Components of Special

and Inclusive Education

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 Child Find Through a Pre -Referral Process
• Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by
identifying students who have additional needs and who may be at
risk for developmental disabilities.

• School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary school

teachers, and community-based daycare workers are often the first to
notice such developmental delays in children.

• The parents themselves notice the delays and seek consultation with
pediatricians and other specialists.

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 Pre –Referral Process
• A team of professionals, known as a pre-referral
team, who collaborate to determine reasons for
the observed challenges. They collaborate to find
ways to meet the needs of children with
developmental delays.
– Special Education Teachers
– Counselors
– Administrators
– Psychologists

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 Pre –Referral Process
• The pre-referral process was developed to ensure researchers
are provided reasonable accommodations and modifications
before they are referred for special education assessment.

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 Pre –Referral Strategies
• Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of
pre-referral strategies that are designed to provide
immediate instructional and/or behavior management
support to a child.

• Using such strategies lessens the number of cases

referred for special education and makes efficient use
of time and financial resources.

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 Assessment
• Assessment is the process of collecting information
about a child’s strengths and needs.

• Teachers and administrators make instructional

decisions based on the assessment results.

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 Assessment Purposes
• To gather relevant information
about student performance or
progress, or to determine
student interests to make
judgments about their learning
process.

• To determine how effective

programs are to assist the
inclusive teacher and the special
education teacher.

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 Assessment Methods
TEST
• A test or examination
(informally, exam or evaluation)
is an educational assessment
intended to measure a test-
taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude,
physical fitness, or classification
in many other topics (e.g.,
beliefs).
• School psychologists, educational
diagnostics, and other related
professionals use a variety of
assessment tools to ensure that
results are valid and reliable.

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 Assessment Methods
NORM-REFERENCED TEST
• It refers to standardized tests that are designed to
compare and rank child’s performance with a
representative sample of students of the same
chronological test.

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 Assessment Methods
Examples of NORM-REFERENCED TEST
• Intelligence Test
– series of tasks designed to measure the capacity to make
abstractions, to learn, and to deal with novel situations
– Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale & the Wechsler scales
• Achievement Test
– measure aptitude, a more general and stable cognitive trait
– to determine the level of instruction for which a student is
prepared
• Kaufman Test
– is designed to assess academic achievement for individuals
aged 4 years and 6 months through 25 years and 11
months.
– achievement in reading, written language, oral language, and
mathematics

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 Assessment Methods
CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST
– to compare a child's knowledge or skills against a
predetermined standard, learning goal, performance
level, or other criterion

– each child's performance is compared directly to

the standard, without considering how other
students perform on the test

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 Informal Assessment or Non-Standardized Assessment
• Informal assessments are considered more authentic and thus can be
used primarily to describe performance and inform instruction.

• Assessments can be curriculum-based or performance-based, such as

the teacher-made instruments used in classrooms and portfolio
assessments.
– For example, the use of reading inventories where a teacher listens
to a child read while counting for accuracy and speed is an
example of an informal assessment.

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 Informal Assessment or Non-Standardized Assessment
• Authentic assessments provide students the opportunity to apply
knowledge and skills in a meaningful, real-world setting (e.g.,
classroom, playground, etc.) rather than in an artificial and contrived
setting.
• Assessment tasks that are more real-life are considered more
authentic.
– observation of young students as they interact with family
members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring activities across
settings (e.g., home, school, playground), and routines.

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 Example of Assessment

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 Assessment Principle
• Assessment practices should be anchored on principles
as provided by the Division for Early Childhood of the
Council for Exceptional Students (DEC).

• Child-and-family-centered practices, a team-based

approach, application of individualized and appropriate
processes, and use of genuine and meaningful
communication that adhere to ethical and legal
practices are the recommendations provided by the
(DEC).

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 Assessment Principle
• A variety of assessment methods and tools, use of
authentic measures, as well as involvement of the
family are necessary to make decisions for placement
and instructional planning.

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 Placement
• Placement assessments are used to “place” students
into a course, course level, or academic program.

• For example, an assessment may be used to

determine whether a student is ready for Algebra I or
a higher-level algebra course, such as an honors-level
course.

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 Placement

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 Placement
• A general education classroom is the least restrictive
environment for a child with additional needs. Access
to the same learning experiences and opportunities is
provided as to typically developing students.

• Thus, it is considered as the “most normalized or

typical setting”. Additional support in the form of
accommodations or changes in expectations through
curriculum modifications may be provided but still
within the same classroom as peers within the year
level.

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 Placement
• Another option for placement is to be in general
education class but the child receives supplementary
instruction and services
– speech, physical, and occupational therapy or
counseling services during the school day

• Other students need more intensive support that is

not provided in a general education class. Teams may
decide to recommend placement for a child in a more
restrictive setting such as a self-contained special
education class but still located in a general education
school.

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 Educational Placement Options

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 Accommodations and Curricular Modifications

• Students with disabilities and additional needs who are studying

in an inclusive general education classroom may need
accommodations in the form of instructional support and other
supplementary services.

• Others who need more intensive support are provided with

curricular modifications.

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 Accommodations and Curricular Modifications

ACCOMMODATIONS
• Accommodations are supports provided to students to help
gain full access to class content and instruction, without
altering the curriculum standards and competencies expected
and to demonstrate accurately what they know.

• When accommodations are provided in a general education

classroom for children with disabilities, barriers are removed
from accessing education.

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 Accommodations and Curricular Modifications
Examples of ACCOMMODATIONS

• Altering instruments
• toys or materials
• changing the room during specific
activities
• providing time extensions or allowance
for tests and tasks
• changing response formats in
worksheets

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 Presentation Accommodations
• Presentation accommodations change the way
that instruction, directions, and information are
presented.

• These accommodations allow a student with a

disability to access information in ways other
than standard visual or auditory means such as
by reading or listening.

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 Presentation Accommodations
Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations
Visual support Minimize visual distraction
Visual cues (use color-coded text, highlighting)
Use of larger print materials (font size, illustrations)
Use of sign language
Videos with closed captioning
Auditory and Read aloud by a peer
comprehension support Audio books
Digital text that reads aloud or gives definition of words
Text-to-speech software
Advance organizer or story guide
Highlighting or color coding
Listening and focusing Advance organizer explicit verbal or visual cues;
physical prompts
Repeat/Clarify directions and important information
Note-taking support
Copy of directions

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 Response Accommodations
• It allow students with disabilities to
demonstrate their learning by completing
instructional assignments or assessments through
ways other than typical verbal or written
responses.

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 Presentation Accommodations
Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations
Writing difficulty (errors Different size/diameter of pencil, marker, or crayon
in spacing, visual- Pencil or pen grip (triangular, pear-shaped)
perceptual or spatial- Finger spacer
orientation, illegible Handwriting template/guide on the student’s desk
handwriting) Visual cues on paper
Different types and sizes of paper
Written expression Electronic dictionary with spell check
difficulty Online dictionary
Word processor with spelling and grammar check
Writing cue cards
List of sight words
Writing template, outlines, and graphic organizers
Math difficulty Calculator
Concrete models and manipulatives
Visual representation
Problem-solving guides
Graphic organizers
Special papers-graphing paper for computations

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 Setting Accommodations
• Setting accommodations change the location in
which an assessment is given or the conditions of
the assessment setting.

• Students may be allowed to take a test in a

different location than the majority of students in
order to reduce distractions, receive distracting
accommodations, or increase physical access.

• For example, A child who is still unable to read

fluently may be allowed to take a silent reading
comprehension test in another room with a
supervising adult just so she could hear herself read
aloud which helps her better understand the story.

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 Scheduling Accommodations
• Timing and scheduling
accommodations change the
allowable length of testing
time and may also change
the way the time is
organized.

• Timing accommodations give

students the time and the
breaks they need to complete
a test.

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 Scheduling Accommodations
Some examples of accommodation that can modify
scheduling are:

• Extending time for assignments and assessments

• Providing breaks in between tasks
• Providing a visual schedule or a checklist of individual
responsibilities
• Providing predictable routines and procedures
• Providing an electronic device with alarms and cues.

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 Accommodations and Curricular Modifications

MODIFICATIONS
• Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significant or
severe disabilities where content expectations are altered, and the
performance outcomes are changed in relation to what are expected
of typically developing students of the same age.
• When instruction and assessment are modified, a student with
disability is still given the right to access the same learning
opportunities as other students in the general education class, but
the tasks are more respectful and appropriate to the student’s
abilities and needs.

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 Does he need accommodations or modifications?
Carl’s Learning Supports

Centered Given the significant delays in Carl’s reading and spelling

performance, the team decided to provide him with different types of
accommodation that adjusted the presentation of what is learned, how
he responds, as well as the timing when tests are given. Ms. Santos
prepared his reading materials and worksheets using a bigger font size
and more space in between line to allow him to point to words as he
reads, and to use a ruler so he would not lose his place while reading.
In test that require extensive writing, he is still made to write as much
as he could and after which he is asked to either give a verbal
explanation to support what he has written or he dictates his oral
responses to a scribe. The teacher now consider the oral examination
as a respectful accomodation as Carl is still able to access the same
learning standards and opportunities despite his difficulties

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 Parent Involvement
• It has long been established that parent involvement in
education, planning, and management of children with
disabilities and additional need is essential as they are the
primary caregivers and have direct influence on their children.

• This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological Theory,

which states that there are five environmental systems that
comprise a child’s social context.

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 Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological Theory

Microsystem
• direct contact with the child in
their immediate environment such as
parents, siblings, teachers and school
peers
• If a child has a strong nurturing
relationship with their parents, this
is said to have a positive effect on
the child.
• Distant and unaffectionate parents
will have a negative effect on the
child.

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 Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological Theory

Mesosystem
• interactions between the child’s
microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child’s
parents and teachers, or between
school peers and siblings
• if a child’s parents communicate
with the child’s teachers, this
interaction may influence the child’s
development
• a mesosystem is a system of
microsystems.

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 Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological Theory

Exosystem
• It incorporates other formal and
informal social structures, which do
not themselves contain the child,
but indirectly influence them as
they affect one of the
microsystems.
• The parent may come home and
have a short temper with the child
as a result of something which
happened in the workplace, resulting
in a negative effect on development.

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 Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological Theory

Macrosystem
• focuses on how cultural elements
affect a child's development, such as
socioeconomic status, wealth,
poverty, and ethnicity.
• culture that individuals are immersed
within may influence their beliefs
and perceptions about events that
transpire in life
• This can also include the
socioeconomic status, ethnicity,
geographic location and ideologies of
the culture.
• For example, a child living in a third
world country would experience a
different development than a child
living in a wealthier country.

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 Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological Theory

Chronosystem
• This system consists of all of the
environmental changes that occur
over the lifetime which influence
development, including major life
transitions, and historical events.
• These can include normal life
transitions such as starting school
but can also include non-normative
life transitions such as parents
getting a divorce or having to move
to a new house.

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 Parent Involvement

Parent involvement has been found to be

directly related to academic eachievement and
improvements in the school performance of
children.

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 Home-School Communication
• Having established the critical role of parents in a student’s
developmental and academic progress and achievement, it is essential
that there is a close home and school collaboration and
communication.

• Communicating with parents may be done in several ways.

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 Parent-Teacher Conference
• A parent-teacher conference is a meeting between a
student's parents and teacher or teachers, to discuss the
child's progress academically, socially and with regard to
expected classroom behavior

• Other topics, such as homework, emotional challenges, or

issues with friends

• To share about their child’s background, strengths and

abilities, history of disabilities, and practices they have been
implementing at home as well as interventions done with
other specialists

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 Parent-Teacher Conference

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 Written Communication
• Written communication is writing
directed at a specific audience,
such as report card comments or
student assignments.

• A written communication may be

time consuming, but some
parents prefer this form of
collaboration as the messages ar
documented and they can provide
a copy to a developmental
specialist when needed.

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 Digital Communication
• It refers to the use of such devices to send
information electronically such as emails, text
messages, and social network messaging systems.

• It is necessary that parties agree on certain

boundaries in order to be rspectful of everyone’s time
and personal space.

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 Home-School Contracts
• A home-school contracts
contains an agreement between
teachers and parents regarding
behavioral and/or academic goals
for student with disability.

• One example of a home-school

contract is Daily Report Card,
an individualized intervention
used in schools that is anchored
in the behavioral principles of
operant conditioning.

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 Other Ways to Involve Parents
• Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge, and
the commitment to help their own child.

• They become advovates of their own children. To maximize

their involvement, schools provide other opportunities such as
parent education training, workshops, and parent support
groups.

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 Parent Education
• Parent education programs are
designed to help parents
understand their children's
individual needs and
development, as well as their
own roles and responsibilities,
by offering tools and strategies
aimed at maximizing positive
outcomes for children and
families.

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 Parent Support Groups
• With this increased interest in
school-home partnerships,
Parent Support Groups (PSGs)
play a key role in inspiring and
guiding parents who wish to
contribute to the school's
efforts, coordinating their time
and effort effectively to give
our children the best
educational experience.

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 References
• Aligada-Halal C., Yuzon, M., Padilla, C., & Mariano-Ligon, C. (2020). Foundations of special and inclusive education. REX Bookstore, Inc.: Sampaloc, Manila.
• Beech, M. (2010). Accommodations for students with disabilities. 3rd Edition. Florida: Department of Education.
• Dennis, L., Simpson, J., & Rueter, R. (2013). Authentic Assessment: establishing a clear foundation for instructional practices. Preventing School Failure 57(4),
189-195.
• Division of Early Childhood (2014). DEC recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education. Retrieved from http://www.dec-
sped.org/recommendedpractices.
• Gargiulo, R. (2012). Special education in contemporary society. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Giuliani, G. & Pierangelo, R. (2012). Assessment in special education. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Hallahan, D., Kauffman, J. & Pullen, P. (2014). Exeptional learners. 12th Edition. Upper Saddle River: NJ Pearson Educational Limited.
• Heward, W. (2013). Exeptional children. 10th Edition. Ohio: Pearson.
• Kirk, S., Gallagher, J., & Coleman, M. (2015). Educating exeptional children. 15th edition. Connecticut: Cencage Learning.
• Mautone, J., Marshall, S., Firaldi, R., & Power, T. (2012). Development of a family-school intervention for youn children with attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder. School Psychology Review 41(4), 447-466.
• Mcloughlin, J. & Lewis, R. (2009). Assessing students with special needs. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Moore, D., Whitaker, S., & Ford, T. (2016). Daily report cards as a school-based intervention for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. NASEN
Support for Learning 31(1), 71-83.
• Olmstead, C. (2013). Using technology to increase parent involvement in schools. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practices to Improve Learning 57(6), 28-37.
• Reshcly, A. & Christenson, S. (2012). Moving from “context matters” to engaged partnerships with families. Journal of Educational and Psychological
Consultations 22, 62-78.
• Salvia, J., Ysseldyke, J. & Bolt, S. (2013). Assessment in special and inclusive education. wadsworth: Cencage Learning.
• Santrock, J. (2011). Educational Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Spinelli, C. (2012). Classroom assessment for students in special and general education. 3rd Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Taylor, R. (2009). Assessment of exeptional students. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.
• World Health Organization (2001). International classification of functioning, disability and health. Retrieved from
https://psychiatr.ru/download/1313?view=name=CF_18.pdf.

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 Thank You!!!

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