcourse.
ve from the action of streams and rivers and can be divided into two major Mature streamsmaiandros,
in a valley after
curvetheback and forth.(now
Maiandros The valley floor River
Menderes) in whichin a
categories: (1) braided-stream deposits, and (2) deposits caused by the river meandersAsia,
is referred
famous tofor
as its
thewinding
meander belt. InMature
course. a meandering
streamsriver,
in a the
meandering belt of streams. soil from the bank is continually
valley curve backeroded from
and forth. thevalley
The points where
floor it is concave
in which a river
in shape and is deposited at points where the bank is
meanders is referred to as the meander belt. In aconvex in shape, as
Deposits from Braided Streams shown in Figuremeandering
3. These deposits are soil
river, the called
frompoint
thebar
bankdeposits, and they
is continually
usually consist of sand from
eroded and silt-sized
the points particles.
where itSometimes,
is concave in during
shapethe and is
Braided streams are high-gradient, rapidly flowing streams that are highly process of erosion and deposition, the river abandons a meander
deposited at points where the bank is convex in shape, as and cuts a
erosive and carry large amounts of sediment. Because of the high bed load, shorter path. The abandoned
shown in Figuremeander,
3. These when filled
deposits arewith water,
called pointisbar
called an
a minor change in the velocity of flow will cause sediments to deposit. By this oxbow lake. deposits, and they usually consist of sand and silt-sized
particles. Sometimes, during the process of erosion and
deposition, the river abandons a meander and cuts a
shorter path. The abandoned meander, when filled with
Unstratified deposits laid down by melting glaciers are referred to as till. The
During floods, rivers overflow low-lying areas. The sand and silt-size physical characteristics of till may vary from glacier to glacier.
particles carried by the river are deposited along the banks to form ridges
known as natural levees (Figure 4). Finer soil particles consisting of silts and The landforms that developed from the deposits of till are called moraines.
clays are carried by the water farther onto the floodplains. These particles A terminal moraine (Figure 5) is a ridge of till that marks the maximum limit
settle at different rates to form backswamp deposits, often highly plastic of glacier’s advance.
clays.
Recessional moraines are ridges of till developed behind the terminal
moraine at varying distances apart. They are the result of temporary
stabilization of the glacier during the recessional period. The till deposited
Figure 3. Formation of by the glacier between the moraines is referred to as ground moraine.
point bar deposits and Ground moraines constitute large areas of the central United States and are
oxbow lake in a called till plains.
meandering stream
The sand, silt, and gravel that are carried by the melting water from the
front of a glacier are called outwash. In a pattern like that of braided-stream
deposits, the melted water deposits the outwash, forming outwash plains,
also called glaciofluvial deposits. The range of grain sizes present in each till
varies greatly.
During the Pleistocene Ice Age, glaciers covered large areas of the earth. Wind is also a major transporting agent leading to the formation of soil
The glaciers advanced and retreated with time. During their advance, the deposits. When large areas of sand lie exposed, wind can blow the sand
glaciers carried large amounts of sand, silt, clay, gravel, and boulders. Drift is away and redeposit it elsewhere. Deposits of windblown sand generally take
a general term usually applied to the deposits laid down by glaciers. the shape of dunes (Figure 6). As dunes are formed, the sand is blown over
the crest by the wind. Beyond the crest, the sand particles roll down the Figure 6. Sand dune
slope. The process tends to form a compact sand deposit on the windward
side, and a rather loose deposit on the leeward side of the dune. Following In addition to transported and residual soils, there are peats and organic
are some of the typical properties of dune sand: soils, which derive from the decomposition of organic materials. Organic
soils are usually found in low-lying areas where the water table is near or
The grain-size distribution of the sand at any particular location is above the ground surface. The presence of a high water table helps in the
surprisingly uniform. This uniformity can be attributed to the sorting action growth of aquatic plants that, when decomposed, form organic soil. This
of the wind. type of soil deposit is usually encountered in coastal areas and in glaciated
The general grain size decreases with distance from the source, because the regions. Organic soils show the following characteristics:
wind carries the small particles farther than the large ones.
The relative density of sand deposited on the windward side of dunes may Their natural moisture content may range from 200 to 300%.
be as high as 50 to 65%, decreasing to about 0 to 15% on the leeward side. They are highly compressible.
Laboratory tests have shown that, under loads, a large amount of
Loess is an aeolian deposit consisting of silt and silt-sized particles. The grain settlement is derived from secondary consolidation.
size distribution of loess is rather uniform. The cohesion of loess is generally
derived from a clay coating over the silt-sized particles, which contributes to Sedimentary Rock
a stable soil structure in an unsaturated state. The cohesion may also be the
result of the precipitation of chemicals leached by rainwater. Loess is a The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by weathering may
collapsing soil, because when the soil becomes saturated, it loses its binding become compacted by overburden pressure and cemented by agents like
strength iron oxide, calcite, dolomite, and quartz. Cementing agents are generally
carried in solution by groundwater. They fill the spaces between particles
between particles. Special precautions need to be taken for the and form sedimentary rock. Rocks formed in this way are called detrital
construction of foundations over loessial deposits. sedimentary rocks. The following are some examples of detrital rocks.
Volcanic ash (with grain sizes between 0.25 to 4 mm), and volcanic dust
(with grain sizes less than 0.25 mm), may be classified as wind-transported
soil. Volcanic ash is a lightweight sand or sandy gravel. Decomposition of
volcanic ash results in highly plastic and compressible clays.
Metamorphic Rock