MODULUS

Society of Structural Engineers - Sri Lanka

Established in July 1993
incorporated by parliament act. No. 40 in 2009
Vol. 32, No. 2 Society News & Technical Papers JUNE 2022
 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol. 32 No. 02 EDITOR’S MESSAGE
EDITOR’S MESSAGE knowledge sharing process to overcome the challenges to
be faced. Any new techniques, modified practices,
enhanced technologies utilized in projects and found to be
“Brain drain: a solution or a disaster?” fruitful and worth sharing with your community are
welcome to be forwarded to the editor of SSESL to be
The term brain drain implies a situation where a published in future editions of Modulus.
large number of educated and highly skilled people leave
their own country to live and work in another where salary
and living conditions are better. Traditionally brain drain
has been considered a disaster since migration of high Eng. (Dr) H.M.Y.C. Mallikarachchi
skilled workers would diminish the socio-economic growth BSc Eng. (Hons), PhD (Cambridge),
rate of a country. In fact, some consider this to be a CEng, MIE(SL), MSSE(SL)
misdemeanour as products of free education abandon the Editor,
very own people who supported them (as Sri Lankan Society of Structural Engineers,
taxpayers) and leave to serve another nation. Sri Lanka.
However, with the recent economic crisis, even e-mail: [email protected]
the government was forced to promote working abroad.
Lack of foreign exchange leading to fuel and power
deficiencies has sent trimmers across all disciplines. Not
being able to supply essential raw materials and ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
infrastructure facilities (including electricity and
transportation) leads to idling of high skilled human The Editor wishes to thank authors of the research
resources while the government must bear a significant articles, Eng. N. Abeysuriya for providing the write up
payroll budget. for the cover story, Mrs. S. L. Jayawardana for
Most infrastructure development projects are on designing the cover page and Eng. Sasanka Tharaka for
hold at present and hence many in the construction industry their contribution in preparing the Modulus.
either lost their jobs or were faced with pay cuts.
Furthermore over 300 civil engineering graduates are
produced annually from the public university system alone. The statements made or opinions expressed in the
At a time, its members are faced with great difficulties Modulus do not necessarily reflect the views of the
professional bodies must step forward. Prevailing Society of Structural Engineers, Sri Lanka the Modulus.
conditions of the industry should be assessed in detail and
the membership (especially the young engineers) must be
guided to plan for a better future. SSESL would like to
encourage its members to initiate such endeavours.
Modulus always has been a great medium of
knowledge sharing on the latest technological
advancements and best practices among the members of
SSESL. This edition of Modulus consists of three technical
papers. Restoration of water tanks using carbon fibre
reinforced polymer technology is presented by taking a 20
years old equalization tank as a case study in the Engineers’
Forum. An introduction to modelling fracture of graphene
using molecular dynamics approach and effect of tendon
layout for deflection in bonded post-tensioned slabs are
presented in the Research Forum.
The SSESL conducted a preparatory course for the
chartered membership examination of the Institution of
Engineers, UK in order to expand the horizon of Sri Lankan
structural engineers. The upcoming eight-day structural
design course on the design of steel portal frames is
targeted to enhance the steel design knowledge of local
engineers with respect to Eurocodes. Further, the SSESL
conducted four Question Time Sessions during the year
2022 and abstracts are called for the Annual Sessions 2022
to be held on the 23rd of August at the Cinnamon Grand,
Colombo.
We believe that the efforts made by the SSESL in
different forms will benefit our members and anticipate that
our audience will similarly contribute towards the
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA ________________________________________________________________________1
 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol. 32 No. 02 CONTENT & COVER STORY

CONTENT Basic information of the project is mentioned below.

Developer : Belluna Company Ltd., Japan

Cover Story 02 Architectural Consultant : PWA Architects
Structural Consultant : NCD Consultants (Pvt) Ltd.
Structural Design Review : Ove Arup & Partners Limited.
Society News
Project Management Consultants: Promap (Pvt) Ltd.
a. Preparatory course for the “Chartered 03 MEP Consultant : Haritha Consultants (Pvt) Ltd.
membership examination of the Institution Main Contractor : Sanken Construction (Pvt) Ltd.
of Structural Engineers, UK” Piling Contractor : Nawaloka Piling (Pvt) Ltd.
b. Course on “Design of steel portal framed Project Value : LKR 6.5 Billion
03
Buildings”
c. Question Time Sessions 03
d. Annual Sessions 04

Engineers Forum

a. Restoration of an equalization tank using 05-09

carbon fibre reinforced polymer technology:
A case study
K. Thushanthan, W.C.V. Fernando and
J.C.P.H. Gamage

Research Forum

b. Modelling fracture of graphene: A molecular 10-12

dynamics tutorial
M.A.N. Dewapriya

c. Effect of tendon layout for deflection in 13-20

bonded post-tensioned slabs
M.O.M. Lambert, S. Bandara and
U.I. Dissanayake

COVER STORY
Union Place Apartments (Luna Tower) is a 44
storied (50 Floor Levels) luxury apartment complex with
202 numbers of apartments and 10 parking floors including
a basement. The building is situated in the Union Place,
near Ibbanwala junction. This location and the orientation
of the buildings allows the occupants to experience
different appealing views of Indian Ocean, Beira Lake and
the Colombo city.
Some of the Key Architectural features and
facilities of this building are Rooftop infinity pool, Club
house, Gymnasium, Green Wall, Kids pool and Garden
Terrace at 7th Floor. Among many key structural features
of this building, Transfer Floor at 8th Floor obtains a
significant place. This 2m deep Transfer Floor
differentiates the structural wall layouts of below level car
parking floors and above level apartment floors.
The substructure of this building consists of a
pile raft foundation and the depth of the raft slab is 2m.
During the basement excavation and construction, micro
piles were used as the retaining structure. The building
Facade is decorated with an Aluminum and Glazing curtain
wall which provides an iconic view to the building.

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 MODULUS | June 2022 SOCIETY NEWS
Vol. 32 No. 02

SOCIETY NEWS Course on “Design of steel portal framed

buildings”
Preparatory course for the “Chartered An eight-day structural design course on “Design of steel
membership examination of the Institution of portal framed buildings” will be organized by the Society,
Structural Engineers, UK” starting from 1st of July to 23rd July 2022. The course will
be conducted on a virtual platform. This course is designed
The Society held a two-day preparatory course for the by the society for the structural design engineers who
“Chartered membership examination of the Institution of possess a minimum of one year of experience in a
recognized design office.
Structural Engineers, UK” on 7th and 14th May 2022 via a
virtual platform. Eng. Rajavel Inbarajan; who is a renowned The objective of the course is to enable structural engineers
independent Engineering Consultant and Chief Examiner to adopt Eurocodes for the design of industrial steel
of CME offered his knowledge and experiences as the buildings and foundations.
resource person of the course. Prof. W.P.S. Dias facilitated
the organizing activities as the country representative of the Content of the course will include; Brief review of steel
structural elements and connection design to Eurocode,
Institution of Engineers, UK.
Guidance on the analysis and design of steel portal frames
to Eurocode and Guidance on the analysis of foundation to
The course targeted the aspiring young and senior engineers Eurocode.
who wish to enhance and improve their skills in structural
analytical and conceptual design of structures. Thus, the Eng. Dr M.T.P. Hettiarachchi and Eng. Ayingaram
course was attempted to illustrate required structural design Thevathasan will be sharing their expertise as Resource
skills, ability in conceptualizing distinct and viable Persons.
structural schemes and producing annotated
Question Time Sessions
sketches/drawings for a given task based on some of the
past CME questions from real projects around the world. Following QT Sessions were conducted by the Society for
the year 2022.
The contents of the course included: Functional framing,
Load transfer, Serviceability and stability aspects of Resource
schemes, Review and critical appraisal of schemes, Letter Month Topic Sponsor
Person
writing, Design of structural elements, Drawings for Conceptual
estimation, Method statement & construction programme, Eng.
Design of Nippon
Conceptual design process, Structural systems for concrete January Ayingaran
Façade and its Paint
and Steel structures, Foundation & retaining wall systems, Thevathasan
Maintenance
Analytical and design tools, Water retaining February Shear Dr. Jochen WURTH
/basement/underground structures, Guide to robustness and retrofitting of Buhler
disproportionate collapse and Possible Solution for CME reinforced
Past Questions. concrete
elements
April Comprehensive Eng. Samitha Tokyo
concrete Jayakody Cement
technology and Group
best practices
May Learning from Eng. Yasoja GTB
challenges in Gunawardena Steel
design and
construction

Conceptual Design of façade and its

Maintenance
Eng. Ayingaran Thevathasan was the resource person for
the first Question Time (QT) organized by the SSESL for
the year 2022. QT was successfully held on 25 January
2022 at 5.00 pm as an online event.

Eng. Ayingaran deliver the presentation on Conceptual

Photograph 01 – Preparatory course Design of Façade and its Maintenance. Cladding, canopies,

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 MODULUS | June 2022 SOCIETY NEWS
Vol. 32 No. 02

eaves of the roof, external screens, green walls, conceptual His presentation focused on the knowledge and experience
design of Aluminium sections and glass sections and he gathered while working on major projects and the
maintenance work were discussed during the presentation. challenges faced during the project execution processes.

Further, he shared his experience in Aesthetic performance, Eng. Yasoja discussed the construction stage effect and
structural performance, weather performance appropriate use of codified guidelines, use of post-pour
acoustic/thermal performance, fire safety and lightning cooling measures to control maximum temperature during
protection of façade systems. curing of mass concrete elements and extreme variation of
bearing rock levels.

Shear Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete

Elements Annual Sessions
Annual Sessions of the Society of Structural Engineers - Sri
The second Question Time event conducted by the SSESL Lanka is scheduled to be held on 23rd August 2022.
was held on 22 February 2022 at 5.00 pm as an online event. Technical Publications in different areas of structural
engineering will be made at the annual sessions.
Dr Jochen Buher delivered the presentation and he shared
his knowledge and experience in the field of shear The annual session provides the opportunity for civil
retrofitting. engineering students, academics, researchers and practising
engineers to share their knowledge and experience on the
Requirement of doing structural strengthening, shear themes related to structural engineering applications.
behaviour of the structural elements, strengthening of shear
and punching shear and components that are used in the The best paper will be awarded the Professor Raghu
shear enhancement process were discussed in his Chandrakeerthy Gold Medal at the Annual General
presentation. Meeting to be held at the end of the year
Further, he explained the design for shear resistance with
the strengthening system. In addition, he discussed the
punching improvement method and its technical
background while explaining the design process. Finally,
he concluded the presentation after elaborating on the
available testing procedures to verify the strength
developments.

Comprehensive Concrete Technology and

Best Practices
Third Question Time was organized by the Society of
Structural Engineers, Sri Lanka was successfully held on 26
April 2022 at 5.00 pm as a physical event.

Eng. Samitha Jayakody was the resource person and his

presentation was focused on Comprehensive Concrete
Technology & Best Practices. Eng. Samitha shared his
experience gained working on major construction projects.

Construction-related issues identified and handled during

the concreting of major projects, construction panning such
projects, innovative techniques used during the project
execution, etc. were discussed.

Learning from Challenges in Design and

Construction
Eng. Yasoja Gunawardena was the presenter for the
Question Time conducted by the SSESL for the month of
May. The event was held on 31 May 2022 at 5.00 pm as an
online event.

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 ENGINEERS’ FORUM

Restoration of an equalization tank using Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Technology: A case study
K Thushanthan1, W C V Fernando2, J C P H Gamage3

Abstract
Case studies in the field of civil engineering help to improve engineering design practices and construction techniques.
Industrialization and advancement in civilization require advanced construction techniques and materials. However,
there are limitations to use the full capacity in service which should be addressed with applications and performance in
real structure with time. Testing the long-term behaviour of such materials in laboratories is not practically feasible.
Hence, studying real-life experiences is crucial with the acceptance of a new system to prevent failures, improve
performance while maintaining economical design and applications. This paper describes a renovation process of a
heavily degraded equalization tank that has been in operation for 20 years. The identification of root cause, analysis, and
design to restore the structural elements using Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) externally bonded technique and
practical implementations are presented in this paper.

used for the FRP application however selection of these

1. Introduction fibers depends on the application and cost. Since Carbon is
Humankind has been learning through numerous failures fairly resistant to the corrosive environment it is the most
ever since its existence, whether it can be a simple failure commonly used fiber type in the construction industry.
of a mud-straw hut or a failure of a multimillion-dollar Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) can be used in
investment like the Tacoma Narrows bridge in 1940 [1]. the form of fabric or laminate however selection of the type
The field of engineering progresses with the study of can vary according to the location, cost, and strength
failure mechanics to develop new concepts with improved requirement [7-8].
performance. These designs published as case studies are However, the possibility of using the structure while
good examples that have also been used in structural retrofitting using FRP, applications without machinery,
engineering to educate young engineers about the failure and strengthening without adding self-weight to the
mechanisms. Hence, the case studies help to shape the existing structural members are attractive factors of using
future structures directing to a safe, livable, affordable, and FRP in this project. The paper describes a successful
sustainable approach. renovation approach that has been implemented to restore
Several materials have been used in the civil engineering this equalization tank in a wastewater treatment plant in Sri
industry however concrete is considered the prime Lanka using CFRP materials.
construction material as its durability and low cost make it
suitable for construction all around the world. Concrete 2. Condition before Strengthening and
structures can last long in normal environmental conditions Process of Degradation
but the durability of these structures can degrade in some
circumstances; exposure to marine environments [2-3], The equalization tank considered in this study is shown
freeze and thaw cycles [4], and acidic environments [5-6]. in Figure 1. and Figure 2. This tank consists of 3 equal
The alkaline nature of concrete makes [6] it vulnerable to compartments and each compartment has been used to
acidic environment, especially the presence of sulfuric acid store the wastewater before sending it to the aeration tank.
which is common in the wastewater treatment plant, sewer The plan view of the tank is shown in Figure 3. All of the
pipes, and acidic soil [6]. Since these structures are mostly
enclosed or placed beneath the ground level and difficult to
assess the degree of damage to restore with optimum
service performance.
Retrofitting techniques revolutionized since the
introduction of Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRP) into
the civil engineering industry as their superior
characteristics like high strength-to-weight ratio and
stiffness made them popular among engineers [7]. Carbon,
Glass, Aramid, and Basalt fibers are the most commonly

1
Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa,
Sri Lanka Figure 1. Top view of the equalization tank
2 School of Civil Engineering and Surveying, University of
Southern Queensland, Springfield, Brisbane, Australia compartments in this tank were not designed to be filled
3 Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of fully by wastewater due to an allocated freeboard which
Moratuwa, Sri Lanka was designed to maintain even though all three tanks are in
operation. However, the freeboard height can change with

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 ENGINEERS’ FORUM
indicates that the corrosion initiated from outside then
progressed into the concrete by disintegrating the outer
layer.

Severe corrosion

Figure 2. Side elevation of the equalization tank

(a) Mild corrosion

(b)
Figure 4. (a) Corrosion on the surface of the wall
(b) Corrosion on the beam

A PVC pipe subjected

lateral deflection due to
change in load path
Figure 3. Plan view of the equalization tank after collapse of an
intermediate column
respect to the wastewater discharge from the factories
which shows a wastewater level fluctuation throughout the
year.

The top of the tank is exposed to an open environment.

Hence the cover slab has been exposed to the cyclic
temperature and humidity while subjected to acidic vapors
at the interior surface. The temperature of the slab inside
the tank can reach more than 40oC during the daytime.
Therefore, the space inside the tank becomes an ideal
breeding place for bacteria, especially the Thiobacillus Figure 5. Change in load path due to column failure
genus – sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) [9]. Nutrients
from the wastewater help the bacteria to thrive and it finally When the wastewater level fluctuates from time to time,
results in sulfuric acid formation on the exposed areas [9- it creates a wet and dry cycle effect on the submerged
10]. Figure 4. shows the corrosion that occurred on the wall surfaces. Hence, this increases the severity of the corrosion
and beam of the compartment within the space provided in by allowing sulfate ions to enter the concrete surface
the freeboard zone. This phenomenon is clearly deeper. Columns were severely affected by this scenario as
distinguished by the level of corrosion between the all four sides of the column were subjected to this cyclic
freeboard zone and the submerged zone which result in exposure. Since the rate of corrosion in these columns is
heavy degradation within the freeboard zone. This relatively high, water ingress throughout the member

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 ENGINEERS’ FORUM
increase with aging. In the presence of acidic medium resistance to chemical attack [13]. Hence it was a challenge
(Sulfuric acid), reinforcement bars corrode rapidly in this project to ensure service performance without the
resulting in volumetric expansion, causing cracks and application of either a waterproofing layer or a protective
spalling out of the concrete cover. This can be clearly seen coat. Elevated temperature curing directly contributes to
by an intermediate column which was severely increase the glass transition temperature of the polymer
disintegrated and separated through the construction joint. bond [14]. Hence, elevated temperature curing was
This had caused more than 300 mm deflection in several selected at 55oC for 1hrs duration to cure CFRP/epoxy
panels of the cover slab and initiated minor concrete bond just after installation [14], expecting about a 10%
crushing of nearby columns due to the change in the increment in the glass transition temperature of the bond
vertical load path. However, no sign of deformation was resulting in a final value of 71.5oC. However, in case of
identified in the reinforced concrete walls. construction difficulties, the expected performance may
reduce. Hence, an additional waterproofed plaster mortar
3. Restoration of Tank with 25 mm thickness was recommended because any
defects in the tank cannot be observed during service due
The main concerns of the project were the restoration of to the tank’s full condition, without any freeboard during
the deflected cover slab and cracks at the joint between the operation.
slab and walls. No signs of failure in the load-bearing Detailed design calculations for CFRP design were
elements and the remaining strength of materials such as carried out in accordance with ACI440.2R guidelines [15].
concrete and reinforcements indicated the possibility of A detailed structural analysis was performed using
strengthening to extend the life span without replacing it commercially available structural analysis software, see
with a new structure. At the initial stage, the tanks were Figure 6 [16]. A combination of CFRP sheets and plates
under operation condition and the internal observations was selected depending on the required strength
were not made to assess the root cause of this degradation. enhancement.
However, the observed signs of deformations indicated a
likelihood of the existence of a sound footing system for 4. Strengthening Procedure
external walls in this structure. Hence, it was predicted that
4.1 Column
a possible settlement in an intermediate columns resulted
in heavy deflections in the several slab panels. Then, the The collected wastewater in the tank was fully drained
next step was to determine the retained strength of out. The observed critical interior deterioration is shown in
materials by in-situ testing done without further disturbing Figure 7. The root cause for the long-term heavy
the structure [11]. The results indicated a possibility of degradation was the separation of an intermediate column
further usage if the capacities of members are restored. The through a construction joint due to chemically concentrated
main concerns were given to enhancing the flexural, shear, long-term water ingress caused by heavy corrosion of
and torsional performance of the cover slab, beams, and the reinforcement. Hence, the load path of the roof slab has
integrity at wall-column intersections and also enhancing been diverted and load sharing of vertical members can be
axial confinement of column after the restoration of clearly seen even by the laterally deformed PVC
members to follow the initially designed load path, downpipes as in Figure 5. The sequential deformations
especially the vertical load transfer of the structure without have caused permanent deformations and material
adding any self-weight to the members in the degradation of the structure. This might be controlled by
strengthening. Since these members are exposed to harsh the maximum flow condition even without a freeboard
environmental conditions, the selected material and throughout the years which facilitates to share the slab load
method should ensure the expected service performance. by the upthrust of the fluid in the tank full condition
resulting in the almost stable condition even with the heavy
3.1 Selection of CFRP material and technique deflections are visible. However, this condition may get
Considering the requirement of high strength to weight
ratio, fatigue, and environmental resistance, CFRP was
selected as the best alternative. The epoxy adhesive used to
create the bond between CFRP and concrete is very
sensitive to elevated temperatures [12]. However, the
increased glass transition temperature beyond the
maximum environmental temperature enhances the

Figure 6. Structural analysis software model of the tank

Figure 7: A deteriorated intermediate column

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 ENGINEERS’ FORUM
worse and consequential deformation might occur under
the tank empty condition. Hence, as the first step, GI pipes
were fixed inside the tank to support the slab to avoid
further deformations under tank empty condition as shown
in Figure 7.
The mid-section of the column was demolished without
damaging the structure and it was re-constructed using
sulfate resisting cement. A CFRP fabric was wrapped
around the column and after the curing period,
waterproofing layers were applied on top of it to insulate
the strengthened column from harsh environmental
conditions that will be faced during operation. The
reconstruction process of the column and column after
waterproofing is shown in Figures 8 and 9, respectively.
4.2 Slab soffit and beam
The soffit of the slab and beam inside the tank were
strengthened using 100 mm wide CFRP fabric strips laid at
100 mm spacing according to the detailed renovation
drawing (Figure 10). A 25 mm thick waterproofed cement
plaster was applied on the strengthened concrete elements Figure 9: Column after strengthening
to protect them from harsh environmental conditions.
4.3 Top of the slab
CFRP laminates and fabric strips were used for the
strengthening on top of the tank due to a requirement of a
high strength gain (Figure 11). Deflected slab area was
initially filled using bricks, and the whole slab area was
leveled using Grade 20 concrete to improve its aesthetic
appearance (Figure 12).

Figure 10: Strengthening the slab panels for sagging

moments using CFRP sheets – interior of tank

(a) (b)

Figure 8. (a) Partially demolished column (b) Column Figure 11: Strengthening the slab panels for hogging
reconstruction process moments using CFRP sheets – exterior of tank

region due to the likelihood of chemically concentrated

5. Conclusions water ingress through the joint which causes corrosion of
Equalization tanks in the wastewater treatment plants are reinforcements in service.
subjected to harsh environmental conditions such as wet ACI 201-2R gives recommendations about the
and dry cycles and acid corrosion. Therefore, the cementitious material for external sulfate attack [17]. This
construction of critical structural elements inside the tank is effective against acidic soil and groundwater having
should comply with the highest standards in terms of sulfate ions. However, in the equalization tank corrosion
concrete and surface protection. The construction joints are mainly occurs due to sulfuric acid vapor, therefore the
to be avoided especially for columns in the submerged

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 ENGINEERS’ FORUM
effectiveness of the application of the ACI code is still not [5] K. Parashar, R. Kumar Dubey, M. Padmaja, K. Phasinam, J. Tracy
Tina Angelina, and P. Gupta, “Effect of succinic acid on
fully adequate. Hence, model testing under accelerated
compression strength concrete material,” Materials Today:
environment was conducted prior to applications in this Proceedings, vol. 51, pp. 314–318, Jan. 2022, doi:
project to verify the effectiveness under service exposure 10.1016/J.MATPR.2021.05.405.
conditions. [6] S. A. Hadigheh, R. J. Gravina, and S. T. Smith, “Effect of acid attack
The material properties of FRP and adhesive should be on FRP-to-concrete bonded interfaces,” Construction and Building
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tested without relying on the technical data sheet provided 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2017.06.140.
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[7] P. Singh et al., “Characterization of wear of FRP composites: A
between provided and tested properties. review,” Materials Today: Proceedings, Apr. 2022, doi:
The glass transition temperature of the adhesive bond is 10.1016/J.MATPR.2022.04.236.
very important to ensure service performance, especially [8] T. Q. Liu, X. Liu, and P. Feng, “A comprehensive review on
for strengthening outdoor structures. Hence, this should be mechanical properties of pultruded FRP composites subjected to
long-term environmental effects,” Composites Part B: Engineering,
measured and verified before applications. Elevated vol. 191, p. 107958, Jun. 2020, doi:
10.1016/J.COMPOSITESB.2020.107958.
[9] M. O’Connell, C. McNally, and M. G. Richardson, “Biochemical
attack on concrete in wastewater applications: A state of the art
review,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 32, no. 7, pp. 479–
485, Aug. 2010, doi: 10.1016/J.CEMCONCOMP.2010.05.001.
[10] E. Stanaszek-Tomal and M. Fiertak, “Biological Corrosion in the
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[11] R Al-Mahaidi, A Shayan, K Gamage, “Strength assessment of
prestressed concrete bridge deck planks damaged by AAR,” ARRB
Conference, 23rd, 2008, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
[12] J. C. P. H. Gamage, R. Al-Mahaidi, and M. B. Wong, “Bond
Figure 12: Equalization tank top after project completion characteristics of CFRP plated concrete members under elevated
temperatures,” Composite Structures, vol. 75, no. 1–4, pp. 199–205,
Sep. 2006, doi: 10.1016/J.COMPSTRUCT.2006.04.068.
temperature curing can be used to raise the glass transition
temperature of the polymeric bond. However, the selection [13] J.C.P.H. Gamage, M.B. Wong, and R. Al-Mahaidi, “performance of
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temperatures.” Proceedings of the international symposium on bond
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[14] E. R. K. Chandrathilaka, J. C. P. H. Gamage, and S. Fawzia,
Hence, sandblasting or water jetting should be carried out “Mechanical characterization of CFRP/steel bond cured and tested
to achieve the optimum bond strength between the CFRP at elevated temperature,” Composite Structures, vol. 207, pp. 471–
and substrate [18]. 477, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.COMPSTRUCT.2018.09.048.

Vulnerable sections such as construction joints should be [15] C. 440, “Aci 440.2R-17,” American Concrete Institute, 2017
protected against water intrusion by providing adequate [16] Midas nGen Design manuel, Midasngen 2020
layers of waterproofing. FRP reinforcement bars can be
[17] C. 201, “Aci 201-2R-08,” American Concrete Institute,2008
used for the construction of structural elements inside the
tank as FRP does not corrode therefore reducing the [18] M.R.E.F Ariyachandra, J.C.P.H Gamage, Riadh Al-Mahaidi, Robin
Kalfat, “Effects of surface roughness and bond enhancing
probability of failure. techniques on flexural performance of CFRP/concrete composites,”
Composite structures, Vol. 178, pp. 476-482, Oct 2017.
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Materials, vol. 321, p. 126371, Feb. 2022, doi:
10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2022.126371.

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Modeling Fracture of Graphene: A Molecular Dynamics Tutorial

M. A. N. Dewapriya1

Abstract
This article describes molecular dynamics simulations of fracture of graphene, which can serve as a tutorial
for new researchers in nanomechanics. Graphene was selected for this tutorial by considering its applications
in numerous engineering disciplines and the convenience of modeling. All required input files to run the
simulations are freely available to the readers.

next section describes the graphene model used for the

1. Introduction1 simulations and some basic simulation parameters and
In many cases, structural failure initiates at the techniques. Results of the MD simulations are presented
nanoscale. For example, a crack initiates by breaking in the third section.
individual atomic bonds. Figure 1 depicts the multiscale
nature of a typical engineering structure. With the 2. MD Simulation Setup
available computational tools, we can start our
The uniaxial tensile tests of graphene were simulated
engineering design at the nanoscale to develop more
using the LAMMPS MD simulator [2]. The interatomic
economical and robust structures.
interactions were described by AIREBO potential [3],
which contains three sub-potentials: the Lennard-Jones
(LJ), torsional, and reactive empirical bond order (REBO)
potentials. The LJ and torsional potentials evaluate the
energy due to the van der Waals and torsional interactions
between atoms, respectively. The REBO potential
expresses energy stored in a bond between atom i and
atom j as

𝐸 =𝑓 𝑟 𝑉 −𝑏 𝑉 (1)

where 𝑉 and 𝑉 are the repulsive and attractive

Figure 1: Multiacale nature of an engineering structure. potentials, respectively; bij is the bond order term, which
The pictures of the Eiffle Tower were from Wikipedia. modifies the attractive potential depending on the local
bonding environment; rij is the distance between the
As recently suggested by Munmulla and Weerasekera atoms i and j, and f(rij) is the cut-off function, which
[1], the field of civil engineering has not greatly limits the interatomic interactions to the nearest
benefitted from emerging technologies such as neighbors. In order to avoid the non-physical strain
nanotechnology. Their study revealed that 0.03% of hardening of the stress-strain curves, the cut-off distance
graphene-oxide (by weight) could significantly improve of the REBO potential was modified to be 2 Å [4].
the compressive strength of cement. Moreover, they The graphene sample used for the simulation is shown
showed that the percentage of oxygen in graphene-oxide in Fig. 2, which contains a central crack (i.e., a row of
has a noticeable influence on the compressive strength of missing hexagons) and four interacting holes. The crack
cement. In addition to the oxygen content, structural length is ~1.8 nm. The planar dimensions of the sample
defects (e.g., cracks and holes) in graphene can influence are 15 nm × 15 nm. Even though smaller samples (e.g.,
the performance of graphene itself as well as its 5 nm × 5nm) can be used to compute the mechanical
composites. In this tutorial, we will use molecular properties of pristine graphene, relatively larger samples
dynamics (MD) simulations to study the effects of are required to model defective graphene due to the
missing atoms (in the form of a crack or holes) on the significant size effects at the atomic scale. For a graphene
strength of a graphene sheet. sample containing a crack, the length and width of the
This tutorial aims to guide new researchers by sample must be kept at more than ten times the half initial
providing them with an overview of conducting proper crack length to avoid the effects of finite dimensions on
MD simulations of the fracture of graphene. The required the simulation results [5]. The MATLAB code
input files to run the MD simulations presented in this “input_files.m” in the GitHub repository generates the
tutorial and the codes to post-process MD outputs are required two LAMMPS input files (“grap-in.in” and
available to the readers on the GitHub repository: “grap-data.data”) for the simulation. The file named
https://github.com/nuwan-d/fracture_of_grahene. The “CH.airebo” is the AIREBO potential file with modified
cut-off distances.
1
Research Associate, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby,
British Columbia, Canada (e-mail: [email protected])

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near the crack tip reduces the crack tip stress field, but a
significant stress concentration can be observed at the
edges of the four holes (Fig. 3b). We have previously
demonstrated that the crack-hole interaction can
significantly improve the fracture stress of graphene [9].
The MATLAB code “stress_distribution.m” available in
the GitHub repository can be used to plot the stress field
obtained from the MD simulations.

Figure 2: The graphene sample used for simulations,

which contains a central crack and four interacting holes.
During the simulation, the average stress of the atoms in
the region marked as far-field atoms were also computed.

Before simulating the uniaxial tensile tests, the graphene

sample was equilibrated for 25 ps; the selected time step
being 0.5 fs. Convergence of total energy was used to
identify the equilibrium state of the graphene sample.
Initial displacement perturbations (~0.001 nm) were
imposed on the atoms along the x-, y-, and z-directions to
facilitate the equilibration [6]. Periodic boundary
conditions were imposed along the x- and y-directions.
The simulations were performed with the isothermal–
isobaric (NPT) ensemble, and the Nośe-Hoover
thermostat was used to keep the temperature at 300 K
during the simulation. After the equilibrium period, the
graphene samples were subjected to strain along the y-
direction (εyy), at a rate of 0.001 ps-1, until fracture.
The virial theorem was used for the calculation of
atomic stress [7]. The averaged virial stress tensor, σij, is
defined as follows:

1 1
𝜎 = 𝑅 −𝑅 𝐹 −𝑚 𝑣 𝑣 (2)
𝑉 2

where i and j are the directional indices (i.e., x, y, and z);

α is a number assigned to an atom, and β is a number Figure 3: Stress distribution of graphene samples
assigned to neighboring atoms of α; 𝑅 is the position of containing (a) a central crack and (b) a central crack and
atom β along the direction i; 𝐹 is the force on atom α four interacting holes.
due to atom β along the direction j; mα and vα are the mass
and the velocity of atom α respectively; V is the total
volume. In volume calculations, the thickness of graphene
3.2 Stress-Strain Curve
was assumed to be 3.4 Å [8]. The fracture of the sample
Figure 4 shows the stress-strain curves of three
was identified by a sudden drop in its stress.
graphene samples. Fracture of the pristine sample occurs
when the average stress of the far-field atoms is 127 GPa,
and the corresponding strain is 0.2. The presence of a
3. Analysis central crack with a length of ~1.8 nm decreases the
3.1 Stress Distribution fracture stress down to 58.9 GPa, and the fracture strain
Figure 3 shows the stress field of two graphene samples down to 0.07. The presence of interacting holes along
when they are subjected to a strain of 0.02. In the case of with the crack further reduces the fracture stress to
an isolated crack (Fig. 3a), the stress concentration near 50.4 GPa and the fracture strain to 0.059. Please see our
the crack tip is significantly high. The presence of holes

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previous publications for more information about the It can be noticed in Fig. 5 that the average stress begins
crack-hole interactions in graphene [9–11]. to drop slightly before the drop of the far-field stress,
which indicates the beginning of the crack propagation.
The value of far-field stress at the initiation of crack
propagation is 57.7 GPa. The computed value for KI is
3.06 MPa√m, which is significantly below the
experimental value (i.e., ~4 MPa√m) [12]. It should be
noted that KI demonstrates a significant size dependence
when the crack length is only a few nanometers [10].

Supporting Information
Please see this GitHub repository for LAMMPS input
files and MATLAB codes to generate input files and post-
process the simulation outputs: https://github.com/nuwan-
d/fracture_of_grahene

Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Professor Nimal
Rajapakse for his support during this work.
Figure 4: Stress-strain curve of three graphene samples.

3.3 Fracture Toughness References

We can compute the mode-I stress intensity factor (KI)
at the onset of crack propagation in the graphene sample [1] T.I. Munmulla, I.R.A. Weerasekera, Nanotechnology for
Structural Applications, MODULUS. 31 (2021).
containing an isolated crack (see Fig. 3a) as follows: [2] A.P. Thompson, H.M. Aktulga, R. Berger, D.S. Bolintineanu,
W.M. Brown, P.S. Crozier, P.J. in ’t Veld, A. Kohlmeyer, S.G.
𝐾 = 𝜎 √𝜋𝑎 (3) Moore, T.D. Nguyen, R. Shan, M.J. Stevens, J. Tranchida, C.
Trott, S.J. Plimpton, LAMMPS - a flexible simulation tool for
particle-based materials modeling at the atomic, meso, and
where a is the half initial crack length, and σf is the continuum scales, Comput. Phys. Commun. 271 (2022) 108171.
average far-field stress at the onset of crack propagation. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpc.2021.108171.
Figure 5 compares the change in average stress of the [3] S.J. Stuart, A.B. Tutein, J.A. Harrison, A reactive potential for
hydrocarbons with intermolecular interactions, J. Appl. Phys. 112
graphene sample and the far-field stress. The MATLAB (2000) 6472–6486. https://doi.org/DOI:10.1063/1.481208.
code “stress_strain_curves.m” in the GitHub repository [4] K.G.S. Dilrukshi, M.A.N. Dewapriya, U.G.A. Puswewala, Size
can be used to plot the stress-strain data extracted from dependency and potential field influence on deriving mechanical
the MD simulation. properties of carbon nanotubes using molecular dynamics, Theor.
Appl. Mech. Lett. 5 (2015) 167–172.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.taml.2015.05.005.
[5] F. Cleri, S.R. Phillpot, D. Wolf, S. Yip, Atomistic Simulations of
Materials Fracture and the Link between Atomic and Continuum
Length Scales, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 81 (1998) 501–516.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1998.tb02368.x.
[6] M.A.N. Dewapriya, A.S. Phani, R.K.N.D. Rajapakse, Influence of
temperature and free edges on the mechanical properties of
graphene, Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 21 (2013) 065017.
[7] A.P. Thompson, S.J. Plimpton, W. Mattson, General formulation
of pressure and stress tensor for arbitrary many-body interaction
potentials under periodic boundary conditions, J. Chem. Phys. 131
(2009) 154107. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3245303.
[8] T. Ohta, Controlling the Electronic Structure of Bilayer Graphene,
Science. 313 (2006) 951–954.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1130681.
[9] M.A.N. Dewapriya, S.A. Meguid, Tailoring fracture strength of
graphene, Comput. Mater. Sci. 141 (2018) 114–121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2017.09.005.
[10] M.A.N. Dewapriya, S.A. Meguid, Atomistic simulations of
nanoscale crack-vacancy interaction in graphene, Carbon. 125
(2017) 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2017.09.015.
[11] M.A.N. Dewapriya, S.A. Meguid, R.K.N.D. Rajapakse, Atomistic
modelling of crack-inclusion interaction in graphene, Eng. Fract.
Mech. 195 (2018) 92–103.
Figure 5: Changes in the average stress of the sheet and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2018.04.003.
the far-field stress. [12] P. Zhang, L. Ma, F. Fan, Z. Zeng, C. Peng, P.E. Loya, Z. Liu, Y.
Gong, J. Zhang, X. Zhang, others, Fracture toughness of graphene,
Nat. Commun. 5 (2014).

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Effect of Tendon Layout for Deflection in Bonded Post-tensioned Slabs

M O M Lambert1, S Bandara2 and U I Dissanayake3

Abstract
Post-tensioned prestressed concrete slabs are widely used in the Sri Lankan construction industry, specially for
high-rise commercial buildings. Prestressed concrete floors allow longer floor spans while controlling the
deflection and cracking compared to conventional reinforced concrete floors. In addition, the attribute of reduced
slab thicknesses in prestressed concrete construction permits increased head room or reduced floor to floor
height in buildings. This paper investigates the effects of tendon layout for defection in bonded two-way post-
tensioned flat plate slabs. Numerical simulations were conducted using finite element method for single panel
slabs with varying tendon layouts. Numerical model validation was carried out using existing experimental
results and the validated finite element models were extended to multi-panel slabs. Different tendon layouts in
transverse directions such as banded, distributed and mixed were explored. Further, the effect of different tendon
layouts for single panel slabs with varying aspect ratios were studied. The finite element analysis results showed
that mixed tendon layout with maximum spacing was having the lowest deflection in comparison with other
tendon layouts for both internal and external slab panels.

1. Introduction
two-way slab systems are even more complex compared
The concepts of prestressed concrete are well to that of one-way slabs [2]. Therefore, numerous
established and widely implemented in concrete structures research has been carried out to better understand the
globally [1]. In the construction of prestressed concrete structural behaviour of PT concrete slabs.
slabs, post-tensioning is implemented and it possesses
numerous benefits compared to conventional reinforced Burns and Hemakom [3] conducted experiments on
concrete slabs. A key advantage of Post Tensioned (PT) PT flat plates with banded arrangement of unbonded
concrete is that it can economically span further than tendons. It was observed that the slab panels in the
reinforced concrete slabs. The benefits involved with long direction of banded tendons were stronger than the
spans are reduced number of columns, foundations and companion panels in the uniform tendon direction. Kosut
increased flexibility for internal planning. In addition, PT et al. [4] explored the shear and flexural capacity of PT
concrete gives the minimum structural thickness of any flat plates with distributed and banded tendon
solution for typical spans and loads. This minimizes the arrangements in each direction. Experimental results
self-weight of the structure and subsequently the indicated that distributed tendons could improve the
foundation loads. Moreover, the overall height of the flexural capacity while the banded tendons in the column
building is reduced and this is substantial in high-rise strip enhance the resistance for punching shear failure.
buildings. Further, enhanced crack and deflection control Roschke and Inoue [5] investigated the strain distribution
is a prominent feature of PT slabs in comparison with in regions immediately adjacent to the transverse post-
reinforced concrete slabs. Except these key advantages, tensioning bands of flat slabs employing bidirectional
rapid construction and minimal use of materials are some post-tensioning. Kim and Lee [6] conducted experiments
other aspects in PT concrete slabs to study the flexural behavior and deflections of PT
concrete flat plates depending on different tendon layouts.
There are different PT concrete floor systems such as One-way and two-way posttensioning layouts both
flat slabs, flat plates, beam and slab, band beam and slab showed similar maximum load. However, serviceability
and ribbed (waffle) slab. This paper focus on PT flat plate improved with two-way post-tensioning layout compared
floor systems which possess flat soffit requiring simple to one-way post-tensioning layout
formwork in the construction stage. Flat plate slabs are
easier to construct and allows great flexibility for locating Numerical simulations can also be employed to
horizontal services above a suspended ceiling. analyse the complex behaviour of PT slabs. Van Greunen
and Scordelis [7] explored a numerical procedure via
Although PT concrete slabs have many advantages, its finite element method for nonlinear analysis of
performance is not fully understood and the behaviour of prestressed concrete slabs and panels including the time-
dependent effects due to load history, temperature history,
creep, shrinkage and aging of the concrete and relaxation
M O M Lambert1, S Bandara2, U I Dissanayake3 1,2,3 of prestress. Wu et al. [8] proposed a tendon model based
Department of Civil Engineering, University of on the finite-element method, that can represent the
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka (e-mail: [email protected]; interaction between tendon and concrete of the
2
[email protected] ; [email protected] prestressed concrete member. This tendon model for non-
linear analysis of prestressed concrete structures provided

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accurate results which were in good agreement with
experimental results. El-Mezaini and Çıtıpıtıoglu [9]
developed quadratic and cubic finite elements with
movable nodes to predict the behavior of different bond
conditions for the tendons. The procedure was
successfully tested for bonded and unbonded tendons.
Kang et al. [10] compared the structural performance of
bonded and unbonded tendons in PT concrete
construction by conducting numerical and experimental
studies. Ghallab [11] presented a brief review of
equations proposed for calculating the increase in stress in
external prestressing tendons in continuous concrete
beams at the ultimate stage.
(a)
In PT floor systems, the designer can choose a potential
tendon layout among several possible tendon layout
patterns such as banded, distributed or mixed layout [12].
The flexural capacity and the ductility of the slab panel
can be affected by the distribution of the tendons in
transverse directions. In the Sri Lankan context, most of
the prestressed concrete designs are carried out complying
to Eurocodes as the standard code of practice. A limit
state design concept is implemented in Eurocodes and
load balancing technique is widely used for the design of
prestressed concrete members. Prestressed concrete
structures are designed considering the serviceability limit
state and ultimate limit state is later evaluated. Thus,
determination of the deflection is paramount in the design
stage of prestressed concrete members. (b)

This paper investigates the effect of tendon layout for

the deflection in bonded two-way PT flat slabs.
Numerical models are developed using finite element
method for single panel slabs with varying tendon
layouts. Numerical model validation is carried out using
existing experimental results and the validated finite
element models were extended to determine the behaviour
of multi-panel slabs. Different tendon layouts in
transverse directions such as banded, distributed and
mixed were explored. Organization of the paper is as
follows. Section 1 provides a brief background of the
research outlining the relevant previous studies. Tendon (c)
layout patterns and numerical simulations are presented in
section 2 and 3 respectively. Section 4 summaries the
results of this study and concluding remarks are presented
in section 5.
2. Tendon Layout Pattern
There are several possible arrangements for the layout
of the tendons in a PT slab. Mainly four types of tendons
arrangements discussed in previous studies [13]. The
tendons in each direction may be arranged in banded,
distributed or a mixed layout. Fig. 1 illustrates these
different tendon layouts. Fig. 1(a) corresponds to 100%
banded tendons in both directions whereas Fig. 1(b)
illustrates 100% banded tendons in one direction and (d)
100% equally distributed tendons in the transverse Figure 1: Tendon layout patterns (a) banded-banded
direction. Equally distributed tendons in both directions (b) banded-distributed (c) distributed- distributed (d)
are illustrated in Fig. 1(c). Fig. 1(d) shows a mixed layout mixed [13]
where 75% or 50% of tendons are placed within the
column strip and the remaining tendons are distributed Although, these different tendon layouts are
equally in both directions. technically feasible, banded-banded tendon layout create

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practical difficulties in laying congested tendons over the
column strip and in providing the anchorages. If the
Table 1: Summary of the material properties and
spacing is inadequate to provide bearing plates and proper
geometric parameters used for finite element analysis
anchorages, failures of the anchorage zones are inevitable.
Nevertheless, all the tendon layout patterns illustrated in
Fig. 1 are considered for the analysis of this study. Property Value
These different tendon layout patterns have different concrete
flexural capacities, punching shear resistances and Characteristic compressive 36.7 MPa
deflections at different regions of the PT concrete slabs. strength
The deflections of concrete structures cannot be predicted Mean axial tensile strength 3.2 MPa
with a high degree of accuracy, since there are many non- Mean elastic modulus 30 GPa
linear factors involved. The deflection of a prestressed Unit weight 24 kN/m3
concrete structure is twofold such as short term (at
Poissons’ ratio 0.2
transfer) and long term/time dependent (at service). Short
term deflection consists of deflection due to self-weight Prestressing tendon
and prestress whereas long term deflection consists of Area of tendon 98.7 mm2
deflection due to self-weight, variable load and prestress. Diameter of tendon 12.7 mm
Duct diameter 16 mm
3. Numerical Simulation and Validation Breaking strength 1860 MPa
Numerical simulations were carried out using
commercially available SAFE finite element analysis
package. Single panel slabs with varying tendon layout
patterns were modelled using the finite element method.
The experimental results of Kim and Lee [2] were used in
validating the numerical models. Table 1 shows a
summary of the material properties and other parameters
used for finite element models of the PT two-way flat
plate slabs. One concrete flat plate (control) and two PT
flat plates were modelled considering the test specimens
of experiments. For two PT flat plates, one specimen had
tendons distributed in only 𝑥-direction (PT-X) and the
other distributed in both 𝑥- and 𝑦-directions (PT-XY).
Fig. 2 illustrates the tendon layout of finite element
models of PT-X and PT-XY. PT-X specimen had five
(a)
tendons distributed in only 𝑥-direction and FP-PT-𝑥𝑦 had
five tendons in both directions distributed in 350mm
spacing with seven-wire steel strand of 12.7 mm diameter,
with a 13 mm diameter reinforcement bars which were
used in both directions at bottom of slab for each 280 mm
spacing. Detailed description of the specimens can be
found in the study of Kim and Lee [2]. The size of the test
specimens was 3000 mm × 3000 mm and 250 mm
thickness. A minimum concrete cover of 40 mm was
designed for all specimens at compression and tension
sides. Two specimens were posttensioned with a constant
eccentricity of 43 mm. The modulus of elasticity and the
yield stress of the non-pre-stressed reinforcement were
taken as 200GPa and 400MPa respectively. The tendons (b)
were bonded and stressed with 1488 MPa prestressing Figure 2: Finite element model of slab panels (a) PT-
force which is 80% of the breaking strength tendons. X (b) PT-XY
The material matrix consisted of concrete, prestressing model was simply supported along four sides as two-pin
steel and passive steel reinforcement. The failure of supports and two roller supports. In the experiment, force
concrete two-way slab was considered to be in tension generated by a hydraulic jack was transmitted to a 500mm
cracking or plastic yielding of reinforcement. The x 500mm loading plate at the middle of the specimen.
uncracked concrete was assumed to be a linear elastic Therefore, 500mm x 500mm middle elements of the
material. A bilinear stress-strain relationship was assumed numerical models were loaded with the same value of live
for steel reinforcement and appropriate constitutive load as a surface load.
models were selected for concrete according to literature
[2]. The support conditions were also modeled as per the Selecting an optimum mesh size is critical in finite
experimental specimen where the SAFE finite element element analysis to obtain accurate results while

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minimizing the computational time. Thus, a mesh
convergence study was carried out by loading the slab
panel and measuring the midpoint deflection. Based on
the results of the mesh convergence study, a mesh size of
125mm x 125mm was found to be adequate. Fig. 3
illustrates the comparison of experimental and numerical
load-displacement curves for control, PT-X and PT-XY
specimens. It can be observed that the numerical and
experimental load-displacement curves are in good
agreement. The control specimen exhibits largest
displacement for a given load compared to PT-X and PT-
XY specimens. Results indicate that compared to PT-X
specimen, PT-XY specimen require higher load to
provide a same displacement level. Thus, the stiffness of
modelled two-way PT flat plates is in the order of control
< PT-X < PT-XY.
(a)
4. Results and Discussion
As described in section 3, numerical model validation
was carried out using experimental load-displacement
curves of three slab panels. The validated numerical
model was used to determine the effect of tendon layout

Load (kN)
for deflection in bonded two-way spanning PT flat plate
slabs.
4.1 Single panel slab
For single panel slabs, manual design was carried out
to determine the required amount of prestressing. Initially
6m x 6m PT slab panel was designed to balance 90%
of self-weight of the slab by the effective prestress force
in the tendons in both directions. Maximum stresses in
tension and compression were calculated and compared
(b)
with the allowable stresses both at transfer and service. A
live load of 6 kN/m2 was applied and a slab thickness of
200 mm was selected for the analysis. Slab panels with
varying dimensions were modelled considering banded-
banded (B-B), banded-distributed (B-D), distributed-
distributed (D-D), 50% banded- 50% distributed (mixed
50%) and mixed with maximum space tendon layouts.
Load (kN)

Parabolic tendon profiles with maximum eccentricity at

the midspan were employed as illustrated in Fig. 4, which
is the typical practice in the industry for laying flat ducts
for tendons in PT slabs.
In the banded-banded tendon layout, all the tendons
are placed in the column strips without any tendons in the
middle strip. In the banded-distributed tendon layout,
tendons are placed only on the column strip in one
direction and distributed in the other direction ensuring at (c)
least the minimum number of tendons in the column strip.
When the aspect ratio of the slab is not equal to one, Figure 3: Comparison of experimental and numerical
banded tendons can either be placed at short span or long load-displacement curves (a) control (b) PT-X (c) PT-XY
span. Tendons are distributed in equal space throughout
the slab in both directions for distributed- distributed
tendon layout ensuring at least the minimum number of
tendons in the column strip. In the mixed layout, tendons
are placed in column strips and in middle strips in both
directions. Two tendon configurations are considered
under mixed layout. One case is where 50% of tendons
placed in column strip and remaining 50% in middle
strips for both directions.

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Figure 4: Tendon profile for 6m x 6m slab

(a)

Figure 5: Variation of the deflection for different tendon

layouts of 6m x 6m slab panel

For the second case, tendons are placed in the middle

strip with specific spacing which is equal to eight times (b)
the slab thickness (maximum tendon spacing requirement
as per ACI guidelines), and the remaining tendons are
placed in column strip. The deflections were found for a
live load of 6 kN/m2.
Fig. 5 illustrates the variation of the maximum
deflection for different tendon layouts of 6m x 6m PT flat
plate slab panel. B-B layout results in the lowest
deflection from the numerical model. However, as noted
earlier B-B tendon layout create difficulties in practical
applications. Second lowest deflection was found in B-D
tendon layout and the highest deflection in D-D tendon
layout. After investigating 6m x 6m PT flat plate slab, the
effect of aspect ratio was explored. Slab panels with
aspect ratios of 1.25 (6m x 7.5m), 1.5 (6m x 9m) and 1.75
(6m x 10.5m) were manually designed, numerically
modelled and analyzed. Fig. 6 shows the variation of (c)
deflection for these single panel slabs with varying aspect
ratios. B-D(long) notation in Fig. 6 refer to banded Figure 6: Variation of the deflection for different tendon
tendons in short span direction and distributed tendons in layouts of slab panels with different aspect ratios (a) 1.25
long span direction, whereas D-B(long) configuration is (b) 1.5 (c) 1.75
vice versa.
It can be observed from Fig. 6 that for all the aspect 4.2 Multi-panel slab
ratios, minimum deflection is resulted from D-B (long) In most of the practical applications of commercial
tendon layout, disregarding B-B layout given the practical buildings, multi-panel slabs are used for floor systems.
implications. Mixed tendon layout patterns also indicated This section investigates the effect of different tendon
slightly similar deflections to that of B-D and D-B tendon layouts for deflection in multi-panel slabs. For the
configurations. The highest deflection for these single numerical analysis, the geometry and pertaining
panel slabs were obtained from D-D tendon layout calculations are selected from VSL report series 4.2 [14].
pattern. Fig. 7 illustrates the geometry and column arrangement of

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 RESEARCH FORUM
the selected slab which consists of grid lines A to G in The validated numerical model is extended for
one direction and 1 to 5 in the transverse direction. modelling and analysis of the multi-panel slab. Same
Considering the column layout, slab panels within grid tendon layout patterns which were used for the analysis of
lines 4 and 5 are cantilever. Therefore, the selected multi- single panel slab such as B-B, B-D (long), D-B (long), D-
panel slab consists of cantilever, interior and exterior slab D, mixed 50% and mix B-D with maximum spacing were
panels. All the interior and exterior slab panels are two- considered. Fig. 10 shows the variation of the deflection
way spanning considering the lengths of short-span and for B-B tendon layout. Maximum deflection of 3.35mm is
long-span. observed in the cantilever part of the slab extending from
Parabolic tendon profiles are selected considering the grid line 4 to 5. Maximum deflection for the interior slab
limiting stresses in transfer and service conditions. panel (4 side continuous) is 2.9 mm. The exterior slab
Typically, tendon profile take the shape of the bending panel configuration is two-fold such as 2 side continuous
moment diagram. Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 illustrates the shape of and 3 side continuous. Maximum deflection observed in
the tendon profile for both x and y directions. In the exterior panel is 2.78 mm other than the highest deflection
midspan of a slab panel, tendon profile has a maximum in the cantilever part of the slab.
eccentricity in the negative y direction and a maximum
positive eccentricity near the column supports. 15 mm
diameter tendons of breaking strength 1860 MPa are used
with concrete grade 35MPa. 5 kN/m2 live load is
considered other than the self-weight of the slab.
Comprehensive details about tendon profile design and
the calculation of required prestressing can be found in
[14].

Figure 10: Variation of the deflection for banded-

banded tendon layout

The geometry of the slab is symmetric around grid line

D and thus the results are discussed for half of the slab.
The multi-panel slab exhibit lower deflection compared
with single panel slab and the reason for this might be the
presence of a higher cable drape in multi-panel slab due to
the positive eccentricity of the tendon profile near the
columns. Thus, a higher effective prestressing per unit
Figure 7: Layout of the multi-panel slab selected for width is possible in multi-panel slabs in comparison with
numerical simulation a single panel slab considering same jacking force. A
summary of the center deflections resulted from the
numerical models are illustrated in Table 2 for different
tendon layout patterns. Graphical representation of the
variation of deflections are shown in Fig. 11, 12 and 13
which correspond to interior, exterior and cantilever slab
panels respectively.
Deflection (mm)

Figure 8: Tendon profile for y direction

Figure 11: Variation of the deflection in interior slab

Figure 9: Tendon profile for x direction
panel

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 RESEARCH FORUM
Considering the symmetry, there are four interior slab Table 2: Summary of the center deflection for multi-
panels (four edges continuous) bounded by grid lines B, C panel slab
and 2, 4. Nevertheless, for the interior panels maximum
deflection was resulted from slab panels bounded for grid Deflection along
lines B, C and 2, 3 as illustrated in Table 2. Therefore, Configuration of
Grid grids (mm)
Fig. 11 shows the variation of deflection of the tendons
A-B B-C C-D
aforementioned interior slab panels considering different
tendon layouts. Highest deflection is recorded for D-D 1-2 B-B 2.28 2.42 2.38
tendon layout. Minimum deflection is observed for mix B-D (long) 2.20 2.62 2.46
B-D layout with maximum space disregarding B-B D-B (long) 2.17 2.43 2.33
tendon layout given the practical difficulties in placing D-D 2.31 3.08 3.02
anchorages. Fig. 12 illustrates the variation of deflection
for exterior slab panels where three edges are continuous. Mix B50%-D50% 2.21 2.58 2.43
Similar to Fig. 11, mix B-D tendon layout with maximum Mix B-D with
2.17 2.42 2.36
space resulted lowest deflection in comparison with other maximum spacing
tendon layouts. Same trend was observed in Fog. 13 for 2-3 B-B 2.78 2.85 2.80
cantilever slab panels. Further, for all the cases, D-D
B-D (long) 2.72 3.12 2.94
tendon layout exhibited the highest deflections.
Comparing the variation of deflection in Fig. 11, 12 and D-B (long) 2.90 3.11 3.01
13, it is evident that the cantilever slab panels result in D-D 2.84 3.45 3.25
higher deflections. Mix B50%-D50% 2.83 3.14 2.96
Mix B-D with
2.73 2.94 2.87
maximum spacing
3-4 B-B 2.26 2.29 2.28
B-D (long) 2.03 2.32 2.17
Deflection (mm)

D-B (long) 2.34 2.48 2.40

D-D 2.55 2.97 2.89
Mix B50%-D50% 2.18 2.39 2.25
Mix B-D with
2.16 2.29 2.25
maximum spacing
4-5 B-B 3.35 3.25 3.25
B-D (long) 3.80 3.78 3.59
D-B (long) 3.60 3.55 3.28
D-D 3.73 4.02 3.77
Mix B50%-D50% 3.87 3.93 3.82
Mix B-D with
Figure 12: Variation of the deflection in exterior slab 3.40 3.40 3.37
maximum spacing
panel

5. Conclusion
This paper investigated the effects of tendon layout for
defection in bonded two-way post-tensioned flat plate
slabs. Numerical simulations were conducted using finite
element method for single panel slabs and multi-panel
slabs with varying tendon layouts. Different tendon
layouts in transverse directions such as banded,
distributed and mixed were explored. On the basis of the
findings, the following conclusions can be made.
1. For single panel slabs banded-banded tendon
layout provided lowest deflections. Nevertheless,
this is not a practically acceptable layout given the
congested tendons in the column strip and the
difficulty in providing anchorages.
Figure 13: Variation of the deflection in cantilever slab 2. For single panel slabs with different aspect ratios,
panel second lowest deflection was observed in tendon
layout distributed in a short span direction and

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 MODULUS | June 2022
Vol.32 No. 02 RESEARCH FORUM
banded in long span direction (D-B (long)). [13] Gilbert, M., He, L., Smith, C. C., & Le, C. V.
(2014). Automatic yield-line analysis of slabs using
3. For multi-panel slabs, tendon layout mix with discontinuity layout optimization. Proceedings of
banded and distributed with maximum spacing the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and
(maximum spacing of eight times of slab Engineering Sciences, 470(2168), 20140071.
thickness) indicated the lowest deflection
compared to other tendon layouts. [14] Ritz, P., Matt, P., Tellenbach, C.H., Schlub, P., &
Aeberhard, H. U. (1985). POST-TENSIONED
SLAB, VSL Technical Report Series No. 4.2, VSL
International Ltd. Berne, Switzerland.
6. References
[1] Naaman, A. E. (1982). Prestressed concrete
analysis and design: Fundamentals (pp. 360-364).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
[2] Kim, M. S., Kang, J., & Lee, Y. H. (2017).
Analytical Model for Deflections of Bonded
Posttensioned Concrete Slabs. Advances in
Materials Science and Engineering, 2017.
[3] Burns, N. H., & Hemakom, R. (1985). Test of post-
tensioned flat plate with banded tendons. Journal of
Structural Engineering, 111(9), 1899-1915.
[4] Kosut, G. M., Burns, N. H., & Winter, C. V. (1985).
Test of four-panel post-tensioned flat plate. Journal
of Structural Engineering, 111(9), 1916-1929.
[5] Roschke, P. N., & Inoue, M. (1991). Effects of
banded post-tensioning in prestressed concrete flat
slab. Journal of Structural Engineering, 117(2),
563-583.
[6] Kim, M. S., & Lee, Y. H. (2016). Flexural behavior
of posttensioned flat plates depending on tendon
layout. Advances in Materials Science and
Engineering, 2016.
[7] Van Greunen, J., & Scordelis, A. C. (1983).
Nonlinear analysis of prestressed concrete
slabs. Journal of Structural Engineering, 109(7),
1742-1760.
[8] Wu, X. H., Otani, S., & Shiohara, H. (2001).
Tendon model for nonlinear analysis of prestressed
concrete structures. Journal of structural
engineering, 127(4), 398-405.
[9] El-Mezaini, N., & Çıtıpıtıoglu, E. (1991). Finite
element analysis of prestressed and reinforced
concrete structures. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 117(10), 2851-2864.
[10] Kang, T. H. K., Huang, Y., Shin, M., Lee, J. D., &
Cho, A. S. (2015). Experimental and numerical
assessment of bonded and unbonded post-tensioned
concrete members. ACI Structural Journal, 112(6),
735-748.
[11] Ghallab, A. (2013). Calculating ultimate tendon
stress in externally prestressed continuous concrete
beams using simplified formulas. Engineering
Structures, 46, 417-430.
[12] Alami, B. O. (1999). Layout of post-tensioning and
passive reinforcement in floor slabs, PTI Technical
Notes 8

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