Macromolecules

1. Carbohydrates

2. Proteins

3. Fats

Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for the body. They are the
sugars, starches, and dietary fiber that occur in plant foods and dairy
products. 

Carbohydrates are mainly found in plant foods. They also occur in dairy
products in the form of a milk sugar called lactose. Foods high in
carbohydrates include bread, pasta, beans, potatoes, rice, and cereals.

Carbohydrates play several roles in living organisms, including providing

energy.
Byproducts of carbohydrates are involved in the immune system, the
development of disease, blood clotting, and reproduction.

Carbohydrates, also known as saccharides or carbs, provide energy for the

body. Each gram of carbohydrates provides 4 calories.

The body breaks carbohydrates down into glucose, which is the primary
energy source for the brain and muscles.

Carbohydrates are one of three macronutrients, which are nutrients that the
body needs in larger amounts.

The other macronutrients are protein and fats. Proteins provide 4

calories per gram, and fats provide 9 calories per gram.

Nutrition

It’s generally recommended that people consume between 45-65% of their

total calories in the form of carbohydrates per day. However, carbohydrate
needs depend on many factors, including body size, activity levels, and
blood sugar control.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommend that people get 275
g of carbohydrate each day in a 2,000-calorie diet. This includes dietary
fiber, total sugars, and added sugars, which are listed on food labels.

Carbohydrates in foods occur in various forms, including the following:

· Dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate that the body cannot easily

digest. It occurs naturally in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, beans, and
whole grains.
 · Total sugars, which include sugars that occur naturally in foods, such
as dairy products, as well as added sugars, which are common in
baked goods, sweets, and desserts. The body very easily digests and
absorbs sugars.

· Sugar alcohols, a type of carbohydrate that the body does not fully
absorb. They have a sweet taste and fewer calories than sugar. Sugar
alcohols are added to foods as reduced-calorie sweeteners, such as in
chewing gum, baked goods, and sweets.

Dietary fiber helps promote regular bowel movements, lowers blood sugar

and cholesterol, and may help reduce a person’s calorie intake. The FDA
recommend that people get 28 grams (g) of dietary fiber per day in a 2,000-
calorie diet.

Most people in the United States exceed the recommended daily limits for
added sugar. This can increase a person’s risk of developing cardiovascular
disease and dental cavities.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015–2020Trusted Source recommend

that people get less than 10% of their total daily calories from added sugars,
which means less than 50 g of added sugars each day.

However, limiting added sugar as much as possible is best for overall health.
The American Heart AssociationTrusted Source recommend that women limit
added sugar to less than 6 teaspoons (25 g) per day and men limit their
intake to less than 9 teaspoons (36 g) per day.

 
Chemistry

The chemical structures of carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen atoms. Two basic compounds make up carbohydrates: Aldehydes,
which are double-bonded carbon and oxygen atoms, plus a hydrogen atom,
and ketones, which are double-bonded carbon and oxygen atoms, plus two
additional carbon atoms.

Carbohydrates can combine to form polymers, or chains, to create different

types of carbohydrates. Carbohydrate can be monosaccharides,
disaccharides, or polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are single units of sugar. Examples include:

· glucose, the body’s main source of energy

· galactose, which is most readily available in milk and dairy products

· fructose, which mostly occurs in fruits and vegetables

Disaccharides

Disaccharides are two sugar molecules joined together. Examples include:

· lactose, found in milk, which is made up of glucose and galactose

· sucrose, or table sugar, which is made up of glucose and fructose

 
Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are chains of many sugars. They can consist of hundreds or

thousands of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides act as food stores for plants
and animals. Examples include:

· glycogen, which stores energy in the liver and muscles

· starches, which are abundant in potatoes, rice, and wheat

· cellulose, one of the main structural components of plants

Simple and complex carbohydrates

Monosaccharides and disaccharides are simple carbohydrates, and

polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates.

Simple carbohydrates are sugars. They consist of just one or two molecules.
They provide a rapid source of energy, but the person soon feels hungry
again. Examples include white bread, sugars, and candies.

Complex carbohydrates consist of long chains of sugar molecules. This

includes whole grains and foods that contain fiber. Examples include fruits,
vegetables, beans, and whole grain pasta.

Complex carbohydrates make a person feel full for longer and have more
health benefits than simple carbohydrates, as they contain more vitamins,
minerals, and fiber.

 
Should I try a high or low carb diet?

In a typical diet, carbohydrates are the main energy source for the body.
The body uses them as fuel for the cells.

Many people have turned to low carb diets, such as the keto diet, for their
potential health benefits and weight loss. However, some types of
carbohydrates – including whole grains and dietary fiber – have substantial
health benefits.

In fact, according to the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine,

those who eat the most carbohydrates – especially from natural sources
such as beans, whole grains, and vegetables — have a lower risk
for obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease.

Other types of carbohydrates, including simple carbohydrates such as white

bread, have much lower nutritional value.

Added sugars are a type of carbohydrate that can have adverse health
effects. Eating large amounts of foods that contain added sugars can
contribute to obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

When making dietary changes, it is important to aim for a healthful diet that

contains the range of nutrients that the body needs.

Carbohydrates and obesity

Some argue that the global rise in obesity is linked to a high intake of carbs.
However, a number of factors contribute to rising obesity
rates, includingTrusted Source:

· lower physical activity levels

 · greater availability of ultraprocessed food or “junk food”

· a lack of access to affordable fresh produce

· oversized portions, which increase a person’s calorie intake

· fewer hours of sleep

· genetic factors

· stress and emotional factors

What about diet foods?

Many manufacturers promote low carb diets to sell weight loss products,
including nutritional bars and powders.

These products are not often healthful as many contain colorings, artificial
sweeteners, emulsifiers, and other additives and are typically low in
vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, making them similar to junk food.

Can carbohydrates lead to diabetes?

After a meal, the body breaks carbohydrates down into glucose, causing
blood sugar levels to increase. This causes the pancreas to produce insulin, a
hormone that allows the body’s cells to use this sugar for energy or storage.

Over time, repeated spikes in blood sugar levels can damage the cells that
make insulin, wearing them out. Eventually, the body may stop producing
insulin, or may not be able to use it properly. This is known as insulin
resistance.

Eating carbohydrates or sugars alone does not cause diabetes.

Carbohydrates are an important source of nutrients in most diets.
However, people are more likelyTrusted Source to have insulin resistance
and develop type 2 diabetes if they have overweight or obesity, which can
be linked with a diet high in sugar.

Insulin resistance increases the risk of developing metabolic syndrome,

which refers to a group of risk factors that raise the risk of heart disease,
stroke, and other medical conditions.

If a person has elevated blood sugar levels, reducing their intake of added
sugar and refined carbohydrates can help reduce their blood sugar levels,
improve insulin resistance, and may help promote healthy weight loss if
needed.

Reducing the risk

People can reduce their risk of insulin resistance by eating healthful

carbohydrates, maintaining good sleeping habits, and exercising regularly.

Healthful carbohydrates include fruit, vegetables, legumes, whole grains,

and some cereals. These foods contain essential vitamins, minerals, fiber,
and key phytonutrients.

The Mediterranean diet has a moderate amount of carbohydrates from

natural sources plus some animal or fish protein.

This diet has a lower impactTrusted Source on insulin requirements and

subsequent health problems, compared with the standard American diet.
What do carbohydrates do?

Carbohydrates provide people with energy and are a vital part of a healthful

diet.

However, eating too many carbohydrates or choosing the wrong type can
lead to weight gain or other health issues.

In this article, we look at the function of carbohydrates, as well as where

they come from, how the body processes them, and which ones to choose.

What is the function of carbohydrates? 

Sweet potatoes are a good source of complex carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates provide a person with energy. People can also obtain energy
from foods containing protein and fats, but carbohydrates are the body’s
preferred source.

If a person does not have a good supply of carbohydrates, their body will
use protein and fats as an energy source.

However, as protein is vital for so many other essential functions, such as

building and repairing tissues, the body prefers not to use it for energy.

Carbohydrates break down into glucose in the body. Glucose moves from the
bloodstream into the body’s cells with the help of the hormone insulin. All of
the cells in a person’s body use glucose to function.
The brain uses 20–25%  of a person’s glucose when they are at rest and is
reliant on a constant supply.

Where do carbohydrates come from?

People get their carbohydrates from food. All plants contain carbohydrates,
which typically represent a significant portion of people’s dietary intake.

Carbohydrates comprise sugar molecules called saccharides. These

molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Types

Scientists classify carbohydrates as either simple or complex, depending on

how many sugar molecules they contain.

Simple carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates have one or two sugar molecules and

include glucose, fructose, sucrose, and lactose.

Simple carbohydrates naturally occur in:

· fruits

· fruit juices

· milk

· milk products
Complex carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates contain longer, more complex chains of sugars. They

include oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Complex carbohydrates also
contain fiber and starch.

Examples of complex carbohydrates include:

· whole grains, including some types of bread, cereal, pasta, and rice

  What to know about milk

Cow’s milk, a drink people often associate with
good health, is one of the most popular beverages
in the United States and Europe.

Milk is a natural food source for mammals. Animals, including humans,

produce milk to feed their young until they are ready for solid food.

As such, milk contains valuable nutrients that help support a growing body,
including calcium and protein.

Research about milk is conflicting, however, with different studies claiming

milk is either good or bad for the body.

Due to rising concerns about health, lactose intolerance, and animal

welfare, plant-based milk, and dairy alternatives are gaining popularity.

This article looks at the potential health benefits of cow’s milk and discusses
alternatives.
Health benefits of milk

Share on Pin terest The potassium in milk may help with heart health.

Official sources, such as the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015–

2020Trusted Source, recommend that adults eat about 3 cup-equivalent of
low fat or fat-free dairy each day as part of a healthful diet.

This amount can include milk, yogurt, cheese, and fortified soy beverages.

The following sections look at the possible benefits of milk for human health.

Milk and bone health

Calcium is an essential nutrient for strong bones and teeth, muscle
movement, and nerve signals. Health authorities recommend getting enough
calcium to help prevent bone fractures and osteoporosis.
Milk offers a rich source of calcium. Manufacturers fortify cow’s milk
with vitamin D, another nutrient that benefits bone health.

While calcium is important, not all studies agree that milk is good for
preventing osteoporosis or fractures, as a 2019 review discusses. Due to this
discrepancy, scientists still need to do more research.

Milk and heart health

Milk is a source of potassium, which can help the blood vessels dilate and
reduce blood pressure.

Getting more potassium while also reducing sodium (salt) intake can lower
blood pressure, reducing the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Many people in the U.S. do not get their recommended daily

requirementTrusted Source for potassium of 3,400 milligrams (mg) in males
and 2,600 mg for females.

Other potassium-rich foods besides milk include:

 dried apricots
 oranges
 potatoes
 tomatoes
 lima beans
 spinach
 bananas
 prunes
  yogurt

Cow’s milk also contains a high amount of saturated fat and cholesterol, which
can increase the risk of heart disease, so people should eat dairy in
moderation.

Milk and cancer

Milk contains calcium and vitamin D, two nutrients that may help protect
against cancer.

Calcium may protectTrusted Source the gut lining to reduce the riskTrusted

Source of colon cancer or rectum cancer. However, research has linked too
much calciumTrusted Source with prostate cancer.

Vitamin D might play a role in cell growth regulation. It may helpTrusted

Source protect against colon cancer, and possibly prostate and breast cancer.
However, research has also linked high vitamin D levels to an increased risk
of pancreatic cancer.

Many factors affect cancer risk. Likewise, cancer can take a long time to
develop, so it is difficult to study its causes and risk factors.

Scientists still need more long-term research to establish the facts with any
certainty.

Milk and depression

Adequate vitamin D levels supportTrusted Source the production of serotonin,
a hormone people associate with mood, appetite, and sleep.
Research, including a 2020 reviewTrusted Source, has linked vitamin D
deficiency with clinical depression.

Manufacturers often fortify cow’s milk and plant milk with vitamin D.

Milk and muscle building

Cow’s milk helps baby cows grow fast, so it makes sense that cow’s milk can
aid muscle growth. Cow’s milk is a rich source of high quality protein,
containing all essential amino acids.

Whole milk is also a rich source of energy in the form of saturated fat, which
can prevent muscle mass from being used for energy.

Low fat milk can provide the benefits of milk while supplying less fat.

Milk and osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis of the knee currently has no cure, but researchers say they
have linked drinking milk every day to reduced progression of the disease.

Their research appeared in the American College of Rheumatology

journal Arthritis Care & ResearchTrusted Source.

Nutrition: Milk and milk

alternatives
According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015–2020Trusted Source,
the dairy group includes cow’s milk and soy milk. The group contains the
following key nutrients:

 calcium
 phosphorus
 vitamin A
 vitamin D (in fortified products)
 riboflavin
 vitamin B-12
 protein
 potassium
 zinc
 choline
 magnesium
 selenium

The nutritional breakdown of milk depends on the fat content.

A 100-gram (g) serving of whole milk with 3.25% fat containsTrusted Source:

 61 calories
 4.8 g of carbohydrate
 3.25 g of fat
 3.15 g of protein

A 100-g serving of low fat milk contains Trusted Source:

 43 calories
  4.97 g of carbohydrates
 0.97 g of fat
 3.48 g of protein

A 100-g serving of soy milk contains Trusted Source:

 33 calories
 1.67 g of carbohydrates
 1.67 g of fat
 2.92 g of protein

Some important nutrients that all milk provides include:

Calcium

Dairy products, including milk, are among the richest dietary sources of
calcium. Calcium is essential for bone and tooth health, blood clotting, and
blood pressure.

Pair calcium-rich foods with sources of magnesium and vitamin D, as vitamin

D supports calcium absorption in the small intestine, and magnesium helps
the body incorporate calcium into the bones.

Choline

Choline is an important nutrient for sleep, muscle movement, learning, and

memory. It also helps with nerve signals, fat absorption, and inflammation.

Potassium

Potassium is vital for heart health, which includes reducing the risk of stroke,
heart disease, and high blood pressure.
A 100-g serving of cow’s milk contains around 162 mg of potassium, slightly
more than in many soy milk beverages.

In the case of lactose intolerance, however, a symptom such as diarrhea can

lead to potassium depletion.

Fortified vitamins and minerals

Manufacturers fortify most milk, including cow’s, soy, almond, and others, with
additional vitamins and minerals that are not present naturally. These added
nutrients include vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin B-12, and pyridoxine.

Exposure to light destroys some vitamins, especially A and riboflavin, so milk

that people store in transparent containers will have lower nutrient levels.

Concerns and precautions

The following sections look at the possible adverse health effects of drinking
milk.

Saturated fats

Dairy is high in saturated fats. The American Heart Association (AHA) point
out that eating too many saturated fats can increase cholesterol levels, raising
the risk of heart disease and stroke.

The AHA recommend that people get no more than 5–6%Trusted Source of

their total calories from saturated fats.

Lactose intolerance
Lactose intolerance is a condition where the body does not produce lactase,
an enzyme it needs to break down a sugar called lactose that occurs in milk.

An estimated 65% of people have a reduced ability to digest lactose after

infancy. It is most common in people of East Asian descent, affecting 70–
100% of these populations.

Milk allergy

A milk allergy, or hypersensitivity, is different from lactose intolerance. In an

allergy, the body reacts to the proteins, not the sugars, in milk.

A cow’s milk allergy can cause symptoms, such as wheezing and asthma,

diarrhea, vomiting, and gastrointestinal distress. Severe allergies can lead
to anaphylaxis, a life threatening allergic reaction.

Too much potassium or phosphorous

Getting too much of certain nutrients can be harmful. Overconsumption from

diet alone is rare, but certain medications or medical conditions can make it
more likely.

If a person has kidney problems, too much potassium or phosphorous can be

harmful. Too much potassium is known as hyperkalemia.

Too much calcium

Too much calcium, or hypercalcemia, can cause constipation, kidney stones,

or kidney failure. It is rare for this to happen from diet alone, but it can be a
risk when a person is taking calcium supplements.
Hormones and antibiotics

Cow’s milk may contain residues of hormones and antibiotics, as well as

dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

These residue substances can have a negative impact on human health,

including adverse effects on the nervous system, reproductive system, and
immune system. They may potentially raise the risk of certain types of cancer.

While calcium and vitamin D from cow’s milk can benefit bone health, there is
also some evidence that animal proteins in the diet, for example, from cow’s
milk, have an acidifying effect.

According to Harvard researchers, this could harm bone health by causing the
body to pull calcium from the bones to restore optimal blood pH levels. Not all
agree with this, however.

As such, the net benefit of calcium in cow’s milk may be lower than expected.

For infants

The Centers for Disease Control and Protection (CDC) Trusted Sourcesay

that infants should not drink cow’s milk before 12 months of age. This is
because cow’s milk has too many proteins and minerals for an infant’s
kidneys to handle and may put them at risk of intestinal bleeding.

Milk alternatives
Anyone who has an allergy or intolerance to cow’s milk, or who is considering
avoiding cow’s milk for ethical or environmental reasons, can try milk
alternatives.
A range of substitute milks, such as almond, soy, coconut, hemp, and oat, are
available.

According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, soy beverages fortified

with calcium, vitamin A and vitamin D are part of the dairy food groupTrusted
Source as they have similar nutritional composition to milk.

Other milk alternatives made from plants may contain calcium but are not part
of the dairy group as their nutritional profile is not similar to soy milk or cow’s
milk.

Read a comparison guide to different milks, including almond, hemp, oat, soy,
and cow, here, and a guide to dairy alternatives, including cheese, yogurt, and
butter, here.

Summary
Cow’s milk is a good source of calcium, protein, and other important nutrients
that can have benefits for health.

According to one Harvard researcher, however, dairy is not necessary for

optimal health. Many others recommend it, though, and many people find
cow’s milk an easy way to get essential nutrients, including calcium, vitamin
D, and protein.
Benefits and sources of
calcium
 Why we need calcium

 Dietary sources

 How much calcium?

 Calcium deficiency

 Supplementation

 Risks of supplements

 Takeaway

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may earn a small commission. Here’s our process.

Calcium is a nutrient that all living organisms

need, including humans. It is the most abundant
mineral in the body, and it is vital for bone health.

Humans need calcium to build and maintain strong bones, and 99%Trusted

Source of the body’s calcium is in the bones and teeth. It is also necessary for
maintaining healthy communication between the brain and other parts of the
body. It plays a role in muscle movement and cardiovascular function.

Calcium occurs naturally in many foods, and food manufacturers add it to

certain products. Supplements are also available.
Alongside calcium, people also need vitamin D, as this vitamin helps the body
absorb calcium. Vitamin D comes from fish oil, fortified dairy products, and
exposure to sunlight.

This article looks at why the body needs calcium, which foods are rich in
calcium, what happens if the body does not have enough, and the pros and
cons of taking supplements.

Why we need calcium

Share on Pin terest Green leafy vegetables, such as broccoli, are a good source of calcium.

Calcium plays various roles in the body. These include the following:

Bone health

Around 99% of the calcium in the human body is in the bones and teeth.
Calcium is essential for the development, growth, and maintenance of bone.
As children grow, calcium contributes to the development of their bones. After
a person stops growing, calcium continues to help maintain the bones and
slow down bone density loss, which is a natural part of the aging process.

Females who have already experienced menopause can lose bone density at

a higher rate than males or younger people. They have a higher risk of
developing osteoporosis, and a doctor may recommend calcium supplements.

Learn more here about osteoporosis.

Muscle contraction

Calcium helps regulate muscle contraction. When a nerve stimulates a

muscle, the body releases calcium. The calcium helps the proteins in muscle
carry out the work of contraction.

When the body pumps the calcium out of the muscle, the muscle will relax.

Cardiovascular system

Calcium plays a key role in blood clotting. The process of clotting is complex
and has a number of steps. These involve a range of chemicals, including
calcium.

Calcium’s role in muscle function includesTrusted Source maintaining the

action of the heart muscle. Calcium relaxes the smooth muscle that surrounds
blood vessels. Various studies have indicated a possible link between high
consumption of calcium and lower blood pressure.

Vitamin D is also essential for bone health, and it helps the body absorb
calcium. Find out more about vitamin D and why we need it.
Other roles

Calcium is a co-factor for many enzymes. Without calcium, some key

enzymes cannot work efficiently.

Studies have also suggested that consuming enough calcium can result in:

 a lower risk of developing conditions involving high blood

pressure during pregnancy
 lower blood pressure in young people
 lower blood pressure in those whose mothers who consumed enough
calcium during pregnancy
 improved cholesterol values
 a lower risk of colorectal adenomas, a type of non-cancerous tumor

Find out more here about the effects of having low calcium levels.

For more in-depth resources about vitamins, minerals, and supplements, visit
our dedicated hub.

Calcium-rich foods
People can obtain calcium from a range of foods and drinks.

The following are good sourcesTrusted Source:

 yogurt
 milk
 fortified dairy alternatives, such as soy milk
  sardines and salmon
 cheese
 tofu
 green leafy vegetables, such as broccoli, turnip leaves, watercress,
and kale
 many fortified breakfast cereals
 fortified fruit juices
 nuts and seeds, especially almonds, sesame, and chia
 legumes and grains
 cornmeal and corn tortillas

Some dark green vegetables, such as spinach, contain calcium. However,

they also contain high levels of oxalic acid. Oxalic acid reduces the body’s
ability to absorb calcium, according to studies.

Click here for some tips on getting enough calcium on a plant-based diet.

How much do I need?

According to the Office of Dietary SupplementsTrusted Source (ODS), people
need the following amounts of calcium:

 0–6 months: 200 milligrams (mg)

 7–12 months: 260 mg
 1–3 years: 700 mg
 4–8 years: 1,000 mg
 9–18 years: 1,300 mg
  19–50 years: 1,000 mg
 51–70 years: 1,000 mg for males and 1,200 mg for females
 71 years and above: 1,200 mg

Pregnant and breastfeeding women require 1,000–1,300 mg depending on

age.

A doctor may recommend additional calcium for people who:

 have started menopause

 stop menstruating due to anorexia nervosa or excessive exercise
 have lactose intolerance or a cow’s milk allergy
 follow a vegan diet

Calcium deficiency
The following conditions or lifestyle habits may result in low calcium levels,
also known as hypocalcemia:

 bulimia, anorexia, and some other eating disorders.

 mercury exposure
 overconsumption of magnesium
 long-term use of laxatives
 prolonged use of some medicines, such as chemotherapy or
corticosteroids
 chelation therapy used for metal exposure
 lack of parathyroid hormone
 people who eat a lot of protein or sodium may excrete calcium.
  some cancers
 high consumption of caffeine, soda, or alcohol
 some conditions, such as celiac disease, inflammatory bowel
disease, Crohn’s disease, and some other digestive diseases
 some surgical procedures, including removing the stomach
 kidney failure
 pancreatitis
 vitamin D deficiency
 phosphate deficiency

The body eliminates some calcium in sweat, urine, and feces. Foods and
activities that encourage these functions may reduce the levels of calcium in
the body.

Calcium supplements
A doctor may recommend calcium supplements for people who have a
calcium deficiency.

People who use calcium supplements should:

 check first with their doctor whether they need supplements

 follow the dosage the doctor recommends
 take the supplement with food for best absorption and to minimize
possible adverse effects
 consume the supplements at intervals, usually two or three times a day
According to the ODS, around 43%Trusted Source of all adults in the United
States take calcium supplements, including 70% of older females. Taking
supplements can increase daily calcium intake by about 300 mg of calcium a
day, on average.

Many calcium supplements also contain vitamin D. Vitamin D encourages the

synthesis of proteins in the body and helps the body absorb calcium.
Magnesium also plays a role in strengthening bones, and calcium
supplements may also contain magnesium.

Types of supplement

There are different types of supplements. A doctor can recommend the best
option. This will depend on the individual’s needs and preferences, any
medical conditions they have, and whether they are taking any medications.

Elemental calcium is the pure mineral, but calcium in its natural form exists
with other compounds.

Supplements may contain different proportions of calcium compounds and

elemental calcium. For example:

Calcium carbonate: This contains 40% elemental calcium. This type is

commonly available, and it is relatively cheap and convenient. A person
should take it with food, as stomach acid helps the body absorb it.

Calcium lactate: This contains 13% elemental calcium.

Calcium gluconate: This contains 9% elemental calcium.

Calcium citrate: This contains 21% elemental calcium. A person can take it
with or without food. It is useful for people with inflammatory bowel disease,
achlorhydria, and some absorption disorders.
Risks of supplements
Research has found conflicting evidence regarding the benefits and
drawbacks of supplement use.

Most expertsTrusted Source agree that it is better to obtain nutrients from

natural food sources, although sometimes it is not possible to get enough in
this way.

Some studies have suggested, however, that calcium supplementation could

be hazardous.

Side effects

Some people report gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloating, constipation,

gas, or a combination of all three when using calcium supplements.

Calcium citrate usually has fewer and less pronounced side effects than
calcium carbonate. Taking the supplements with food, or spreading their
intake throughout the day may help reduce the occurrence or intensity of the
side effects.

Complications

Very high levels of calcium can lead to:

 kidney problems
 calcification of soft tissues and blood vessels
 kidney stones
 constipation
Although high calcium levels due to taking too many supplements might cause
these severe side effects, they are more likely the result of cancer and thyroid
problems, according to the ODS.

Possible complications

Past studies have raised concerns that taking calcium supplements

may increase the riskTrusted Source of:

 kidney stones
 a reduction in iron absorption
 a higher risk of a heart attack

However, more recent studies have suggested that these concerns may be
unfounded.

Calcium may interact with some drugs. Experts make the following
recommendations:

 Take calcium supplements separately from some antibiotics.

 Avoid supplement use while taking calcium channel blockers, which are
a common type of medication for lowering blood pressure.

Takeaway
Calcium is essential for building and maintaining healthy bones and teeth.
Among other roles, it may also help manage blood pressure.
It is best to obtain sufficient calcium through dietary sources, such as dairy
products, green leafy vegetables, and tofu. However, a doctor may
recommend supplementation for some people.

Due to individual differences in requirements, experts do not recommend

calcium supplementation for everyone. Anyone who is considering taking
supplements should ask their healthcare provider for advice.

Lactose intolerance: What

you need to know
happens when a person’s body cannot break
down lactose properly. Symptoms include
bloating, flatulence, and diarrhea.

Lactose is a sugar found only in milk. It is also present in dairy products and
products made from milk, including cheese and ice cream.

If a person has lactose intolerance, their digestive system produces too little of
an enzyme known as lactase. Lactase is needed to break down lactose.

Lactose intolerance is different from a milk allergy. In a milk allergy, the body
reacts to milk proteins, not milk sugar. A milk allergy can result in severe
symptoms, including anaphylaxis.

Worldwide, an estimatedTrusted Source 68% of people have trouble digesting

lactose. The figure is lower in the U.S., affecting 36% of individuals.
This article looks at the symptoms, diagnosis, causes, and treatments for
lactose intolerance. It also discusses foods to avoid and alternatives to dairy
products.

Symptoms

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People with lactose intolerance experience symptoms after eating or drinking

milk or dairy products that contain lactose.

Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to a severe reaction. This depends
on how much lactase a person’s body produces and how much lactose they
consumed.

Most people with lactose intolerance can eat some amount of lactose without
experiencing symptoms. Each person has a different tolerance level.

Symptoms of lactose intolerance can include:

  bloating
 abdominal pain and cramping
 flatulence
 nausea
 diarrhea
 belching

The person may have a sudden urge to use the bathroom 30 minutes to 2
hoursTrusted Source after consuming lactose.

Chronic diarrhea can lead to dehydration, so it is important for a person to

drink plenty of water if they have diarrhea.

Diagnosis
If a person suspects that they are lactose intolerant, they can keep a food
diary that lists the foods they eat and any symptoms that arise. This can help
them and their physician work out which foods are causing the symptoms.

Most healthcare providers recommend that people try a lactose free diet for a
period to see if symptoms improve.

Some tests can detect a lactose intolerance. They are:

 Hydrogen breath test: The person fasts overnight and then takes a
lactose solution the following morning. A physician then measures the
levels of hydrogen in exhaled air. High levels of hydrogen indicate
lactose intolerance.
 Lactose tolerance test: The person consumes a lactose solution, and
a physician takes blood samples to measure their glucose levels. If
 blood glucose levels remain the same, the body has not broken down
the lactose properly.
 Stool sample test: Lactose tolerance tests and hydrogen breath tests
are not suitable for infants, so a physician may perform a stool test.
High levels of acetate and other fatty acids in the stool can be a sign of
lactose intolerance.

Physicians will also want to rule out other conditions that can cause similar
symptoms. These include inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel
syndrome, and celiac disease.

For more science-backed resources on nutrition, visit our dedicated hub.

Treatment
To avoid symptoms, a person with a severe lactose intolerance may need to
avoid milk, milk products such as ice cream, and other processed foods that
contain milk powder and whey.

Avoiding lactose may require some trial and error, but food labeling can help,
as a product that contains lactose must have a label stating that it contains
“milk.”

Many people with lactose intolerance can tolerate up to 10 grams of lactose,
or around a glass of milk, without significant symptoms. Spreading
consumption throughout the day, and consuming lactose-containing products
with meals, can increase tolerance.

People can use lactase enzyme supplementsTrusted Source, which contain

lactase, to break down the lactose in milk and milk products. This lowers the
chances of lactose intolerance symptoms.
Causes
Lactase is an enzyme produced in the small intestine. The body uses lactase
to break down lactose into components called galactose and glucose. The
glucose is then absorbed into the bloodstream.

If a person’s lactase levels are low, the lactose does not break down and it
does not absorb into the bloodstream. Instead, it moves into the large
intestine, or colon. Bacteria in the colon react to any product that contains
lactose by creating more gas. That can lead to discomfort and other
unpleasant symptoms for the individual.

In some regions, more people carry a gene that allows them to digest lactose.
Lactose intolerance is less common in people who are from Europe, or whose
families are from Europe.

In the U.S., the followingTrusted Source ethnic and racial groups are more

likely to have trouble digesting lactose:

 African Americans
 American Indians
 Asian Americans
 Hispanics
 Latinos

Some people believe that it is not natural for people to drink milk, as humans
are the only mammals that continue to consume milk products after weaning.
Lactose intolerance, they argue, is not a medical condition but a natural
occurrence.
Types of intolerance and
deficiency
Lactose intolerance is often inherited. The types include:

 Primary lactase deficiency, which is the most common type of lactose

intolerance. It is genetic and symptoms often appear when an infant is
weaned from milk to solids. Lactase production drops, and symptoms of
intolerance appear.
 Congenital lactase deficiency, which is when a person is born with a
genetic mutation results in them producing very little or no lactase.
 Familial lactase deficiency, which is when a person produces enough
lactase, but the person does not break down the lactose for absorption
into the bloodstream.

In some people, lactase levels drop from an early age, but the symptoms of
lactose intolerance may not appear until they are an older child or adult.

There is also a condition called secondary lactase deficiency, in which a

problem with the small intestine results in too little lactase production.
Possible causes are:

 intestinal surgery
 Crohn’s disease
 ulcerative colitis
 chemotherapy
 celiac disease
 gastroenteritis
 irritable bowel syndrome
If the underlying condition is chronic, such as Crohn’s disease, the resultant
intolerance is often long-term too. An intolerance that starts with a short-term
condition, such as gastroenteritis, normally passes within a few days or
weeks.

Foods to avoid
Most milk and milk products have lactose in them, and many processed foods
have milk and dairy products added to them.

Lactose is a sugar found in the milk of most mammals in similar amounts,

except for some sea mammals. Different dairy products can, however, contain
different amounts of lactose depending on how they are processed.

Any product with milk, lactose, whey, curds, milk byproducts, dry milk solids or
non-fat dry milk powder listed in its ingredients will have lactose in it.

Foods that commonly contain lactose include:

 cakes and biscuits

 cheese sauce
 cream soups
 custard
 milk chocolate
 pancakes
 scrambled eggs
 quiche
To avoid symptoms, a person with a lactose intolerance should check food
labels carefully, as some foods may contain hidden lactose.

Examples include:

 muesli bars
 breads
 breakfast cereals
 margarine
 some instant soups
 boiled candies
 chocolate candies and bars
 some processed meats, such as sliced ham
 salad dressing and mayonnaise

Around 20% of drugs contain lactose as a filler. These might include birth

control pills, over-the-counter drugs, and treatments for stomach acid.

Alternatives to dairy
In many societies, dairy products are an important source of nutrients,
including calcium, protein, and vitamins A, B12, and D. When eliminating
dairy, it is important to get these nutrients from elsewhere.

Many alternative dairy products, including soy milk, almond milk, and
alternative cheeses, are reinforced with vitamins.

Sources for these vitamins other than dairy include:

  Calcium: Seaweeds, nuts and seeds, blackstrap molasses, beans,
oranges, figs, quinoa, amaranth, collard greens, okra, rutabaga,
broccoli, dandelion leaves, kale, and fortified products such as orange
juice and plant milks. Read more here.
 Vitamin A: Carrots, broccoli, sweet potatoes, cod liver oil, liver,
spinach, pumpkin, cantaloupe melon, egg, apricot, papaya, mango, and
peas.
 Vitamin D: Levels can be enhanced by exposure to natural sunlight,
consuming fatty fish, egg yolk, fish liver oils, and some fortified plant
milks, as well as other fortified products, including many breakfast
cereals.
 Lactose-free milk: A person with severe symptoms should check the
label to ensure that lactose levels are zero, and not just reduced.
Vegetable-based milks also contain less protein than cow’s milk.

It is best to talk to a doctor or dietician before making significant dietary

changes.

Read about alternatives to milk, cheese, cream, and more here.

Summary
Lactose intolerance happens when a person’s body is unable to break down
proteins in milk. It is very common, and can cause mild to severe symptoms.

While there is no cure for lactose intolerance, people can prevent symptoms
by avoiding milk and products that contain milk, or by taking lactase enzymes.

Alternatives to milk and other dairy products are becoming increasingly

popular in the West, and more of those products are becoming available all
the time.
What substitutes are
there for dairy milk?
Dairy milk comes from mammals, such as cows,
goats, sheep, and camels. It contains a variety of
nutrients may provide several health benefits.
Alternatives to milk are also available.

Many people have stopped using animal-derived milk for a variety of reasons.
Some people are unable to drink dairy milk due to allergies or lactose
intolerance, while others follow a vegan diet and have an ethical issue with the
consumption of animal products.

As a result, a range of non-standard dairy milk and non-dairy milk substitutes

are now available.

Each has a different nutritional profile, flavor, color, and texture. Non-dairy
products come from plant sources, such as nuts, seeds, and grains.

In this article, we look at the available options and their nutritional content.

Options
Several milk alternatives are available for people who do not wish to consume
dairy milk.
Soy milk

Share on Pin terest Milk alternatives vary in nutritional profile, flavor, color, and texture.

One 8-ounceTrusted Source (or 240-gram) cup of low-fat (2 percent) dairy

milk contains:

Soy milk is a popular alternative to dairy milk. Historians can trace the use of
soy milk back to 1365 in China. Many cultures have used soy milk as a diet
staple for centuries.

Today, manufacturers produce soy milk from soybean extract in a process

that is similar to the ancient techniques. The milk is available in sweetened,
unsweetened, and flavored varieties, such as chocolate and vanilla. There are
also options for low fat or full fat varieties.

Producers of soy milk often fortify it with calcium, vitamins A and D, and

riboflavin in the same way as manufacturers of dairy milk do. It also contains a
similar amount of protein as dairy milk per serving, making it the most similar
alternative to cow’s milk in terms of its nutritional profile.

One cup, or 244 grams (g), of plain soy milkTrusted Source contains the
following nutrients:

 105 calories
 12 g of carbohydrate, including 8.91 g of sugar
 6.34 g of protein
 3.59 g of fat
 2.68 micrograms (mcg) of vitamin D
 2.07 mcg of vitamin B-12
 300 milligrams (mg) of calcium
 298 mg of potassium
 0 mg of cholesterol
 0.488 g of fiber

Different brands of soy milk will have a slightly different composition,

depending on the flavor, whether it is sweetened, or contains any additional
vitamins and minerals that manufacturers have added in the fortification
process.

Soy milk is unique in that it contains isoflavones, which are

natural antioxidants. Isoflavones may have associations with a reduced risk
of heart disease. A 2014 articleTrusted Source in the American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition suggests that consuming at least 10 mg of isoflavones a day
has links to a 25% decrease in breast cancer recurrence. One serving of soy
milk contains about 25 mg of isoflavones.
Consuming soy may be beneficial for women during and after menopause.
Soy provides compounds called phytoestrogens, which may mimic the activity
of estrogen in the body. A 2015 reviewTrusted Source and meta-analysis
found that these compounds may help relieve some of the effects of
menopause without severe adverse effects.

The North American Menopause Society have also suggested that consuming
soy may reduce hot flashes. However, people may process phytoestrogens
from soy differently, so it is essential to take note of any bodily changes after
increasing soy intake. Soy can also have anti-estrogenic effects.

Some soy milk consists of genetically modified (GMO) soy. However, organic
soy, or “non-genetically-modified organism” (non-GMO) soy milk is available
in many outlets. Both choices are nutritionally equivalent.

Soy milk is not a suitable replacement for breastmilk or formula.

Here, learn more about the benefits and nutrition of soy.

Almond milk

Ground almonds, water, and, in most cases, a sweetener make almond milk,
another popular alternative. Manufacturers may also fortify almond milk with
vitamins and minerals. It has a creamy texture, similar to that of dairy milk.

One cup of sweetened almond milk would provide only around 1.02 gTrusted
Source of protein. This is much less protein than dairy milk and soy milk would
provide.

Almonds contain a high amount of vitamin E. Fortified almond milk often

contains vitamin E. However, it also has a higher water content than almonds.
It is better to eat almonds as a source of vitamin E.
Almond milk does not provide the vitamin, mineral, and fatty acid content of
dairy milk unless fortified. Because of this, it is not a suitable
alternativeTrusted Source to breastmilk or formula for infants unless fortified.

Depending on the amount of added sugar, almond milk may contain fewer
calories than cow’s milk. Different brands also contain varying amounts of
almonds and added nutrients. It is best to check the information on the
package before buying it.

Some people use almond milk when making ice creams and other items.
Other types of nut milk include cashew, hazelnut, and walnut milk.

Read more on whether almond milk is safe for infants here.

Rice milk

People who are susceptible to allergies or intolerances for certain foods may
find rice milk is a suitable alternative. It is often free from soy, gluten, and
nuts. However, anyone who has an allergy should check the label before
consuming it.

Rice milk consists of boiled rice, brown rice syrup, and brown rice starch. Rice
milk is high in carbohydrates and very low in protein when compared with
dairy milk. The number of calories will depend on whether or not
manufacturers have added sweeteners.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 1 cup of

plain rice milkTrusted Source contains:

 115 calories
 2.37 g of fat
 22.4 g of carbs
  0.68 g of protein
 288 mg of calcium
 26.8 mg of magnesium
 65.9 mg of potassium
 154 mcg of vitamin A
 2.44 mcg of vitamin D2 and D3
 0 mg of cholesterol

Rice milk is often quite thin and watery, so it is not ideal for use in cooking or
baking.

This type of milk is not naturally rich in calcium. Anyone intending to replace
cow’s milk with rice might consider choosing a calcium-fortified variety.

Coconut milk

Coconut milk is probably the milk alternative with a texture closest to that of
whole milk. It is relatively high in fat, with a 1-cup serving providing about 5.08
g of saturated fat.

As it is naturally soy and gluten-free, coconut milk is often a good alternative

for those with multiple food allergies. However, it is important to check that the
facility that produces the milk operates in an allergen-free environment.

Along with most types of nut milk, coconut milk works well in baked goods
because of its nutty flavor.

Although it has a similar texture to dairy milk, its nutritional profile is different.
Depending on the brand and ingredients, it will probably contain less protein
than dairy milk. According to USDA, 1 cup of coconut milk contains 0.21 g of
protein.
Other non-dairy alternatives

Other milk alternatives that are new to the market include:

 quinoa milk
 flax milk
 oat milk
 potato milk
 7-grain milk, from oats, rice, wheat, barley, triticale, spelt, and millet
 sunflower milk
 hemp milk

Alternatives to standard dairy milk

If a person has a lactose intolerance but still wishes to drink cow’s milk,
lactose-free dairy milk is available. Lactose-free dairy milk is nutritionally
equivalent to regular dairy milk.

Some consumers have concerns about the presence of hormones

or antibiotics in milk, but these fears are unfounded. Manufacturers test dairy
milk for any hormones, antibiotics, and any other contaminants at the dairy
farm. If they discover any of these contaminants, they will not ship the product
for processing.

Because of this concern, many people opt for organic, raw, and unpasteurized
cow’s milk.

However, some of these products, such as raw milk, may pose other health
risks that are not present in conventional pasteurized milk.
Nutrients
Cow’s milk is a significant source of protein, vitamin D, vitamin A, and calcium,
as well as other essential nutrients. Many experts associate diets containing
dairy with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and high
blood pressure. The nutrient profile of milk supports bone health.

One 244-g cup of whole milkTrusted Source provides:

 7.69 g of protein
 149 calories
 276 mg of calcium
 24.4 mg of magnesium
 322 mg of potassium
 112 mcg of vitamin A
 4.55 g of fatty acids
 24.4 mg of cholesterol

A person who is giving up dairy milk needs to find these nutrients elsewhere.
Some milk alternatives do have a similar nutritional profile to that of dairy milk.
Many naturally contain calcium or are fortified with calcium, vitamin D, and
vitamin A. Other milk alternatives do not provide the same level of nutrition.

When considering alternative kinds of milk, it is important to read the

packaging to understand the nutritional content.
Takeaway
Any person looking to replace dairy products should be sure to choose a non-
dairy alternative that is closest in nutritional profile to their current products.

People should always check the label on the package. Manufacturers often
fortify both dairy milk and milk alternatives with different amounts of added
nutrients, and milk alternatives often have added sugars.

Whether choosing milk or a milk alternative, people should consume it as part

of a healthful, balanced diet, alongside fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
nuts, seeds, legumes, and pulses.

It is possible to stop using dairy products and obtain the same nutrients
elsewhere. With careful planning and the advice of a registered dietitian, a diet
without dairy products can be healthful for people of any age.

Q:
Will using milk alternatives help me lose weight?

A:
The use of milk alternatives is not a weight loss strategy. A person’s overall
diet and the amount of daily physical activity they do is more likely to affect
weight loss.

As the article points out, some dairy alternatives have little nutritional value
and may contain more sugar.
However, if a person consumes a dairy alternative to replace full-calorie sodas
or other high calorie beverages, they may experience weight loss due to
reduced calorie intake.

Everything you need to

know about yogurt
Yogurt is a dairy product made by fermenting milk
with a yogurt culture. It provides protein and
calcium, and it may enhance healthy gut bacteria.

Health benefits range from protecting against osteoporosis to relieving irritable

bowel disease and aiding digestion, but these depend on the type of yogurt
consumed.

Added sugar and processing can make some yogurt products unhealthy.

Yogurt starts as fresh milk or cream. It is often first pasteurized, then

fermented with various live bacteria cultures, and incubated at a specific
temperature to encourage bacteria growth.

The culture ferments the lactose, the natural sugar found in milk. This
produces lactic acid, which gives yogurt its distinctive flavor.

Fast facts about yogurt

 Yogurt is made by fermenting milk with a yogurt culture.
  Health benefits can include promoting bone health and aiding digestion.
 Some yogurts contain active, living bacteria known as probiotics, which
can help keep the intestines healthy.
 Yogurt products that go through heat treatment have no active bacteria,
reducing the health benefits. Yogurt-covered raisins are an example.
 Yogurts contain calcium, vitamins B6 and B12, riboflavin, potassium,
and magnesium. The amounts depend on the type.

Nutrition

Yogurt can be a tasty, nutritious addition to any diet. However, there are
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plenty of different yogurts, and some are more healthful than others.

There are many types of yogurt that provide varying levels of nutritional
benefit.
When is yogurt good for you?

Whether yogurt is a healthful choice depends on the person consuming it and

the type of yogurt.

Yogurts can be high in protein, calcium, vitamins, and live culture, or

probiotics, which can enhance the gut microbiota.

These can offer protection for bones and teeth and help prevent digestive
problems.

Low-fat yogurt can be a useful source of protein on a weight-loss diet.

Probiotics may boost the immune system.

Some argue that they could also impact brain functioning, too, although more
research is necessary to confirm some of these claims.

In 2014, researchers foundTrusted Source that consuming yogurt may help

protect against type 2 diabetes. Other types of dairy product did not appear to
impact the likelihood of developing the condition.

Other scientists have suggested that yogurt containing probiotic bacteria

successfully protects children and pregnant women against the effects of
heavy metal exposure.

It is also a nutritious option when people find it difficult to chew their food.

Non-dairy yogurts offer an alternative for people who do not consume dairy or
animal products or have allergies or intolerances.

Yogurt contains less lactose than milk because the lactose is used up in the
fermentation process.
When is yogurt bad for you?

Not all yogurts are healthful. Those without added sugar or unnecessary
additives can be a healthful addition to the diet, but some products have high
quantities of added sugar and other ingredients that may not be beneficial.

Natural yogurt can be a low-calorie, high-nutrient food packed with protein.

However, many manufacturers add sugar, artificial sweeteners, and

other ingredients that are not healthful.

All yogurts contain some natural sugars, but consumers are advised to look
for a product with less than 15 grams of sugar per serving. The lower the
sugar, the better, as long as it does not contain any artificial sweeteners.

Some studies have refuted the view that yogurt consumption is linked to good

health, causing authorities to question whether health claims can be made for
commercial purposes. However, people who eat yogurt are more likely to
have an otherwise healthy diet.

Yogurt-flavored products

Packaged products like cereals and bars claiming to be “made with real
yogurt,” yogurt-covered raisins and other products with yogurt coating contain
only a small amount of yogurt powder.

Yogurt powder is heat-treated, and heat kills the beneficial bacteria. Yogurt
coatings are made of sugar, oil, whey, and yogurt powder.
Types
There are different types of yogurt.

Low fat or non-fat

Low-fat, or reduced-fat yogurt, is made with 2-percent milk. Non-fat yogurt is

made with zero percent or skim milk.

Kefir

Kefir is a liquid yogurt for drinking. It contains probiotics and is easy to make
at home by adding kefir grains to milk and leaving it to stand for 12 to 24
hours.

Greek yogurt
 Greek yogurt has a higher protein content than other yogurts, but it contains
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less calcium.

Greek yogurt is thick and creamy. It can withstand heat better than regular
yogurt and is often used in Mediterranean-style cooking and dips.

It is made by further straining regular yogurt to remove the liquid whey.

The result is a higher protein content, due to its thicker concentration, but the
extra straining leads to a lower calcium content.

Greek yogurt is available in full fat, reduced or low fat and non-fat or zero
percent.
Skyr

Similar to Greek yogurt, skyr, pronounced “skeer,” is an Icelandic-style yogurt

that is dense, creamy and high in protein. Compared to regular yogurt, skyr
requires 4 times the amount of milk to make and contains 2 to 3 times more
protein.

Frozen yogurt

Frozen yogurts are often seen as a healthful alternative to ice cream.

However, many frozen yogurts contain the same amount of sugar or

more as regular ice cream.

Also, according to the National Yogurt Association, not all so-called frozen

yogurts contain live and active cultures. Some use heat-treated yogurts, which
kills the live and active cultures.

Non-dairy yogurt

Non-dairy yogurt alternatives include soy yogurt and coconut milk yogurt.

Benefits
Yogurt can offer a range of important nutrients.
Probiotics

Share on Pin terest The microorganism Lactobacillus bulgaricus is used to ferment yogurt.

Some yogurts have probiotics added to them.

Probiotics are a type of healthy bacteria that benefit the gut. They help
regulate the digestive system and decrease gas, diarrhea, constipation, and
bloating.

Some research has suggested that probiotics can boost the immune system,
help with weight management, and reduce the risk of cancer.

Consuming yogurt and other probiotic foods may enhance absorption of

vitamins and minerals.
The two most common bacteria used to ferment milk into yogurt
are Lactobacillus bulgaricus (L. bulgaricus) and Streptococcus thermophiles
(S. thermophiles), but many yogurts contain additional bacterial strains.

To help consumers identify yogurts with live and active cultures, the National
Yogurt Association has implemented the Life & Active Cultures (LAC) seal,
found on the product container.

In most cases, the fresher the product, the more live bacteria it will contain.

A recent study from the University of Toronto points out that different

probiotics will have different effects, and some yogurts containing probiotics
may be healthier than others.

Calcium

Dairy products are one of the best dietary sources of calcium in terms of
bioavailability.

Calcium is essential for the development and maintenance of healthy bones

and teeth. It is also important for blood clotting, wound healing, and
maintaining normal blood pressure.

Calcium-rich foods are best when paired with a source of vitamin D, as

vitamin D helps the small intestine to absorb calcium.

Most yogurts also contain varying amounts of vitamins B6 and B12, riboflavin,
potassium, and magnesium.

Lactose intolerance
Yogurt has a low lactose content, so a person with a lactose intolerance will
likely find it more tolerable than milk. It also contains bacteria that aid
digestion.

As a result, people who experience discomfort, bloating or gas after

consuming liquid milk or ice cream can often tolerate yogurt without
symptoms.

The individual should try a small amount of yogurt, say, a quarter of a cup, to
see how their body reacts. This only applies to lactose intolerance, not to
those with a milk allergy.

People with a lactose intolerance often lack calcium, so yogurt can be an

important component of their diet.

A person with a milk allergy will not benefit from consuming yogurt.

Diet
Here are some tips for incorporating more yogurt into a healthful, nutritious
diet.

 Start with plain, unsweetened yogurt and sweeten it yourself with fruit,
unsweetened applesauce or a small amount of pure maple syrup or
honey.
 Avoid pre-made fruit and yogurt desserts, as these often contain
unnecessary added sugars.
 When baking, use yogurt instead of butter or oil.
 Use plain Greek yogurt instead of sour cream to top baked potatoes or
tacos.
  A healthful yogurt should have more grams of protein per serving than
sugar.

Recipes containing yogurt

Here are some healthful recipes that contain yogurt:

Carrot cake power smoothie

Pumpkin pie power smoothie

100-calorie cranberry dark chocolate muffins

Cranberry-maple breakfast bars

Green Chile and spinach quesadillas.

The range of yogurt options can be confusing. Most of the products available
have not been studied, and scientists do not yet know which probiotics do
what in the human body. The best option is to choose yogurt that is low in
sugar and additives.

If choosing yogurt for health reasons, experts suggest choosing those that

have been scientifically researched.

Scientists have calledTrusted Source for more rigorous research and policies

regarding the healthfulness and the sale of yogurt, to help populations
maximize the benefit they can derive from this potentially very important food.

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This article explores protein shakes and provides a list of ready-to-drink

protein shakes a person may consider depending on their goals.
How the immune system
works
The immune system is the body’s tool for preventing
or limiting infection. Without it, the body would be
unable to withstand attacks from bacteria, viruses,
parasites, and more.

The immune system consists of a vast network of cells, organs, proteins, and tissues
throughout the body.

A fully functional immune system can distinguish healthy tissue from unwanted
substances. If it detects an unwanted substance, it will mount an immune response —
a complex attack to protect the body from invaders. It also recognizes and removes
dead and faulty cells.

The immune system does not always get it right, however. Sometimes, for instance, it
is unable to fight effectively because a person has a health condition or needs certain
medications that affect how the system works.

In autoimmune diseases and allergies, the immune system mistakenly perceives

healthy tissue as unhealthy and launches an unnecessary attack, leading to
uncomfortable and sometimes dangerous symptoms.

This article will look at some of the main features of the immune system and how they
defend the body from pathogens and other invaders. It will also look at problems that
can arise with the immune system.
The immune system

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The immune system consists of a range of components, including:

 white blood cells (leukocytes)

 the spleen
 the bone marrow
  the lymphatic system
 the thymus
 the tonsils, adenoids, and appendix

White blood cells circulate in the blood and lymphatic vessels.

The lymphatic system forms a network similar to the blood vessels. It carries a
substance called lymph instead of blood. Lymph is a fluid that carriesTrusted
Source immune-related cells to areas that need them.

White blood cells are constantly looking for pathogens. When they find one, they
begin to multiply and send signals to other cell types to do the same.

The body stores white blood cells in different places, known as lymphoid organs.

These include:

 The thymus: A gland behind the breastbone, where white blood cells known as
lymphocytes mature.
 The spleen: An organ at the upper left of the abdomen where immune cells
gather and work.
 Bone marrow: Soft tissue in the center of the bones that produces red and
white blood cells.
 Lymph nodes: These are small, bean-shaped glands throughout the body,
especially in the neck, underarms, groin, and abdomen. They link via lymphatic
vessels. Immune cells gather in lymph nodes and react when antigens are
present. This can lead to swelling.
 The tonsils, adenoids, and appendix: These are gateways for pathogens to
enter the body, so lymphoid tissue is also there.

What does a high white blood cell count mean?

How an immune response works
The immune system needs to be able to distinguishTrusted Source healthy from
unhealthy cells and tissue to work effectively. It does this by recognizing signals
called DAMPS — danger-associated molecular patterns.

Cell damage may be present for many reasons, including:

 infectious agents, such as bacteria or viruses

 toxins, such as a bite or sting
 noninfectious physical damage, for instance, a burn
 a genetic problem within cells, as happens with cancer

An antigen is any substance that can spark an immune response.

In many cases, an antigen is a bacterium, fungus, virus, toxin, or foreign body. But it
can also be a cell that is faulty or dead.

The immune system detects pathogen-associated molecular patterns — PAMPs — in

the antigen. In this way, various parts of the system recognize the antigen as an
invader and launch an attack.

What is an antigen test?

Types of white blood cells

There are two main types of leukocytes, or white blood cells:
1. Phagocytes

These cells surround Trusted Source and absorb pathogens and break them down,
effectively eating them.

There are several types, including:

 Neutrophils: These are also known as granulocytes and provide an early

response to inflammation. They kill pathogens but also die as a result.
 Macrophages: These clean up after a response. They remove pathogens, dead
neutrophils, and other debris.
 Dendritic cells: These activateTrusted Source the immune response and help
engulf microbes and other invaders.
 Monocytes: These can differentiate into dendritic cells and macrophages, as
needed.
 Mast cells: These trigger an immune response when they detect an antigen.

2. Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes help the body remember previous invaders and recognize them if they
return to attack again.

Lymphocytes begin their life in bone marrow. Some stay in the marrow and develop
into B lymphocytes (B cells); others travel to the thymus and become T lymphocytes
(T cells). These two cell types have different roles.

B lymphocytes produce antibodies and help alert the T lymphocytes. T lymphocytes

destroy compromised cells in the body and help to alert other leukocytes.

Natural killer (NK) cells are also lymphocytes. NK cells recognize and destroy
Trusted Source cells that contain a virus.
What do low lymphocyte levels mean?

The role of B lymphocytes

Once B lymphocytes spot the antigen (antibody generators), they begin

secreting antibodies. Antibodies are special proteins that lock on to specific antigens.

Each B cell makes one specific antibody. For instance, one might make an antibody
against the bacteria that cause pneumonia, and another might recognize the common
cold virus.

Antibodies are part of a large family of chemicals called immunoglobulins, which

play many roles in the immune response:

 Immunoglobulin G (IgG) marks microbes so other cells can recognize and deal
with them
 IgM specializes in killing bacteria
 IgA congregates in fluids, such as tears and saliva, where it protects gateways
into the body
 IgE protects against parasites and plays a role in allergies
 IgD stays bound to B lymphocytes, helping them start the immune response

Antibodies lock on to the antigen but do not kill it — they only mark it for death. The
killing is the job of other cells, such as phagocytes.

The role of T lymphocytes

There are distinct types of T lymphocytes, or T cells.

Helper T cells (Th cells) coordinate the immune response. Some communicate with
other cells, and some stimulate B cells to produce more antibodies. Others attract
more T cells or cell-eating phagocytes.
Killer T cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) attack other cells. They are particularly
useful for fighting viruses. They work by recognizing small parts of the virus on the
outside of infected cells and destroying the infected cells.

The role of natural killer cells

Also a type of lymphocyte, these contain granules with powerful chemicals. They are

useful for attacking many types of unwanted cells.

Immunity
Overall, the immune system becomes stronger on exposure to different pathogens. By
adulthood, most people have had exposure to a range of pathogens and developed
more immunity.

Once the body produces an antibody, it keeps a copy so that if the same antigen
appears again, the body can deal with it more quickly.

Some diseases, such as measles, can be severe if they occur, which is

why expertsTrusted Source recommend vaccination. If a person has the measles
vaccine, they are unlikely to get the disease.

If an unvaccinated person has measles once, it is also rare to get it again. In both

cases, the body stores a measles antibody. The antibody is ready to destroy the virus
next time it appears. This is called immunity.

There are three types of immunity in humans:

 innate
 adaptive
 passive
Innate immunity

People are born with some level of immunity that will attack invaders from day one.

This innate immunity includes Trusted Source the external barriers of our body — the
first line of defense against pathogens — such as the skin and mucous membranes of
the throat and gut.

This response is general and nonspecific.

If pathogens manage to bypass the innate immune system, macrophages will attack
them. Macrophages will also produce substances called cytokines, which increase the
inflammatory response.

Adaptive (acquired) immunity

A person’s protection from pathogens develops as they go through life.

Thanks to vaccinations and exposure to various diseases, the body develops a range of
antibodies to different pathogens. Doctors sometimes refer to thisTrusted Source as
immunological memory because the immune system remembers previous enemies.

Passive immunity

This is a temporary type of immunity that derivesTrusted Source from another person.

For instance, a newborn receives antibodies from the mother through the placenta
before delivery and in breast milk following delivery.

This passive immunity protects the infant from some infections during their early life.
Immunizations
Immunizations change the body in some way so it can respond effectively to various
diseases.

The most common method is to introduce antigens or weakened pathogens into a

person so the individual produces antibodies and does not become sick.

Because the body saves copies of the antibodies, it has protection if the threat should
reappear later in life.

Some diseases that doctors recommendTrusted Source immunization for include:

 COVID-19
 flu
 rubella
 polio
 chickenpox
 shingles
 measles
 mumps
 meningitis
 hepatitis
 Hib (Haemophilus influenzae type B)
 diphtheria
 tetanus
 whooping cough
  other diseases, such as yellow fever and typhoid, depending on where the
person lives or travels

How do COVID-19 vaccines work?

Immune system disorders

There are many ways in which the immune system can go wrong. Types of immune
disorders fall into three categories:

Immunodeficiencies

These arise when one or more parts of the immune system do not function.

They can result from:

 a condition that a person is born with, known asTrusted Source primary

immunodeficiency
 developments over time, for instance, older age
 a disease that affects the immune system, such as HIV, malnutrition, obesity, or
high alcohol use
 medical treatment, such as chemotherapy, drugs to treat an autoimmune
condition, or medications to stop the body from rejecting a transplant

These conditions can increase a person’s risk of becoming sick or experiencing severe
symptoms, as the COVID-19 pandemic has shown.

What are examples of immunodeficiency disorders?

Autoimmunity

In autoimmune conditions, the immune system mistakenly targetsTrusted

Source healthy cells rather than pathogens or faulty cells. It is unable to distinguish
between healthy and unhealthy cells and tissue.

Usually, this will occur in one part of the body, such as the pancreas. Destruction of
pancreatic beta cells means the body cannot produceTrusted Source insulin. This is
how type 1 diabetes happens.

Other autoimmune diseases include:

 celiac disease
 rheumatoid arthritis
 Graves’ disease

Hypersensitivity

With hypersensitivity, the immune system reactsTrusted Source in an exaggerated or

inappropriate way. It attacks everyday substances, such as dust, as if they were
pathogens.

This happens with:

 asthma
 food allergies and sensitivities
 atopic eczema

A severe reaction can lead to anaphylactic shock, where the body responds to an
allergen so strongly that it can be life threatening.
How can I improve my immunity?

TipsTrusted Source for boosting immunity include:

 following a varied diet that favors fresh fruit and vegetables, whole foods, and
lean protein
 limiting the intake of added salts, fats, sugars, and alcohol
 exercising regularly
 getting enough sleep
 maintaining a suitable body weight
 avoiding smoking

Find out which foods can boost the immune system here

What types of immunity are there?

Innate immunity refers toTrusted Source the defenses people are born with, including
the skin, mucous membranes, and various components of the immune system.

Acquired immunity comes from vaccines and exposure to diseases. These enable the
body to develop antigens that can help it fight the same disease a second time.

Passive immunity is protection that comes from another person, for example, when a
newborn is temporarily immune to certain diseases because their mother has
immunity.

Why is immunity important?

Immunity protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that could
lead to life threatening diseases.
Summary
The immune system is a complex system that is vital for survival. When the body
faces harmful invaders, such as a virus or a splinter in the finger, it launches an attack
to destroy the pathogens.

People are born with some types of immunity, but exposure to diseases and
vaccinations can also help boost the body’s defenses.

Some people have a weakened immune system because of a health issue or

medication use. A doctor can advise on how to protect a person’s health when living
with a weakened immune system.

Ways of boosting immunity include dietary and exercise choices, avoiding alcohol
and smoking, and having appropriate vaccinations.

Tips for a healthy immune

system
The immune system defends the body against
infection. Although it works effectively most of the
time, sometimes our immune system fails, and we
become sick. Are there ways we can boost our immune
system and prevent illness? We find out.
 Our immune system protects us from infection and disease, but is there a way we can enhance
Share on Pinterest

the way it functions?

The immune system is a network of special cells, tissues, proteins, and organs that
work together to protect the body from potentially damaging foreign invaders and
disease.

When our immune system functions properly it detects threats, such as bacteria,
parasites, and viruses, and it triggers an immune response to destroy them. Our
immune system can broadly be divided into two parts: innate and adaptive.

Innate immunity is the natural protection that we are born with and our first line of
defense to combat infection. Upon detecting an infection, our innate response acts
quickly to try and flush out the invader by producing extra mucus or cranking up the
thermostat to blast it with a fever.

Adaptive immunity is protection that we gain throughout life as we are exposed to

diseases or protected against them from vaccinations. The adaptive system spots an
enemy and produces the specific weapons — or antibodies — that are required to
destroy and eliminate the invader from the body.

The adaptive system can take between 5 and 10 days to identify the antibodies that are
needed and produce them in the numbers required to attack an invader successfully. In
that time, the innate system keeps the pathogen at bay and prevents it from
multiplying.

Can the immune system be boosted?

As such, innate immunity can’t be “boosted,” and you wouldn’t want it to be. If the
innate response were stimulated, you would feel constantly unwell with a runny nose,
fever, lethargy, and depression.

The efficiency of the adaptive response can be sped up with vaccinations. A vaccine
contains a harmless version of the germ from which you need protection. The adaptive
system remembers the invader so that the next time it comes into contact with the
germ, it can act quickly to launch an attack.
Share on Pinterest The immune system contains many different cell types that respond to different microbes.

While many products claim to boost immunity, the concept makes little sense
scientifically. Attempting to boost cells of any kind is not necessarily a good thing
and may result in serious side effects.

The immune system, in particular, contains several different types of cells that
respond to various microbes in many ways. Which cells would you boost and to how
many? This is a question to which scientists currently do not know the answer.

What researchers do know is that the body continuously makes immune cells that are
called white blood cells, or leukocytes, and it generates far more cells of the adaptive
system — known as lymphocytes — that mature into B cells and T cells than are
needed.
The excess cells destroy themselves through a process of natural cell death, called
apoptosis. It is unknown what is the best mix of cells or optimum number for the
immune system to work at its best.

Weakened immune system

For many people, the immune system works well to regulate itself and does not need
any help. However, in some people, medications or immune system disorders cause
overactivity or low activity of the immune system.

 Primary immunodeficiency disorders are usually present from birth and are

caused by the immune system missing particular parts.
 Secondary immunodeficiency disorders occur as a result of the immune
system being compromised by environmental factors, including HIV, severe
burns, malnutrition, or chemotherapy.
 Allergies and asthma develop when the immune system responds to
substances that are not harmful.
 Autoimmune diseases are conditions such as lupus, rheumatoid arthritis,
inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, and type 1 diabetes, whereby
the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s cells and tissues.

Disorders of the immune system are treated with specific medications that tackle the
symptoms and associated infections.
Impact of lifestyle on immune
response
The primary components of the immune system include the lymph nodes, tonsils,
spleen, bone marrow, and thymus.

Share on Pinterest Many factors, including diet, exercise, and sleep, can impact immune response.

There remains much to learn about the interconnectedness and intricacies of the
immune response, however. To function well, the whole system requires harmony and
balance. The immune system is not a single entity or force field that needs patching up
to work properly.

No direct links have been identified between lifestyle and enhanced immune response,
but researchers have investigated the effect of factors, such as exercise, diet,
and stress on the response of the immune system.
The best thing you can do to maintain your immune system is to adopt healthy living
strategies that will benefit the entire body, including your immune system. These
strategies might include:

 eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables

 exercising regularly
 maintaining a healthy weight
 quitting smoking
 drinking alcohol only in moderation
 getting enough sleep
 avoiding infection through regular hand washing
 reducing stress

Diet and the immune system

Consuming a balanced diet and eating the recommended amounts of nutrients will
help maintain normal immune function.

Vitamins A, C, and D, and minerals — including zinc — play a role in the functioning
of the immune system. If you eat a balanced diet, you will have no need to take
supplements of these vitamins and minerals and taking extra will not particularly help
your immune system.

Populations that are malnourished are known to be more susceptible to infection, and
there is some evidence that deficiencies in certain micronutrients alter immune
responses.

Vitamins and minerals

For example, zinc deficiency — which may contribute to chronic diseases — has
been demonstratedTrusted Source to negatively impact how the immune system
responds to inflammation in older adults.

Share on Pinterest Eating a healthful, balanced diet is important for maintaining immune function.

Vitamin D supplementation has been linked with alterations in the behavior of the
immune system. Taking vitamin D supplements during pregnancy — a period where
the immune system is in continual flux — may modify the immune system of the
newborn in such a way that protects against respiratory infections and asthma.

Research suggests that vitamin D activates T cells that can identify and

attack cancer cells and protect against colorectal cancer in some people. In older
adults, vitamin D has also been shownTrusted Source to reduce respiratory infections.

Foods affecting immune response

Studies have focused on how specific foods or diets might affect the immune
response.

Soluble fiber switchesTrusted Source immune cells from pro-inflammatory to anti-

inflammatory, which helps us to heal faster from infection.

Pterostilbene and resveratrol, found in blueberries and red grapes, respectively,

help raiseTrusted Source the expression of the human cathelicidin antimicrobial
peptide (CAMP) gene, which is involved in immune function. The CAMP gene plays
a vital role in the innate immune system.

Probiotics may helpTrusted Source counteract the adverse effects of broad-

spectrum antibiotics by keeping the immune system ready to respond to new
infections.

Fish oil rich in DHA has been foundTrusted Source to enhance B cell activity, which
could be promising for those with compromised immune systems.

Prolonged fasting has been linkedTrusted Source with stem cell regeneration of older

and damaged immune cells.

Curcumin, found in curry and turmeric, may assistTrusted Source the immune

system with clearing the brain of beta-amyloid plaques seen in Alzheimer’s disease.

High fat and high-calorie diets triggerTrusted Source a response from the immune
system similar to a bacterial infection. Researchers suggest that eating unhealthy
foods makes the body’s defenses more aggressive long after switching to a healthful
diet, which may contribute to diseases like arteriosclerosis and diabetes.
Exercise and the immune system
Just like eating a healthy diet, regular physical activity contributes to overall good
health and, therefore, a healthy immune system. Exercise promotes efficient blood
circulation, which keeps the cells of the immune system moving so that they can
effectively do their job.

One study revealed that just 20 minutes of moderate exercise stimulated the immune

system, which, in turn, produced an anti-inflammatory cellular response.

The investigators noted that their finding has encouraging implications for people
with chronic diseases — including arthritis and fibromyalgia — and obesity.

Other research discovered that the best way to avoid adverse immune system changes
and help the body to recover after intense exercise was to
consume carbohydrates during or after.

The authors of the paper suggest that between 30 and 60 grams of carbs every hour
during physical activity can help maintain normal immune function.

Other immune response factors

In addition to a balanced diet and regular exercise, scientists have found evidence of
other factors that may affect the response of the immune system.

Chronic sleep deprivation may lower the response of the immune system and

circulation of white blood cells, while adequate slow-wave sleep — or deep sleep
— strengthens the immune system’s memory of pathogens that have previously been
encountered.
Share on Pinterest Being outside in the sunshine has been shown to benefit the immune system.

Getting outside in the sunlight may benefit the immune systemTrusted Source.

Researchers discovered that sunlight energizes infection-fighting T cells that play a
key part in immunity. Specifically, the blue light that is found in the sun’s rays made
T cells move faster, which may help them get to an infection site and respond more
quickly.

Reducing stress may also help to support normal immune system function.

A study uncovered that anticipating a happy or funny event increased levels of

endorphins and other hormones that induce a state of relaxation. Chronic stress can
suppress the response of the immune system and its ability to fight disease; therefore,
reducing stress may help to prevent infections and other disorders.

Singing in a choir for 1 hour was reported to reduce stress, improve mood, and
increase the levels of immune proteins in individuals with cancer and their caregivers.
The study findings demonstrate that something as simple as singing can help reduce
the stress-related suppression of the immune system.

Loneliness has also been pinpointed as a stressor that may affect the immune system.

Research indicated that individuals who were lonely produced higher levels of

proteins related to inflammation in response to stress than those who felt they were
socially connected.

The inflammation-related proteins are associated with conditions such as type 2

diabetes, coronary heart disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and arthritis.

Although many questions remain about the function of the immune system, it is clear
that consuming a healthy diet, regularly exercising, getting adequate sleep, and
reducing stress will go a long way to ensuring your immunity is maintained.
How the immune system
watches over the brain

Share on Pinterest janiecbros/Getty Images

 Scientists have long puzzled over how the immune system surveils the
brain when the blood-brain barrier prevents immune cells from entering.
 A study has now identified border “checkpoints” where the immune
system monitors fluid leaving the brain for signs of infection.
 The discovery offers new possibilities for treating brain diseases, such as
multiple sclerosis (MS).
Generations of students have learned that the central nervous system has “immune
privilege.” This means that — to an extent — the immune system tolerates the
presence of foreign proteins, or antigens, and tissue in the brain and spinal cord.
The immune system cannot respond in the usual way to infections, injuries,
or tumors in the brain and spinal cord, because the blood-brain barrier prevents
immune cells from entering or leaving.

Despite this, scientists know that inflammation plays a pivotal role in many
neurological and psychiatric conditions, including Alzheimer’s
disease, MS, autism, and schizophrenia.

So the question remains, if there is no exchange of information, how does the immune
system respond to and influence the brain in such a broad range of conditions?

A team of scientists led by Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis,

MO, have discovered that immune cells are stationed in the dura mater, which is the
tough outer membrane of the brain.

From this vantage point, they monitor the cerebrospinal fluid draining from the brain.
If they detect the molecular calling cards of infection, cancer, or injury, they can
mount an immune response.

The research appears in the journal CellTrusted Source.

Immunity and the brain

“Every organ in the body is being surveilled by the immune system,” says senior
author Dr. Jonathan Kipnis, Alan A. and Edith L. Wolff Distinguished Professor of
Pathology and Immunology.

He explains:

“If there is a tumor, an injury, an infection anywhere in the body, the immune system
has to know about it. But people say the exception is the brain; if you have a problem
in the brain, the immune system just lets it happen. That never made sense to me.
What we have found is that there is indeed immune surveillance of the brain — it is
just happening outside the brain.”

In 2015, a study in mice revealed a network of vessels in the dura mater that drains
cerebrospinal fluid from the brain into lymph nodes in the neck. Also in 2015,
a studyTrusted Source led by Dr. Kipnis recorded similar findings in both mice and
humans.

Lymph nodes are part of an extensive network of fluid-filled vessels known as

the lymphatic system. An accumulation of pathogens in lymph nodes can lead to the
initiation of an immune response.

This suggested a more intimate connection between the brain and immune
system than previously suspected. However, it remained unclear exactly where
and how immune cells surveil the contents of the cerebrospinal fluid as it drains
from the brain.

Dr. Kipnis and his colleagues knew that the lymph vessels that carry fluid from the
brain run alongside blood-filled cavities, or sinuses, in the dura mater.

Crucially, the walls of these sinuses are more permeable than the blood vessels of the
blood-brain barrier.

Following up this clue, the scientists showed in their experiments that small molecules
from the brain and immune cells accumulate in the sinuses.

Some of the cells, known as antigen presenting cells, which include dendritic cells,
pick up suspicious molecules and present them to other immune cells, called T cells,
which patrol the body in the bloodstream.

When they bind to these suspect molecules, the T cells can initiate an immune
response.
Special status
Dr. Justin Rustenhoven, a postdoctoral researcher and the first author of the new
paper, says the brain must be shielded from the full force of the immune system.

“Immune activity in the brain can be highly detrimental,” he says. “It can kill neurons
and cause swelling. The brain cannot tolerate much swelling, because the cranium is a
fixed volume. So immune surveillance is pushed to the borders, where the cells can
still monitor the brain but do not risk damaging it.”

Dr. Kipnis uses a metaphor to explain how immune cells in the dural sinuses monitor
the contents of cerebrospinal fluid for unfamiliar proteins or antigens:

“Imagine if your neighbors went through your trash every day. If they start finding
blood-stained towels in your trash, they know something is wrong. It is the same thing
with the immune system. If patrolling immune cells see tumor antigens or signs of
infection from the brain, the cells know there is a problem. They will take that
evidence to immune headquarters, which is the lymph nodes, and initiate an immune
response.”

The findings offer promising opportunities for treating brain disorders that involve
autoimmune attacks on tissue.

In MS, for example, the immune system degrades the myelin sheath, which is the fatty
insulating material that protects nerve cells.

Future treatments could target immune cells in the sinuses of the dura mater to
prevent them from initiating certain immune responses in the brain.
The best foods for boosting
your immune system

A strong immune system helps to keep a person

healthy. Can specific foods boost the immune system?

The immune system consists of organs, cells, tissues, and proteins. Together, these
carry out bodily processes that fight off pathogens, which are the viruses, bacteria, and
foreign bodies that cause infection or disease.

When the immune system comes into contact with a pathogen, it triggers an immune
response. The immune system releases antibodies, which attach to antigens on the
pathogens and kill them.

Incorporating specific foods into the diet may strengthen a person’s immune response.
Read on to discover 15 foods that boost the immune system.

Which foods boost the immune

system?
A healthful, balanced diet plays a vital role in staying well. The following foods may
help to boost the immune system:
1. Blueberries

Share on Pinterest Blueberries have antioxidant properties that may boost the immune system.

Blueberries contain a type of flavonoid called anthocyanin, which

has antioxidant properties that can help boost a person’s immune system. A 2016
studyTrusted Source noted that flavonoids play an essential role in the respiratory
tract’s immune defense system.

Researchers found that people who ate foods rich in flavonoids were less likely to get
an upper respiratory tract infection, or common cold, than those who did not.

2. Dark chocolate

Dark chocolate contains an antioxidant called theobromineTrusted Source, which may

help to boost the immune system by protecting the body’s cells from free radicals.
Free radicals are molecules that the body produces when it breaks down food or
comes into contact with pollutants. Free radicals can damage the body’s cells and may
contribute to disease.

Despite its potential benefits, dark chocolate is high in calories and saturated fat, so it
is important to eat it in moderation.

3. Turmeric

Turmeric is a yellow spice that many people use in cooking. It is also present in some
alternative medicines. Consuming turmeric may improve a person’s immune
response. This is due to the qualities of curcumin, a compound in turmeric.

According to a 2017 reviewTrusted Source, curcumin has antioxidant and anti-

inflammatory effects.

4. Oily fish

Salmon, tuna, pilchards, and other oily fish are a rich source of omega-3 fatty
acidsTrusted Source.

According to a 2014 report, long-term intake of omega-3 fatty acids may reduce the
risk of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

RA is a chronic autoimmune condition that occurs when the immune system

mistakenly attacks a healthy part of the body.

5. Broccoli

Broccoli is another source of vitamin C. It also contains potent antioxidants, such as

sulforaphane. For these reasons, it is a good choice of vegetable to eat regularly to
support immune system health.
6. Sweet potatoes

Sweet potatoes are rich in beta caroteneTrusted Source, a type of antioxidant that

gives the skin of the potatoes its orange color.

Beta carotene is a source of vitamin A. It helps to make skin healthy and may even
provide some protection against skin damageTrusted Source from ultraviolet (UV)
rays.

7. Spinach

Spinach may boost the immune system, as it contains many essential nutrients and
antioxidants, including:

 flavonoids
 carotenoids
 vitamin C
 vitamin E

Vitamins C and E can help support the immune systemTrusted Source.

ResearchTrusted Source also indicates that flavonoids may help to prevent the

common cold in otherwise healthy people.

8. Ginger

People use ginger in a variety of dishes and desserts, as well as in teas.

According to a review, ginger has anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties and

is likely to offer health benefits. However, more research is necessary to confirm
whether or not it can effectively prevent illness.
9. Garlic

Share on Pinterest Garlic may help to prevent colds.

Garlic is a common home remedy for the prevention of colds and other illness.

One reviewTrusted Source looked at whether taking garlic supplements containing

allicin reduced the risk of getting a cold.

The group of participants taking a placebo had more than double the number of colds
between them than those taking the garlic supplements. However, the researchers
concluded that more research is necessary to determine whether or not garlic can help
to prevent colds.

10. Green tea

Green tea contains only a small amount of caffeine, so people can enjoy it as an
alternative to black tea or coffee. Drinking it may also strengthen the immune system.

As with blueberries, green tea contains flavonoids, which may reduceTrusted

Source the risk of a cold.

11. Kefir

Kefir is a fermented drink that contains live cultures of bacteria that are beneficial for
health.

Initial research suggests that drinking kefir may boost the immune system. According
to a 2017 reviewTrusted Source, various studies have shown that regular consumption
of kefir can help with:

 fighting bacteria
 reducing inflammation
 increasing antioxidant activity

The majority of the research that supports this was carried out on animals or in a
laboratory. Researchers need to perform additional studies to understand how kefir
may prevent disease in humans.

12. Sunflower seeds

Sunflower seeds can make a tasty addition to salads or breakfast bowls. They are a
rich source of vitamin E, an antioxidant.

In the same way as other antioxidants, vitamin E improves immune functionTrusted

Source. It does this by fighting off free radicals, which can damage cells.
13. Almonds

Almonds are another excellent source of vitamin ETrusted Source. They also contain
manganese, magnesium, and fiber.

A small handful or a quarter of a cup of almonds is a healthful snack that may benefit
the immune system.

14. Oranges or kiwifruit (kiwis)

Oranges and kiwis are an excellent source of vitamin C, which is the vitamin that
many people turn to when they feel a cold developing.

While scientists are still not sure exactly how it helps, vitamin C may reduceTrusted
Source the duration of common cold symptoms and improve the function of the
human immune system.

15. Red bell pepper

For people trying to avoid the sugar in fruit, red bell peppers are an excellent
alternative source of vitamin C.

Stir-frying and roasting both preserve the nutrient content of red bell peppers better
than steaming or boiling, according to a study on cooking methodsTrusted Source.
Other ways to boost the immune
system

Share on Pinterest Washing hands properly may help make the immune system stronger.

The following lifestyle strategies may make a person’s immune system stronger:

 avoiding smoking
 exercising regularly
 maintaining a healthy weight
 avoiding alcohol or drinking in moderation
 getting enough sleep
 minimizing stress
 practicing correct hand-washing and oral hygiene
Summary
Enjoying the 15 immune-boosting foods covered in this article may strengthen
people’s immune system and improve their ability to fight off infections.

That said, it is important to remember that the immune system is complex. Eating a
healthful, balanced diet is just one way to support immune health.

It is also essential to be mindful of the other lifestyle factors that may affect immune
system health, such as exercising and not smoking.

Anyone who gets frequent colds or other illnesses and is concerned about their
immune system should speak to a doctor.

What to know about white

blood cells
White blood cells circulate around the blood and help
the immune system fight off infections.

Stem cells in the bone marrow are responsible for producing white blood cells. The
bone marrow then stores an estimated 80–90% of white blood cells.

When an infection or inflammatory condition occurs, the body releases white blood
cells to help fight the infection.
In this article, learn more about white blood cells, including the types and their
functions.

Types and function

Health professionals have identified three main categories of white blood cell:
granulocytes, lymphocytes, and monocytes. The sections below discuss these in more
detail.

Granulocytes
Granulocytes are white blood cells that have small granules containing proteins. There
are three types of granulocyte cells:

 Basophils: These represent less than 1%Trusted Source of white blood cells in

the body and are typically present in increased numbers after an allergic
reaction.
 Eosinophils: These are responsible for responding to infections that parasites
cause. They also play a role in the general immune response, as well as the
inflammatory response, in the body.
 Neutrophils: These represent the majorityTrusted Source of white blood cells
in the body. They act as scavengers, helping surround and destroy bacteria and
fungi that may be present in the body.

Lymphocytes

These white blood cells include the following:

 B cells: Also known as B-lymphocytes, these cells produce antibodies to help

the immune system mount a response to infection.
 T cells: Also known as T-lymphocytes, these white blood cells help recognize
and remove infection-causing cells.
 Natural killer cells: These cells are responsible for attacking and killing viral
cells, as well as cancer cells.

Monocytes

Monocytes are white blood cells that make up around 2–8% of the total white blood
cell count in the body. These are present when the body fights off chronic infections.

They target and destroy cells that cause infections.

Normal ranges
According to an article in American Family Physician, the normal range (per cubic
millimeter) of white blood cells based on age are:

Age Normal range

Newborn infant 13,000–38,000

2-week-old infant 5,000–20,000

Adult 4,500–11,000

The normal range for a pregnant women in the 3rd trimester is 5,800–13,200 per cubic
millimeter.

High white blood cell count

If a person’s body is producing more white blood cells than it should be, doctors call
this leukocytosis.

A high white blood cell count may indicate the following medical conditions:

 allergic responses, such as due to an asthma attack

 those that may cause cells to die, such as burns, heart attack, and trauma
 inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel
disease, or vasculitis
 infections, such as with bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites
 leukemia

Surgical procedures that cause cells to die can also cause a high white blood cell
count.
Low white blood cell count

If a person’s body is producing fewer white blood cells than it should be, doctors call
this leukopenia.

Conditions that can cause leukopenia include:

 autoimmune conditions such as lupus and HIV

 bone marrow damage, such as from chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or
exposure to toxins
 bone marrow disorders
 leukemia
 lymphoma
 sepsis, which is a severe type of infection
 vitamin B-12 deficiencies

Doctors may continually monitor white blood cells to determine if the body is
mounting an immune response to an infection.

White blood cell test

During a physical examination, a doctor may perform a white blood cell count (WBC)
using a blood test. They may order a WBC to test for, or rule out, other conditions that
may affect white blood cells.

Although a blood sample is the most common approach to testing for white blood
cells, a doctor can also test other body fluids, such as cerebrospinal fluid, for the
presence of white blood cells.

A doctor may order a WBC to:

  test for allergies
 test for infection
 test for leukemia
 monitor the progression of certain conditions
 monitor the effectiveness of some treatments, such as bone marrow transplants

Conditions affecting the white blood

cells
The following are conditions that may impact how many white blood cells a person
has in their body.

Aplastic anemia

This is a condition wherein a person’s body destroys stem cells in the bone marrow.

Stem cells are responsible for creating new white blood cells, red blood cells, and
platelets.

Evans syndrome

This is an autoimmune condition wherein the body’s immune system destroys healthy
cells, including red and white blood cells.
HIV

HIV can decreaseTrusted Source the amount of white blood cells called CD4 T cells.
When a person’s T cell count drops below 200Trusted Source, a doctor might
diagnose AIDS.

Leukemia

Leukemia is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow. Leukemia
occurs when white blood cells rapidly produce and are not able to fight infections.

Primary myelofibrosis

This condition causes a person’s body to overproduceTrusted Source some types of

blood cells. It causes scarring in a person’s bone marrow.

How to raise or lower white blood cell

count
Whether or not a person needs to alter their white blood cell count will depend on the
diagnosis.

If they have a medical condition that affects the number of white blood cells in their
body, they should talk to a doctor about the goals for their white blood cell count,
depending on their current treatment plan.

A person can lower their white blood cell count by taking medications such as
hydroxyurea or undergoing leukapheresis, which is a procedure that uses a machine to
filter the blood.
If a person’s white blood cell count is low due to cancer treatments such
as chemotherapy, a doctor may recommend avoiding foods that contain bacteria. This
may help prevent infections.

A person can also take colony-stimulating factors. These may help prevent infection
and increase the number of white blood cells in the body.

Summary
White blood cells are an important part of the body’s immune system response. There
are different types of white blood cell, and each has a specific function in the body.

Certain conditions can affect the number of white blood cells in the body, causing
them to be too high or too low.

If necessary, a person can take medication to alter their white blood cell count.

How to stay healthy with a

weak immune system
The immune system protects the body from infection.
A person with a weak immune system may be more
prone to frequent infections.
White blood cells, antibodies, and other components, including organs and lymph
nodes, make up the body’s immune system.

Many disorders can weaken the immune system and cause a person to become
immunocompromised. These disorders can range from mild to severe. Some are
present from birth, while others result from environmental factors.

They include:

 HIV
 certain types of cancer
 malnutrition
 viral hepatitis
 some medical treatments

People with a weak immune system have a higher risk of experiencing frequent
infections and severe symptoms.

They may be more prone to pneumonia and other conditions. Bacteria and
viruses, including the virusTrusted Source that causes the infection COVID-19, can
have a devastating effect on a person with a compromised immune system.

In this article, we look at the signs and symptoms of a weak immune system and offer
some tips that can help a person stay healthy.
Signs and symptoms of a weak
immune system

Share on Pinterest Practicing good hygiene can help a person avoid infections.

The primary symptom of a weakened immune system is susceptibility to infection.

A person with a weakened immune system is likely to get infections more frequently
than most other people, and these illnesses might be more severe or harder to treat.

These individuals may also find themselves dealing with an infection that a person
with a stronger immune system would not get.

Infections that people with a weak immune system often get include:

 pneumonia
 meningitis
 bronchitis
  skin infections

These infections may recur with a high frequency.

People with a weak immune system may also be more likely to experience:

 autoimmune disorders
 inflammation of the internal organs
 blood disorders or abnormalities, such as anemia
 digestive issues, including loss of appetite, diarrhea, and abdominal cramping
 growth and developmental delays, in infants and children

A doctor can do a baseline blood test to identify whether a person has a weak immune
system. The test will show whether a person has antibodies in the normal range.

Tips to stay healthy

People who have a weak immune system can take several steps to maximize their
chances of staying healthy and avoiding infections.

Good hygiene

One of the easiest ways for a person with a weak immune system to stay healthy is by
practicing good hygiene, which includes washing the hands frequently. The Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)Trusted Source recommend washing the
hands at the following times:

 before, during, and after preparing meals and snacks

 before eating
  after blowing the nose, sneezing, or coughing
 before and after treating a cut or another open skin wound
 after having contact with someone who is unwell
 after using or helping a child use the bathroom
 after changing a diaper
 after touching an animal or animal food or waste
 after touching garbage

Proper hand washing significantly reduces illnesses. According to the CDCTrusted

Source, hand washing decreases infectious diarrhea cases by 58% in people with a
weak immune system.

The CDC also state that hand washing with soap and water can help protect children
and minimize the number of deaths from pneumonia and diarrheal disease in those
under the age of 5 years.

Avoid people who are sick

People with a weak immune system should avoid being too near to anyone who has a
cold or another infection.

Viruses and other infectious illnesses can spread from person to person through close
contact. They can also spread in the water droplets that a person expels into the air
when they cough or sneeze.

It is not always possible to avoid people who are ill. However, a person with a weak
immune system should always avoid close contact, such as hugging or kissing, with
the unwell person until the illness resolves. They should also avoid sharing food and
beverages with the person.
Self-isolate during the COVID-19 pandemic

People with a weakened immune system have a higher risk of developing severe
symptoms of COVID-19 after exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

The CDCTrusted Source urge people with an increased risk to:

 stay at home if possible during the pandemic

 wash their hands frequently
 try to keep 6 feet away from other people
 clean and disinfect surfaces often
 seek medical help if health issues arise
 stay in touch with family, caregivers, and others who can help deliver necessary
items and take action if the person gets sick

Click here to learn how the new coronavirus spreads.

Disinfect household objects

Germs that have the potential to cause illnesses can live on some surfaces and items in
the home, such as doorknobs and remote controls. A person can reduce the number of
germs that inhabit these areas and objects by disinfecting them regularly.

Follow a doctor’s advice on vaccines

Doctors generally recommend that most people stay up to date with their vaccines.

However, they may advise a person with a weak or compromised immune system to
delay or not receive certain shots.
If a short-term illness or a medication is responsible for the weak immune system, the
person may be able to have the vaccine once the illness has resolved or they have
stopped the treatment.

Examples of vaccines that doctors may recommend delaying or avoiding include:

 MMR vaccine against measles, mumps, and rubella

 live flu vaccine
 MMRV vaccine, which combines the MMR vaccine with a varicella-zoster
(chickenpox) vaccine
 rabies vaccine

The CDCTrusted Source recommend a vaccination schedule that most people should

try to follow. However, people with a weak immune system should check with a
doctor which vaccines are safe for them to have and then follow the doctor’s
recommendations. Vaccines can prevent a person from getting seriously ill.

Manage stress

Stress can weaken the immune system further and make a person more susceptible to
illness.

Some researchTrusted Source shows that a person who is under excessive stress is

more likely to get sick.

People with a weak immune system should take steps to manage their stress. Practices
that may reduce and manage stress include:

 yoga
 meditation
 massage
  spending time pursuing hobbies
 staying in touch with friends, relatives, and others who can offer support

Get enough sleep

According to research, sleep deprivation has a similar effect on the body’s immune

system as stress. Lack of sleep disrupts the normal production of white blood cells, a
crucial component of the body’s immune system.

According to the CDCTrusted Source, adults should aim for at least 7 hours of sleep
per day, while infants and children need between 8 and 17 hours of sleep, depending
on their age.

Eat a healthful diet

Share on Pinterest
A person with a weak immune system should eat a healthful diet.

Eating a healthful, balanced diet can improve a person’s overall well-being.

For people with a weak immune system, doctors generally recommend a diet that is
rich in vegetables and fruit, which will provide plenty of nutrients.

If a person is very immunocompromised, for example, because they are undergoing

cancer treatment, a doctor may recommend that they take extra steps to avoid
foodborne illnesses.

These may include:

 washing all fruits and vegetables before peeling them

 avoiding undercooked meats, fish, and eggs
 refrigerating food promptly
 choosing pasteurized juices and dairy products over unpasteurized products

Exercise regularly

Regular exercise keeps the body healthy. In addition to strengthening the body,
exercise causes it to release endorphins that reduce stress levels. However, those with
a weak immune system should be careful not to push themselves too hard, as this can
weaken the immune system further.

Therefore, people with a weak immune system may wish to avoid exercising:

 at too high an intensity

 too frequently
 for extended periods without stopping to rest
However, regular, low intensity exercise is likely to be beneficial.

Consider taking supplements

Some vitamins and minerals affect the immune system. For example, a person who
has a vitamin C deficiency can have weakened immunity.

Other vitamins and minerals that can affect immune function include:

 vitamin A
 vitamin D
 vitamin E
 iron
 folic acid
 zinc

It is worth noting that while certain nutrients are essential for supporting the immune
system, they will not cure or prevent any disease.

It is best to get nutrients from dietary sources where possible, but if this proves
challenging, supplements may help with immunity.

Many different supplements, including multivitamins, are available to purchase in

health stores or online.

Takeaway
The immune system is a complex system of blood cells and organs, and it protects the
body from harmful germs that can cause illness. If a person finds that they are
frequently getting infections, they might have a weak immune system.
A person with a weak immune system can take some steps at home to keep
themselves healthy and maximize their immune function.

What are the symptoms

of type 2 diabetes?
Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of
diabetes. It occurs when blood sugar levels rise
due to issues with how the body uses or produces
insulin.

It can appear at any age, but it is more likely to occur after the age of 45
yearsTrusted Source. In 2019, 37.3 million Americans had diabetes, mostly
type 2.

This article examines the early signs and symptoms of type 2 diabetes, the
risk factors, and potential complications.

What is type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetes occurs when a person’s body no longer responds
to insulin correctly. This is called insulin resistance. After some time, the
pancreas makes less and less insulin.

Insulin is a hormone that regulates the movement of blood glucose, or sugar,

into cells, which use it as energy.
When sugar cannot enter cells, too much glucose collects in the blood, and
the body cannot use it for energy.

A doctor may diagnose diabetes if a person’s blood sugar levels are 126

milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl) or above after fasting for 8 hours.

Symptoms

Share on Pin terest Stefania Pelfini, La Waziya Photography/Getty Images

The symptoms of high blood sugar in type 2 diabetes tend to appear

gradually. Not everyone will notice symptoms in the early stages, but they
may appear over time.

If symptoms do occur, they may include the following:

Frequent urination and increased thirst

When too much glucose builds up in the bloodstream, the kidneys cannot

reabsorb it. The body removes the excess glucose in the urine, taking water
from the body with it. This can lead to excessive thirst and the need to drink
and urinate more.

Weight loss

When there is too little insulin, the body may start burning fat and muscle for
energy. This causes weight loss.

Fatigue

When cells lack glucose, the body becomes tired. Fatigue can interfere with
daily life when a person has type 2 diabetes.

Blurred vision

High blood glucose can cause fluid to be pulled from the lenses of the eyes,
resulting in swelling, and leading to temporarily blurred vision.

Infections and sores

A person may notice itching around the penis or vagina or frequent Candida
infections. Infections and sores may take longer to resolve because diabetes
impacts blood circulation.

If people notice these symptoms, they should consult a doctor. Diabetes can
lead to several serious complications. The sooner a person starts managing
glucose levels, the better the chance of preventing complications.
Symptoms in children and teens

Type 2 diabetes is more likely to appear after the age of 45 yearsTrusted
Source, but it can affect children and teens who:

 have a high body mass index (BMI) for their age

 do not do much physical activity
 have high blood pressure
 have a family history of type 2 diabetes
 areTrusted Source Black American, Asian American, Hispanic
American, or Native American

Symptoms will be the same as for adults, as mentioned above.

If a child or teen has these symptoms, they should talk with a doctor. They
may be signs of type 2 diabetes but can also indicate type 1 diabetes.

Type 1 is less common but more likely to affect children and teenagers than
adults.

Learn more about how diabetes affects children and teens and how to spot
the symptoms early.

Symptoms in older adults

Around 29.2% of people aged 65 and above have type 2 diabetes in the

United States. They may have some or all the classic symptoms of type 2
diabetes.

They may also experience one or more of the following:

  flu-like fatigue, which includes feeling lethargic and chronically weak
 urinary tract infections
 numbness and tingling in the hands, arms, legs, and feet due to
circulation and nerve damage
 dental problems, including infections of the mouth and red, inflamed
gums

Early skin symptoms

Diabetes can lead to a range of skin changes, some of which may be early
warning signs.

Examples include:

 acanthosis nigricans, areas of darker, velvety skin, especially on the

neck, elbows, knees, and knuckles
 necrobiosis lipoidica, raised patches that may be yellow, red, brown, or
darker than the surrounding skin and that may become swollen and
hard
 digital sclerosis, when hard, thickening, or swollen skin appears on the
hands, possibly spreading to the arms and elsewhere
 painless blisters that suddenly appear
 wounds that take longer to heal
 frequent skin infections

Prediabetes

A person with prediabetes will not have any symptoms, but they will have
blood sugar levels of 100–125 mg/dl.
Their blood sugar levels are high, but they do not have diabetes. Taking
action at this stage can prevent diabetes from developing.

The Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) estimate that around 96
millionTrusted Source American adults have prediabetes, but 80% do not
know they have it.

Complications
Diabetes may cause a number of health complications if people are unable to
manage it. Many are long term, but some need immediate medical attention.

Emergency complications

Complications can arise quickly if blood sugar rises or falls too far.

Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar, is when blood glucose dips below 70

mg/dlTrusted Source.

This can happen if a person who uses insulin takes more than they need for a
particular time. It can also occur with other medications that treat diabetes,
such as sulfonylureas.

A home blood glucose test can check for hypoglycemia.

It is vital to know the early signs of hypoglycemia, as it can progress quickly,

resulting in seizures and a coma. In the early stages, however, it is easy to
treat.
Symptoms of hypoglycemia include:

 confusion
 dizziness
 feeling faint
 heart palpitations
 rapid heartbeat
 mood changes
 loss of consciousness
 sweating
 clamminess

If symptoms are mild, a person can often resolve low blood sugar levels by
consuming 15 grams (g) of carbohydrates, for example, by consuming:

 4 ouncesTrusted Source of orange juice

 4 glucose tablets
 a tablespoon of honey or sugar

The person should then wait 15 minutesTrusted Source, test their blood
sugar, and if it is still low, repeat the process with another 15 g of
carbohydrates.

When levels return to above 70 mg/dl, the person should eat a meal, to
stabilize their glucose levels.

If glucose levels remain low or symptoms worsen, someone should take the
person to the emergency room.
Anyone who has frequent or severe hypoglycemic episodes should speak with
a doctor, as they may need to adjust their treatment plan.

Hyperglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

If blood sugar levels rise too far, hyperglycemia can result. If a person notices

increased thirst and urination they should check their blood sugar levels.

If the level is above the target level agreed with a doctor, the person should do
some exercise to reduce the level.

However, a person should not exercise if their blood glucose levels are 240
ml/dl or above, as this could be a sign of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).

DKA can develop if a person has hyperglycemia and does not take action to
reduce it. DKA happens when high levels of ketones collect in the blood,
making it too acidic. For this reason, the person should also test their ketone
levels.

Ketoacidosis can lead to:

 difficulty breathing
 a fruity smell on the breath
 a dry mouth
 nausea and vomiting
 coma

A person with these signs and symptoms should seek immediate medical
attention, as DKA can be life threatening.

People who regularly experience high blood sugar should discuss adjusting
their treatment plan with their doctor.
Long-term complications

Keeping blood glucose within target levels can prevent long-term

complications.

Here are some complications that can ariseTrusted Source:

 cardiovascular disease
 high blood pressure
 nerve damage (neuropathy)
 eye damage and vision loss
 kidney disease
 foot problems

Effective management of blood glucose levels can reduce the risk of

complications.

Diagnosis
A doctor can diagnose type 2 diabetes with a range of blood tests
that measureTrusted Source blood glucose levels. Many people discover they
have high blood sugar during a routine screening test, but anyone who
experiences symptoms should see a doctor.
Treatment
Treatment aims to keep blood glucose levels stable at a healthy level and
prevent complications. The main ways to do this are through lifestyle
measures.

These includeTrusted Source:

 following a diabetes meal plan agreed with the healthcare team

 eating plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables
 reaching and maintaining a suitable BMI
 doing physical activity
 getting enough sleep
 avoiding or quitting smoking
 taking medications or insulin as the doctor recommends
 attending routine medical visits and blood tests

Some herbs and supplements may also help.

Find out more about the different types of diabetes and their treatment
options.

Outlook
There is currently no cure for diabetes, but lifestyle measures can help most
people manage their blood sugar levels and reduceTrusted Source the risk of
complications. If these do not help, a doctor may prescribe medication.
People who receive a diagnosis of prediabetes may be able to slow, stop, or
reverse the progress of diabetes.

If a person is unable to manage their blood glucose levels, complications can

arise. Some of these can be life threatening.

Frequently asked questions

Here are some questions people often ask about type 2 diabetes.

What are the warning signs of type 2 diabetes?

Often, the first time a person knows they have type 2 diabetes is after a
routine blood test, possibly for another condition. If symptoms occur, they
include an increased need to urinate, thirst, fatigue, blurry vision, and feeling
hungrier than usual.

How does type 2 diabetes start?

Diabetes startsTrusted Source when the body becomes unable to use insulin

effectively. The body produces more insulin to help the body process glucose
in the blood. Over time, the body can no longer make enough insulin, and
blood glucose levels rise. This can lead to complications.

Can type 2 diabetes be cured?

There is no cure for diabetes, but lifestyle measures, such as exercise and
dietary choices, can help manage it. In some cases, a person may need
medication.
Summary
Type 2 diabetes often has no symptoms in the early stages, and people often
find out they have it during a routine blood test.

If symptoms appear, they include feeling thirsty and needing to urinate more
often, having frequent infections, fatigue, and unexplained weight loss.

Current guidelinesTrusted Source recommend regular screening from the age

of 45 years or younger if an individual has other risk factors, such as obesity.
A doctor can advise on individual needs.

Anyone who has concerns about diabetes should seek medical advice. An
early diagnosis can help slow the progression of type 2 diabetes and prevent
complications.

What conditions may

occur alongside type 2
diabetes?
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is the most
common form of diabetes. With this form of the
condition, the body does not respond as expected
to the hormone insulin. This causes blood sugar
levels to rise, which can damage the body and
result in the development of additional chronic
conditions, or comorbidities.

If a person cannot manage their T2DM well, it can lead to other health

problems and diseases. When someone has two or more conditions at the
same time, a doctor may refer to them as comorbiditiesTrusted Source.

According to a 2019 studyTrusted Source, almost 75% of people with T2DM

had at least one comorbidity during their diagnosis, with 44% having at least
two. A 2021 cross-sectional study found that the prevalence of comorbidities
in those living with T2DM was 93.7%Trusted Source over 8 years.
Additionally, the study notes that the risk of comorbidities increases with age.

In this article, we will explore some of the comorbidities of T2DM, how a

person can prevent T2DM or comorbidities from developing, and how to
manage the condition.
Obesity

Share on Pin terest SolStock/Getty Images

Obesity is a commonTrusted Source condition in the United States. It refers to

when a person has excess weight or body fat that may affect their health.
According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), almost 3
in 4Trusted Source adults in the U.S. over the age of 20 years has overweight
or obesity. Obesity tends to run in families, which often have similar dietary
and exercise habits.

There is a close association between obesity and T2DM. Some evidence

notes that 90% of adults with T2DM have overweight or obesity.

Some researchTrusted Source suggests that the link between obesity and

T2DM may involve high lipid levels impairing the function of the pancreas,
causing it to produce less insulin. Alternatively, the body may also
develop insulin resistance due to the raised lipid levels. However, this
relationship is complex and still requires further research.
Obesity is a modifiable risk factor, meaning a person can manage and prevent
this condition. A nutritious diet and regular exercise can help reduce the risk of
obesity in most people.

Dyslipidemia
Dyslipidemia is the imbalanceTrusted Source of fatty substances known as
lipids. These include:

 triglycerides
 cholesterol
 low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
 high-density lipoprotein (HDL)

Specifically, dyslipidemia in T2DM typically presents with:

 increased plasma triglycerides

 low HDL
 high LDL

According to a 2021 cross-sectional study, just over 32% of individuals with

T2DM had high cholesterol levels, while 57.7% of patients had high LDL
levels. Dyslipidemia is also one of the main causes of cardiovascular diseases
in people with T2DM.
Hypertension
Hypertension occurs when the blood in the body flows at a higherTrusted
Source pressure than typical. Most people will not know they have
hypertension unless a medical professional checks their blood pressure.

Insulin resistance can cause type 2 diabetes, and the resulting high blood
sugars may damage the blood vessels. Due to this, resistance in the
arteries increasesTrusted Source and body fluid volume rises. This causes a
rise in blood pressure to meet the demands of the body.

According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), 2 in 3 people with

diabetes will either report having raised blood pressure or will be taking
medication to lower their blood pressure. Similarly, a 2019 cohort study found
that 85.1%Trusted Source of people with T2DM had hypertension.

Click here to learn more about diabetes and hypertension.

Heart disease
Because T2DM can strain the blood vessels and nerves that control the heart,
it may leadTrusted Source to heart disease over time. Fatty deposits can
develop in the heart’s artery walls and result in increased blood pressure and
the arteries hardeningTrusted Source.

Approximately 30% of people with T2DM have heart disease. A person with

T2DM is twiceTrusted Source as likely to develop heart disease or have a
stroke compared with someone without diabetes. Additionally, their chance of
developing heart disease increases the longer they have diabetes.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)Trusted
Source, a person with T2DM is more likely to develop heart failure. This is
where the heart cannot pump blood as efficiently and can lead to other
consequences, such as swelling in the legs, fluid building up in the lungs, and
difficulty breathing.

Cardiovascular diseases, such as heart attacks and strokes, are also

the main cause of death in people with diabetes.

Kidney disease
The primary role of the kidneys is to filter waste products and extra water out
of the body. They also aid in blood pressure regulation and release hormones.

In T2DM, high blood sugar causes damageTrusted Source to the kidneys’

blood vessels, impairing their function. However, most people with kidney
disease do not have symptoms. According to the National Kidney Foundation,
T2DM is the principal cause of kidney failure.

Click here to learn more about how to prevent kidney damage due to
diabetes.

Mental health
Due to the many requirements of T2DM management, such as blood sugar
level monitoring, insulin dosing, and meal-planning, a person may experience
mental health complications such asTrusted Source:

 depression
 anger
  stress
 anxiety
 suicidal ideation

According to the CDC, people with diabetes are 2–3 timesTrusted

Source more likely to experience depression compared with people without
diabetes. The CDC also notes that only 25–50% of individuals who have
diabetes and develop depression actually receive a diagnosis and treatment.

Sleep disorders
Sleep disturbance affects between 42% and 76.8%Trusted Source of people
with T2DM. Uncontrolled blood sugar levels may resultTrusted Source in
people with T2DM waking up more often and having to urinate more
frequently at nighttime. Additionally, the associated depression with T2DM can
also contribute to the risk of developing sleep disorders.

Common sleep disorders that a person with T2DM may experience can
include:

 Restless leg syndromeTrusted Source: This is where a person may

experience uncomfortable sensations in the leg that results in an
irresistible urge to move them.
 Sleep apneaTrusted Source: This condition causes someone’s
breathing to often stop and restart during asleep.
 InsomniaTrusted Source: This disorder occurs when a person has
trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or getting a good quality of sleep.

Cancer
There is an association between T2DM and the chance of developing some
cancer types, including:

 liver cancer
 pancreatic cancer
 breast cancer
 bladder cancer
 colon cancer

Researchers believe a combination of factors may increase the risk of cancer

development in people with T2DM, including insulin resistance, inflammation,
and overstimulated cell growth.

Prevention and management

There are some things a person with T2DM can do to try and prevent
comorbidities and manage their condition. Someone who
has prediabetes could prevent or delayTrusted Source T2DM. An individual
with T2DM can also use techniques to prevent the development of
comorbidities. Prevention techniques can include:

 joining a diabetes prevention program, which may be able to reduce

their risk of developing T2DM by 58% over 3 years
 taking part in more physical activity
 following a nutritious diet with a focus on whole grains, nuts, legumes,
vegetables, and fruits
 stopping smoking
  losing weight

A person with T2DM should also adhere to treatment plans they discuss with
their medical professional to ensure their condition is well-managed. For
example, a doctor may prescribe metformin for someone with T2DM to help
control their blood sugar.

The ADA has a Living with Type 2 Diabetes Program that can help people
with T2DM learn more about their condition and how to manage it.

Click here to learn more about preventing complications from T2DM.

Summary
T2DM is a form of diabetes that results from the body not responding typically
to insulin. This causes blood sugar levels to rise, which can affect the rest of
the body. This can result in the development of another chronic condition.
When a person has two or more chronic conditions, a doctor may refer to
these conditions as comorbid.

A person with T2DM is more likely to develop comorbidities such as heart

disease, sleep disorders, cancer, obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension.
Someone with T2DM can reduce their likelihood of developing comorbidities
through various methods, including dietary changes, partaking in more
physical activity, following their treatment plan, and managing their weight.

Colonoscopies reduce colon cancer risk, but recent study examines

effectiveness
The symptoms of type 2
diabetes in children
 Symptoms

 Causes

 Risk factors
 Diagnosis

 Treatment

 Prevention

 Complications

 Outlook

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Type 2 diabetes is a chronic condition that can

develop at any age, though it is uncommon before
adolescence. It often has a slow, gradual onset,
which can make it difficult to detect and diagnose
in children.

According to the National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2020Trusted Source,

about 210,000 children and adolescents under the age of 20 years in the
United States have received a diagnosis of diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes is less common than type 1 diabetes in youth. The Statistics
Report shows that doctors in the U.S. diagnosed type 2 diabetes in about
5,758 children and adolescents aged 10–19 years between 2014 and 2015.

The rates of children with type 2 diabetes are increasing along with rises in
those with obesity.

Type 2 diabetes is a lifelong condition that can lead to serious complications if

a person does not receive treatment.

However, with a carefully controlled diet, lifestyle adjustments, and medication

to control blood sugar, the condition can enter long-term remission.

In this article, we look at the effects of type 2 diabetes in children.

Symptoms

Share on Pin terest Phynart Studio/Getty Images

Type 2 diabetes often has a slow, gradual onset. Due to this, symptoms can
be difficult to detect, and some children may have no symptoms at all.

StatisticsTrusted Source show that about 34.2 million people in the U.S. have
diabetes, and 7.3 million of those may not have a diagnosis.

The symptoms are similar in younger children, adolescents, and adults.

Children with type 2 diabetes may experience the following symptoms:

 Increased urination: A child with type 2 diabetes might urinate more

frequently than they did before the condition developed. When there is
an excess of sugar in the blood, the body excretes some of it in the
urine, and excess water follows it.
 Increased thirst: Children with type 2 diabetes might start expressing a
need to drink more than usual. This is because more urination can
cause dehydration, leading to thirst.
 Fatigue: When the body does not use blood sugar effectively, a child
may develop fatigue. The emotional and physical discomfort of living
with the more severe effects of diabetes might also cause persistent
feelings of fatigue.
 Blurred vision: High blood sugar levels can draw fluid from the lenses
of the eyes, making it harder to focus.
 Darkened skin: Insulin resistance might lead to the development of a
skin condition called acanthosis nigricans, which can cause areas of
skin to darken. It often affects the armpits and the back of the neck.
 Slow wound healing: High blood sugar levels can lead to longer
healing times for sores and skin infections.
Causes
Problems with controlling blood sugar, or glucose, characterize diabetes. The
pancreas usually helps a person control their blood sugar by releasing a
hormone called insulin.

Insulin allows blood glucose to enter the cells, leaving the bloodstream and
bringing down a person’s blood sugar level.

In a child or adult with type 2 diabetes, the body either does not produce
enough insulin or develops insulin resistance, in which the cells become less
sensitive to the effects of this hormone.

Type 2 diabetes can develop in anyone, including children. The condition is

more likely to develop in people with overweight or obesity.

In the past, the medical community referred to type 2 diabetes as either adult-
onset or non-insulin-dependent diabetes. However, the condition is occurring
in an increasing number of children and adolescents as rates of
obesity continue to riseTrusted Source.

Risk factors
Obesity increases the risk of type 2 diabetes by causing insulin resistance.
This occurs when organs and tissues do not respond appropriately to insulin
or absorb enough sugar from the blood.

Insulin resistance results in high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia), a lower

tolerance for glucose, more inflammation, and the production of too
much glucose in the liverTrusted Source.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)Trusted
Source, obesity affected about 18.5% of people aged 2–19 in the U.S. in
2015–2016.

The authors of a study from 2017 found that people under 25 years old who
fell into the body mass index (BMI) ranges for obesity were four times more
likely to develop type 2 diabetes than those in lower BMI ranges.

BMI is one method for comparing height and weight to provide an overview of
health, although people should use it more as a general guide than as an
accurate representation.

Secondhand smoke might also be a risk factor, according to a

prospective cohort study from 2013. The researchers looked at the results of a
survey of 37,343 females in France who had provided information on their
exposure to secondhand smoke during their childhood.

Females with parents who smoked tobacco when they were growing up had a
risk of type 2 diabetes that was 18% higher than those whose parents did not
smoke.

Over 75%Trusted Source of children with type 2 diabetes have a close

relative who has it, either due to genetics or shared lifestyle habits. Having a
parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes is linked with an increased risk.

According to the CDCTrusted Source, type 2 diabetes is more common

among people who are African American, Hispanic or Latino American,
American Indian, or Alaska Native. Some Pacific Islanders and Asian
Americans are also at higher risk.
Diagnosis
To diagnose type 2 diabetes, a doctor will ask about the child’s symptoms,
and they may take a blood sample to check glucose levels.

The doctor may also use a simple urine test to screen for sugar in the urine.

In the U.S., blood tests to diagnose diabetes include:

 Fasting blood glucose: Doctors perform this test in the morning when

the child has an empty stomach. A fasting blood glucose result of more
than 126 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl) is an indicator of diabetes.
 Glycated hemoglobin (A1C): This test checks the amount of glucose
that attaches to red blood cells over time. Doctors consider a diabetes
diagnosis if the A1C measurement is greater than 6.5% or 48 millimoles
per liter.
 Random blood glucose: A doctor requests this test at a random time
during the day. The medical community considers someone to have
diabetes if their random blood glucose level is higher than 200 mg/dl.

For a reliable diagnosis, a medical professional may need to perform these

tests on two separate occasions.

A doctor may also request multiple tests to check other factors, such as
glucose tolerance.
Treatment
The treatment for type 2 diabetes is usually similar in children and adults,
including diet, lifestyle, and exercise recommendations, though the FDA have
approved fewer drugs for children.

A child with type 2 diabetes may need to monitor their blood glucose level
regularly.

If a child is unable to do this themselves, a parent or caregiver may need

preparation and training in how to check a child’s blood glucose.

Teachers, coaches, and responsible care providers may also need to know
how to administer insulin for children with type 1 and 2 diabetes who need
daily shots. Other adults who may care for the child, such as a babysitter or
relative, will require similar guidance.

For children with type 2 diabetes who are taking insulin, caregivers may also
need to know how and when to administer glucagon shots in situations where
a child’s blood sugar level drops too far. Glucagon is a hormone that
stimulates the release of stored glucose from the liver. It can be vital for
reversing bouts of hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar.

Daily lifestyle choices are extremely important for children with diabetes.
These include weight management, regular physical activity, and dietary
changes.

Children taking insulin, and perhaps all children with diabetes, should wear
diabetes bracelets that include vital information in case they become
unresponsive during a hypoglycemic episode.
The bracelet should read “diabetes” on one side and provide necessary
details, such as “insulin-controlled,” on the other.

This is especially important for children who are taking insulin because they
may not know the symptoms of hypoglycemia well enough to be able to ask
for help. If a child loses consciousness as a result of low blood sugar, a
diabetes bracelet can help an adult understand the correct medication
necessary for treatment.

A doctor may also prescribe other medications that help the body respond
better to insulin.

The doctor will individualize the treatment and diet plan according to the
child’s age and needs and the severity of the condition.

Prevention
Prevention of type 2 diabetes largely involves developing healthful lifestyle
habits, such as the following:

Maintaining a moderate body weight

Ensuring that body weight stays within a moderate range for a person’s height

and sex can reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

A doctor or dietitian can advise the parent or caregiver and child on target
weight ranges and recommend an individualized program for losing weight, if
necessary.
Eating a well-balanced diet

Each person’s body responds differently to different types of foods and diets,
and there is no single best diet for diabetes.

If a child has type 2 diabetes, doctors typically recommend limiting the intake
of added sugars and carbohydrates with a high ranking on the glycemic index
(GI).

Measuring carbohydrate intake can ensure that a person consumes no more

carbohydrates than the doctor recommends in their individualized diet plan.
No single recommended carbohydrate intake is right for every person.

The type of carbohydrate is also important to consider. GI measures the

speed at which glucose enters the bloodstream after people have eaten a
particular food. Foods with a high GI score cause a quicker increase in blood
glucose levels than those with a low GI.

Low-GI foods include sweet potatoes, most fruits, and oatmeal.

Breads and pastries made with white flour may cause blood sugar spikes.
Instead, a diet for managing type 2 diabetes should include plenty of
vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains. Fruit is a great dessert option for
children or adults with diabetes.

This food range supports more effective blood glucose control.

Exercising

Regular exercise is important for maintaining a moderate weight and overall

good health in children with diabetes.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that children between 5–
17 years of age get at least 60 minutesTrusted Source of moderate or
vigorous physical activity every day. Adults can encourage children to play
outside and engage in sports, if possible.

It may also be helpful for adults to encourage children and adolescents to cut
back on video games, television, and similar devices and to create
opportunities for active time as a family.

Complications
Children with type 2 diabetes are at risk of potentially serious complications,
mostly later in life, including heart disease and stroke. These risks increase if
diabetes is not well-controlled.

Other complications and conditions that medical professionals associate with

type 2 diabetes include:

 high blood pressure

 high cholesterol levels in the blood
 eye damage, or diabetic retinopathy
 nerve damage, or diabetic neuropathy
 kidney damage and failure, or diabetic nephropathy
 pregnancy complications or higher risk pregnancies

Outlook
Type 2 diabetes is becoming more common in children as rates of childhood
obesity continue to increase.
The condition can be challenging to detect and diagnose in children. Doctors
are not yet sure of the long-term effects of having type 2 diabetes at a young
age.

Healthful lifestyle habits, such as a well-balanced diet and plenty of physical

activity, can help prevent and treat type 2 diabetes in children.

It is also essential that caregivers have the right provisions and knowledge to
avoid or respond quickly to emergency situations.

Read this article in Spanish.

Q:
How can I tell if my child has type 1 or type 2 diabetes?

A:
Symptoms of type 1 and type 2 diabetes are similar in many ways, and it is
not always immediately possible to tell which type a child has.

Even though the rate of type 2 diabetes is increasing faster than type 1, it is
type 1 diabetes that is still more common in children. Children with type 1
diabetes are more often at a moderate weight or have lost weight, but children
with overweight can develop type 1 diabetes, too.

Children with type 1 diabetes usually develop symptoms more quickly, and
they are often more ill than children with type 2 diabetes when doctors
diagnose them. Talk to a doctor if a child has new symptoms of increased
thirst or urination, unexplained weight loss, or if there are other concerns
about symptoms of diabetes.

SOURCES
 

Symptoms and
complications of diabetes
In a person with diabetes, the body stops
producing insulin or can no longer produce or use
it effectively. As a result, blood sugar levels rise,
leading to various symptoms and complications.

Insulin is essential for processing glucose and enabling it to enter the cells of
the body, where it provides energy.

People with type 1 diabetes do not produce insulin at all, because their

immune system has attacked and destroyed the cells in the pancreas that
produce insulin.

Those with type 2 and gestational diabetes do not make enough insulin, or

their body cannot use it effectively.

Recognizing and treating the symptoms of diabetes early can help a person
manage blood sugar levels. Preventing high glucose can prevent
complications from developing.

For an overview of everything you need to know about diabetes, click here.

Common symptoms

Share on Pin terest Fatigue is a common symptom of diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes symptoms often appear rapidly, over a number of weeks.

Type 1 often starts in childhood or adolescence, but it can occur at any age.

Type 2 usually develops over a number of years and usually starts after the
age of 45 years, although it can appear earlier.

They are different conditions, but they both involve problems with insulin,
which leads to an inability to process blood sugar, or glucose.

As a result, there will too much glucose in the blood and too little energy in the
body’s cells.

The symptoms of diabetes include:

  blurred vision
 fatigue
 increased hunger and thirst
 frequent urination
 numbness or tingling in the hands and feet
 sores that do not heal
 unexplained weight loss

Many of these symptoms occur as a result of the body trying to generate

energy despite reduced or misused blood sugar.

For example, a person may experience fatigue and hunger because they
cannot absorb enough energy from the foods they eat. They may urinate and
feel thirsty more often, as too much glucose can cause the body to get rid of
large amounts of fluid.

Some people with type 2 and gestational diabetes may not show symptoms.
Their doctor might identify high blood sugar levels by performing a blood
glucose test or a hemoglobin A1C test. However, if blood glucose levels rise
too far, symptoms will appear. In addition, persistent high blood sugar can
lead to serious complications.

Anyone who believes they might have symptoms of diabetes should speak to
a doctor.

A person can check their own blood glucose levels at home, using a glucose
monitor. These are available for purchase online.
Complications
Having too much sugar in the blood — known as hyperglycemia — is toxic to
the body.

It can lead to complications, including:

 Heart disease: According to the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC), heart disease is the leading cause of death Trusted
Source in people with diabetes. Diabetes can damage the blood vessels
and lead to heart attack and stroke.
 Neuropathy: High blood glucose levels can result in diabetic
neuropathy, another name for nerve damage. There are different types
Trusted Source of neuropathy, and they can affect any part of the body.
Peripheral neuropathy is common in people with diabetes. It affects the
feet and hands. Together with poor circulation, this results in poor
wound healing. Infections and ulceration can develop. Without rapid
treatment, tissue death can occur, and amputation may be necessary.
 Gastroparesis: Damage to the Vagus nerve, which sends signals to
the digestive tract, can affect the stomach’s ability to empty. Symptoms
include nausea, heartburn, weight loss, bloating, and loss of appetite.
 Gum disease and dental decay: Diabetes reduces the ability of the
mouth and gums to heal and fight infections. Medications for managing
diabetes might also lead to dry mouth as a side effect. These factors
increase the risk of tooth decay and oral infections.
 Kidney disease: According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC), an estimated 33 percent Trusted Source of people
with diabetes have chronic kidney disease. Diabetes can also damage
blood vessels in the kidneys, impairing function. The kidneys play a vital
role in balancing fluid levels and removing waste from the body. Kidney
health is therefore vital for preserving overall health.
  Infections: A person with diabetes is more prone to infections. It can
take longer to recover, and the symptoms can become more severe
more quickly than in people without diabetes. An untreated infection can
lead to sepsis or other problems. People should take care to avoid any
type of infection, where possible.
 Vision problems: High blood sugar levels can damage the eyes and
cause vision loss Trusted Source. Retinopathy affects blood vessels in
the retina, behind the eye. Other problems include diabetic
macular edema (DME), cataracts, and glaucoma. High blood
pressure and high cholesterol — which often occur with diabetes — can
make this worse. The CDC estimate that early treatment can prevent or
reduce the risk of blindness in around 90 percent Trusted Source of
people with diabetes.
 Depression: Researchers have identified a strong link between
diabetes and depression. While this may be a result of managing life
with a chronic condition, they might also share similar mechanisms
Trusted Source in the body. Diabetes and depression also often make
each other worse when they occur at the same time.
 Diabetic ketoacidosis: Very high blood sugar levels that last for a long
time can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), in which the blood
becomes too acidic. This can be life-threatening without treatment. A
dry mouth, shortness of breath, and fruity smelling breath are
symptoms. A diabetic coma may result.
 Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar can occur in a person who uses
insulin, for example, if they take too much for their current needs. A
person can resolve this by eating something sweet. Without treatment, it
can lead to a diabetic coma, which can be life-threatening.

Some of these can lead to a diabetic emergency, which needs immediate

medical attention.
Not everyone with diabetes will experience these complications. However,
they are more likely to occur if a person does not take action to prevent them
including following the doctor’s instructions and managing their blood sugar
levels.

Gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes can occur during pregnancy. It usually resolves after an

infant is born, but it also increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the
future.

However, despite the limited duration of gestational diabetes, it still has the
potential to cause complications in both mother and child.

Women with gestational diabetes face a higher risk of preeclampsia, a type of

high blood pressure that can lead to severe problems in pregnancy, including
premature birth and seizures.

Infants born to mothers with gestational diabetes are usually larger and have
a higher risk of birth-related trauma and congenital anomalies.

If pregnancy is on the horizon or currently in progress, talk to a doctor about

gestational diabetes and ways to manage it.

Prevention
Share on Pin terest Exercise is a great way to reduce the risk of diabetes.

It is not possible to prevent type 1 diabetes. A healthful diet, regular exercise,

avoiding smoking, and attending screening can help to prevent type 2.

However, even after having a diagnosis of diabetes, a person can take

measures to slow the progression of the disease and prevent complications.

People with type 1 need to manage their glucose levels through treatment
with insulin, but they should also make choices that enable them to stay
healthy overall.

If a person receives a diagnosis of prediabetes or type 2, a healthful lifestyle

can still help to slow the progression of diabetes and possibly reverse it.

Eating food that contains plenty of fiber and useful nutrients, rather than
sugary drinks and processed foods — which provide calories but no have no
nutritional value — is an effective way to moderate blood sugar. A low-sugar,
heart-healthy diet, such as the DASH diet, can help.

Exercise is a great way to ensure that the body is using blood glucose and
removing it from the blood. It also generally strengthens the heart and blood
vessels, protecting it against some of the more severe complications of
diabetes.

Avoiding tobacco use, drug misuse, and limiting alcohol intake can help
reduce the risk of diabetes and its complications. These all put a strain on the
kidneys, liver, and heart, and increase the risk of complications.

Weight management for people with a high BMI can help. A doctor can

advise on this.

Regular health checks and screening can ensure timely treatment for high
blood sugar levels or other features. For type 2, the CDC recommend starting
screening from the age of 45 years Trusted Source or younger if a person has
risk factors, such as a family history of diabetes or obesity.

Takeaway
Type 1 diabetes always causes symptoms. Type 2 and gestational diabetes
may not produce symptoms. Effective management of blood sugar levels can
help manage and minimize symptoms.

When symptoms occur, they include exhaustion, nausea, frequent urination,

hunger, thirst, numbness in the extremities, and blurred vision.

Without treatment, complications can develop. These can be severe and, on

occasion, life-threatening.
Anyone who believes they have symptoms of diabetes or may be at risk of
developing it should speak to a doctor.

Q:
I have type 1 diabetes. How do I manage these symptoms and avoid the more
severe complications?

A:
Most people with type 1 diabetes see an endocrinologist to help manage their
glucose as effectively as possible.

Endocrinologists are the best source of information on newer interventionism

such as continuous blood glucose monitoring and closed loop pumps. They
can help you decide what is best for you and your lifestyle.

As well as controlling glucose levels, your doctors will monitor you for
complications, using routine eye exams, blood pressure check, and urine
protein and cholesterol checks, alongside regular foot exams to detect
neuropathy.

Not smoking is also critical to prevent complications.