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basics_of_computers_system_software.htm
Computer:
A computer is a machine( Electronics)

that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically

Radio: its also electronic Machine( Electronics), Sound can be sent by radio,

sometimes through Frequency Modulation (FM) or Amplitude Modulation (AM).

Telegram television (also known as a TV) :is a machine ( Electronics) with a screen.

Televisions receive broadcasting signals and change them into pictures and sound.

computer program:

computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs.

programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.

computer programming: to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations.

Arithmetic operations: Addition + ,

Subtraction _ ,

Multiplication * ,

Division /,

logical operations: Less Than <

Greater than >

Equal to =
ALU: An arithmetic-logic unit is the part of a computer processor (CPU)

that carries out arithmetic and logic operations on the operands in computer

instruction words(Program).

Central processing unit (CPU), principal part of any digital computer system, composed of the

main memory, control unit, and arithmetic-logic unit.

+*-*

8088 8 MHz Jun- 3- 29,000 64 None 8 Desktops (standard CPU for all
4.77 MHz 79 micron kB MHz IBM PCs and PC clones at the
4.77 time)
MHz
8086 10 MHz Jun- 3- 29,000 1 None 10 Portable computing
8 MHz 78 micron MB MHz
4.77 MHz 8
MHz
4.77
MHz
8085 2 MHz Mar- 3- 6,500 64 None 2 Toledo scale. Computed cost from
76 micron KB MHz weight and price. High level of
integration, operating for first time
on a single 5-volt power supply
(down from 12 volts).
RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. The processor accesses all memory addresses
directly, irrespective of word length, making storage and retrieval fast.

ROM (BIOS-- Basic Input output System)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests, ROM can only be read by the
processor. New data cannot be written into ROM. Data to be stored into ROM is written during
the manufacturing phase itself.
Secondary Memory:

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary memory
−

 It is non-volatile, i.e data are permant . it retains data when power is switched off
 It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes

Basics of Computers - Input/Output Ports

A connection point that acts as interface between the computer and external devices like mouse,
printer, modem, etc. is called port. Ports are of two types −

 Internal port − It connects the motherboard to internal devices

like hard disk drive, CD drive, internal modem, etc.

 External port − It connects the motherboard to external devices

like modem, mouse, printer, flash drives, etc.

Different types of computers:

1) Super computer: difficult and complicated calculation , fast

powerful and expensive. e.g parm

2) Mainframe computer: big data, bulk processing, several people

access, big size.

3) Server : organization data, website e.g www.google.co.in

4) Clouds Server: combination of more servers and in different location

5) workstation: High resolution graphics( movies,games. drawing)

6) Desktop (PC): small computer

7) Laptop: portable computer

8) Tablets: light weight computers

10) Smartphone: packet computer (mobile)

 Types of computer :

Computers on the Basis of Hardware Design and Data Handling

1. Analog Computer:
An analog computer performs tasks using continuous data (the physical amount that
changes continuously)

2. Digital Computer:
As its name suggests, a digital computer represents the digital computer’s letters,
numerical values, or any other special symbols

3. Hybrid Computer:
A hybrid computer is a combined complex computer unit built using
both analog and digital properties and united by a single control system.

Analog and Digital output:

DEDICATED (EMBEDDED) DEVICES

Embedded devices are devices designed for a single purpose; whether
that purpose is to wake you up in the morning, control the temperature
of the air conditioning or help navigate. As such, these devices are
usually excellent at their specific tasks, but they are also unable to do
anything else. Embedded devices are designed to perform specific
dedicated computing tasks. Examples of these devices are:
 ATM machines
 DVD players
 Anti-lock braking systems
 Digital watches
 MP3 players
 Drones
 Airbag control systems
Clock Generator IC 8284:

Clock pluse or Clock Siganal: Two state i.e Binary

1) ON / OFF

2) TRUE / FALASE

3) LOW / HIGH

4) YES / NO

5) 0 / 1
Human being: High level language( c, c++, java, .net ) Decimal Number
system: (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) base 10

Computer work: Machine Language : BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM:( 0/1)

base 2

computer code: Low level language or Assembly language

Hexa-Decimal NumberSystem:(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,a,b,c,d,e,f) base 16

Computer Memory: staorge: Octal Number System (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)

base 8

https://www.learncomputerscienceonline.com/binary-number-system/

e.g ..................... : 1010..............10....................a

 1. Interpreter: Computing a program that can analyse and execute a program line by line.

2. compiler : A program that converts instructions into a machine-code or lower-level

form so that they can be read and executed by a computer.

What are electronic devices?

Definition. Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of
electrical currents for the purpose of information processing and system
control.

e.g Diodes ,Transistors and. Semiconductor material devices.

 Electronic devices are usually small and can be grouped together into

packages called integrated circuits (IC).

Electronics device.............>circuit..........>ic............>chipset ........>(programmable CPU)''

Integrated Circuits Fabrication and their Technologies

IC Technology Type Transistors number
Medium Scale Integration MSI 100 – 1000
Large Scale Integration LSI 1000 – 10K
Very Large Scale Integration VLSI 10K – 1M
Ultra Large Scale Integration ULSI 1M – 10M

Humana Language: A to Z, 0 to 9 decimal number system

Computer Language: 0,1 Binary Number system, two stage

logic........................... 1) True ............... false

2) Yes .................... No

3) High ................... low

4) ON ...................... OFF

5) 1 ......................... 0

Two state Logic is called binary(two). digital circuits (0.1).

Computer language or Machine Language:

 Digital Circuits - Number Systems

1) Decimal Number system....... (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)

base 10

100 , 101, 102, 103 and so on.i.e 1,2,3,4....so on

2) Binary Number system.................( 0,1 ) base 2

20, 21, 22, 23 and so on. i.e 0,1

3) Octal Number system (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) base 8

80, 81, 82, 83 and so on.

4) Hexadecimal Number system

(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F) base 16
  160, 161, 162, 163 and so on.

conversion number:

( 3 )10  =  (011)2

( 8 )10  = (1101)2
BCD Code in Digital Electronics:

BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal. This code is used to represent a
decimal number into a binary number.

In BCD each number is expressed in 4-bits i.e. a string of nibble

BCD Codes Table:

48 01

ASCII Code:
ASCII stands for the American standard code for information interchange.
ASCII has been adopted by several American computer manufacturers as their
computer’s internal code

Each alphabetic(A-Z), numeric(0-9), or special character (!<@( ) _ >,#,$,%,^.&>*=) is

represented,
aaa0009
Bit binary number:-

'1' or '0'................ 1 bit memory

Bit
The smallest unit of data in a computer is called Bit (Binary Digit).
A bit has a single binary value, either 0 or 1.
In most computer systems,.

The value of a bit is usually stored as either above or below a designated level of electrical
charge in a single capacitor within a memory device.

1/ 0/1
0

1 bit ............. 1 or 0

Nibble:

Half a byte (four bits) is called a nibble.

1 2 3 4

BYTE: Group of 8 bit................. 1 byte

there are eight bits in a byte

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4

1) Instruction

' 4' bit instruction.............. 4 bit operating system

'8' bit instruction..................8 bit operating system

'16' bit................................ 16 bit operating system

' 32' bit ................................ 32 bit operating system ( x86)

 ' 64 ' bit................................... 64 bit operating system (x64)

ic two ( binary logic 0 or 1)..............2^10=1024

Name Abbreviation Size

1 Nibble 4 Bits
1 Byte  B 8 Bits
1 Kilobyte KB 2^10 = 1,024 Bytes
1 Megabyte MB 1024 KB
= 1,024 Kilobytes (KB)
1 Gigabyte GB =1024 mb
= 1,024 Megabytes (MB)
1 Terabyte TB =1024 GB
= 1,024 Gigabytes (GB)

Bus 1) Data bus:

2) Address bus:

3) Control bus:
Computer study
1) Hardware system: Physical existence,

eg mouse , keyboard, cpu, harddisk ,ram etc

2) Software system: logical existence, program

eg. window operating system. xp. window10,linux. java . python. etc

1) What is software: it is group of program

2) What is program: It is set of instructions

GUI:-- Graphical User Interface .................. easy and icons ( e.g Windows)

CL mode: command line mode................. you need command ( e.g DOS)

Operating system:
Dos ------------- Disk operating system ( work command)

Microsoft windows:........... i) windows xp, ii) windows 7, iii) windows 8, iv) windows10
Linux :............. i) Red hat ii)Centos iii) Suse iv) Ubuntu

Novell ........... i) Netware Novell

A)Open-source Operating System: Open Source Operating system, everyone can access and edit the
source code.

E.g. Linux, FreeBSD and OpenSolaris, Centos,

B) Closed-source operating systems: use code that is proprietary and kept secret to prevent its
use by other entities

E.g. Microsoft Windows, Solaris Unix and OS X,REDHat.

On desktop.............. My computer............ Right click............... properties

1)Window edition: windows 7 service pack 1

2) System information: processor Intel i3 2120 3.3 Ghz( 3300 Mz), ram 8 Gb (8192 Mb)

3) Computer information: Name of pc, and work group

4) Activation: windows is activated

Definition of Desktop.

What is Desktop ?

Desktop is the ever-present background of the graphical user interface (GUI) for Operating
System ( OS)
e.g

Microsoft Windows 95,

Windows 98,

Windows XP,

Windows Vista,
Windows 7, 8, 10, and

Windows Server systems.

Gary Kildall, father of the PC operating system.

Some examples of PC OS:

1. Windows 10
2. Ubuntu 
3. MAC
4. Chrome OS 
5. Windows 7

Some examples of mobile OS:

1. Android
2. I-Phone OS
3. Blackberry
4. Windows Mobile
5. Symbian

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software
resources, and provides common services for computer programs.
Kernel
Main article:

Kernel (computing): A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer.

With the aid of the firmware (ROM or BIOS) and device drivers, the kernel provides the most
basic level of control over all of the computer's hardware devices.

It manages memory access for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get access
to which hardware resources,

it sets up or resets the CPU's operating states for optimal operation at all times, and

it organizes the data for long-term non-volatile storage with file systems on such media as disks,
tapes, flash memory, etc.

The important functions of an OS:

1. Memory Management
2. Processor Management
3. Device Management
4. File Management
5. Security
Types of OS:

1. Batch OS
2. Time sharing OS
3. Distributed OS
4. Network OS
5. Real Time OS
1. Soft Real Time Os
2. Hard Real Time OS
6. Multiprocessing OS

Operating Systems:

 Introduction to Operating Systems

 Function of OS
 Evolution of OS 
 Different Types of OS
 Desirable Characteristics and features of an OS
 Operating Systems Services
 Utility Programs
 System Calls
 File Systems: File Concept
 Contiguous disk space allocation met
 Directory Structures
 Disk Scheduling Algorithms
 FCFS Disk Scheduling Algorithms
 SSTF Disk Scheduling Algorithms
 SCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithms
 CSCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithms
 LOOK Disk Scheduling Algorithms
 CLOOK Disk Scheduling Algorithms.
 CPU Scheduling
 CPU Scheduling Concepts
 CPU Scheduling Algorithms
 FCFS CPU scheduling algorithm
 Nonpreemptive SJF CPU scheduling algorithm
 Preemptive SJF (SRTF) CPU scheduling algorithm
 Round Robin CPU scheduling algorithm
 Process Concept
 Process State Diagram
 Types of Schedulers
 System calls for Process Management
 Multiple Processor Scheduling
 Concept of Threads
 Memory Management
 Different Memory Management Techniques
 Swapping
 Segmentation
 Paging
 Paging vs Swapping
 Paging vs Segmentation
 Overlay in memory management
 FCFS page replacement algorithm
 LRU page replacement algorithm 
 Optimal page replacement algorithm
 Critical Section Problem
 Deadlock Avoidance, Recovery
Software Development Process:

1) Web Development:

HTML, Javascript, Django, C/C++, ASP.NET, PHP, Python, Ruby, Rails etc.

2) Mobile Development:
Android, Swift (for iOS), Objective C, HTML5, Java, C#

3) Data Science:
C/C++, MATLAB, Python

4) Application Development:

Java, VB.NET, C/C++,C#, Python

5. Back-end Development:
Python, Java, C and C++, (my)SQL, dBase and Oracle for databases

6. Software Tools Development:

Java, Python, C++
7. API Development:

APIs are written for specific platforms or functions, and each API will have the programming
language of the platform/device/site/service it’s designed for

 8. Embedded Systems Development:

Embedded C, Assembler, Python, Arduino (an embedded C derivative), Java.

9. Security Software Development:

the programming language relevant to the system that needs to be tested

10. Cloud Computing:

Java, XML, R, Erlang, Google’s Go!, Clojure and others

The desktop is the user’s on-screen work area; its various icons and menus are arranged
Start Bar
.

Mouse:

It is Pointing Device ( input device).................... its connected to port com1, com2( Serial Port) and USB

ARROW
Device Manager:
my computer............ Right click............. properties.............. Device Manager

Device Manager is a Control Panel applet in Microsoft Windows operating

systems.

It allows users to view and control the hardware attached to the computer. When
a piece of hardware is not working, the offending hardware is highlighted for the
user to deal with. The list of hardware can be sorted by various criteria. 

Note ........... Yellow Mark or Question Mark indicate Error in device.

Desktop properties: ...........Mouse right click.......... personalize........
change desktop icon............... Desktop icon setting.......

1) My computer

2) User file ( Documents)

3) Network

4)Recycle Bin

5) control Panel

Control Panel:
The Control Panel is a component of Microsoft Windows that provides the ability to view and change
system settings.

Open Control Panel in Windows:

In the search box next to Start  on the taskbar, type control panel. Select Control Panel from
the list of results.

Note: Many Control Panel features are simpler and faster in Settings .

It consists of a set of applets that include

Adding or removing hardware and software,

Controlling user accounts,

Changing accessibility options, and

Accessing networking settings.

System properties:
1) Device Manager

2)Remote Setting

3) System Protection

4) Advance System Setting:

i) Performance

ii) User profile

iii) Startup and Recovery.

BUS Programmable controller Type of Bus

:

1) Data Bus
2) Address Bus
3) Control Bus
Hard disk structure diagram: Magnetic storage type ( data "0" or "1" )

How Data read/ Write on disk?: -

Disk no................Disk side (o,1)...........Sector(red colurs)...........cluster (green
colurs)........ track No.(Black colurs)......... 0/ 1 (bit) store ( record)

1) System Area: registry (address), it used by system

2) Data Area: actual Data store

on hard disk data store.................. Magnetic type

HDD( Hard disk Drive): Magnetic technology

SSD(Solid State Drive): Semiconductor technology

Universal Serial Bus:

(USB) is an industry standard that establishes specifications for cables, connectors and protocols for
connection, communication and power supply (interfacing) between computers, peripherals and other
computers.

including fourteen different connectors, of which USB-C is the most recent.

both to communicate with and to supply electric power. It has largely replaced interfaces such as

serial ports and parallel ports, USB, USB 2.0, USB 3.0 and USB 4.0 ( 20 GBPS to 40 GBPS)

How operating system Start: Booting is a startup sequence that starts the operating system of
a computer when it is turned on. ... Bootstrap loader locates the kernel, loads it into main memory and
starts its execution.In some systems, a simple bootstrap loader fetches a more complex boot program
from disk, which in turn loads the kernel.

the bootstrap loader. The bootstrap loader is a small program that has a single function: It loads the
operating system into memory and allows it to begin operation.

What is responsible for starting up operating system?

The BIOS is responsible for starting up the computer proper, and for then bootstrapping into the actual
Operating System.
 What are the boot files in Windows 10?

Boot Loading Architecture

1. Windows Boot Manager (Bootmgr.exe)

2. Windows operating system loader (Winload.exe)
3. Windows resume loader (Winresume.exe)

The Windows 10 Startup Folder/ File:

 The All Users Startup Folder is located at the following path:

C:\ProgramData\Microsoft\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\StartUp.
 The Current User Startup Folder is located here:

C:\Users\[User Name]\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\

Startup.

C:\ .................. Drive name ( hard disk etc)

Users\................... folder...................\[ User Name].............\ AppData............\ Roaming\

Microsoft...............\ Windows

My computer........... left click ( double click)............... Drives

Folder of operating System:

1) C:\Windows

2) C:\Users

3) C:\ProgramData

4) C:\Program Files (x86)

5) C:\Program Files..................... (x64 bit)

What are Windows 7 boot files?

The four boot files for Windows 7 and Vista, Windows XP are:

1) bootmgr 2) ntldr 3) BCD and 4) boot. ini

bootmgr: Operating system loader code;

similar to ntldr in previous versions of Windows.

Boot Configuration Database (BCD): Builds the operating system selection menu; similar to

boot. ini in,

Recycle Bin: In computing, the trash is a GUI for temporary storage for files set aside

by the user for deletion,

but not yet permanently erased. it is called the Recycle Bin in Microsoft Windows os.

What are bootable file in linux:

In Linux, and other Unix-like operating systems, the /boot/ directory holds files used in
booting the operating system

A boot loader, also called a boot manager, is a small program that places the operating system (OS)
of a computer into memory.

the two most common boot loaders are known as

LILO (LInux LOader) and

LOADLIN (LOAD LINux).

This directory contains everything required for the boot process except for configuration files not
needed at boot time (the most notable of those being those that belong to the GRUB boot-
loader) and the map installer. Thus, the /boot directory stores data that is used before the kernel
begins executing user-mode programs.
The GRUB (Grand Unified Bootloader) is a bootloader available from the GNU project. A
bootloader is very important as it is impossible to start an operating system without it.

What is is GNU full form?

The full meaning of gnu is GNU not Unix.

Dual Boot Operating System: more than one operating system on one PC.