The Development of TEFL Methodology

Objectives:

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Understand various different methods of teaching English by
identifying the characteristics of each method
2. Analyze the application of those methods as outlined in the provided
analytical questions

1. The Grammar Translation Methods

The Grammar translation method is also called a classical method. This

method came out when the western people world wanted to learn "foreign"
languages such as Latin and Greek. The focus of GTM was on
grammatical rules, the memorization of vocabulary and of various
declensions and conjugations, translations of texts, and doing written
exercises.

According to Brown (2001), class which applies the Grammar translation

Method would possibly be like this:

1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the
target language.
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rule for putting words together, and instruction
often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as
exercises in grammatical analysis.

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2. The Direct Method

The basic principle of the Direct Method was that second language
learning should be more like first language learning. The method would
comprise a great deal of oral interaction, spontaneous use of language, no
translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of
grammar rules.

Here are the principles of the direct method based on Brown’s arguments:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target

language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully traded progression
organized around questions-and-answer exchanges between teachers
and students in small intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects,
pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught through association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

3. Audio Lingual Methods

The audio-lingual method (ALM) was widely used in the United States and
other countries in the 1950's and 1960's. Some programs still use it
nowadays. The structural view of language is the view behind this method.
The emphasis was on mastering the building blocks of language and
learning the rules for combining them.

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ALM is greatly influenced by Behaviorism. The basic principles of this are:
1. language learning is habit-formation,
2. mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits.
3. language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally
first, then in written form
4. analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis
5. the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural
context

Accurate pronunciation and grammar, ability to respond quickly and

accurately in speech situations, knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use
with grammar patterns are some prominent objectives of ALM.

Typically, the procedure in an audio-lingual course would be:

a. Students hear a model dialogue

b. Students repeat each line of the dialogue
c. Certain key words or phrases may be changed in the dialogue
d. Key structures from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of
different kinds.
e. The students practice substitutions in the pattern drills

4. Communicative Language Teaching

There are many ways to teach language. One is called Communicative

Language Teaching (CLT). This method is learner-centered and
emphasizes communication and real-life situations. Read the following
article to get information about CLT. The article was taken from
http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/gallow01.html

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Online Resources: Digests

June 1993

Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction And Sample Activities

Ann Galloway, Center for Applied Linguistics

This digest will take a look at the communicative approach to the teaching of foreign
languages. It is intended as an introduction to the communicative approach for teachers
and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for their
students to engage in real-life communication in the target language. Questions to be
dealt with include what the communicative approach is, where it came from, and how
teachers' and students' roles differ from the roles they play in other teaching approaches.
Examples of exercises that can be used with a communicative approach are described,
and sources of appropriate materials are provided.

Where does communicative language teaching come from?

Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next.
The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists
who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods of
foreign language instruction. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic,
whole language. They did not know how to communicate using appropriate social
language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the
culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style
teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges
where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular.

In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the
elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying
philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names,
including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and
communicative language teaching.

What is communicative language teaching?

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate

communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in
real life. Unlike the audio-lingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition
and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the
outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses.
The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes
from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in

29
explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a
clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use
(function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and
after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is speaking,
what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).

What are some examples of communicative exercises?

In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out
cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an
exchange of introductions in the target language: "Guten Tag. Wie heissen Sie?" Reply:
"Ich heisse Wolfie," for example. Using a combination of the target language and
gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce
themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German to
a question in German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each
holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic
exchange of information.

Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a
recorded exchange between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first time
at the Gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in English, the differences
among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher will explain
some of the grammar points and structures used.

The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign

language teaching, given for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn
Thompson of the Center for Applied Linguistics. The exercise, called "Eavesdropping," is
aimed at advanced students.

Instructions to students: Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be

prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was
said.

1. Who was talking?

2. About how old were they?
3. Where were they when you eavesdropped?
4. What were they talking about?
5. What did they say?
6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?

The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report
information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class
discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and viewpoints.

Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their

30
choice, at an appropriately challenging level.

Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning students of Spanish. In
"Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everyday situation where they must
listen to an authentic text.

Objective: Students listen to a passage to get general understanding of the topic or

message.

Directions: Have students listen to the following announcement to decide what the
speaker is promoting.

Passage: Situacion ideal . . . Servicio de transporte al Aeropuerto Internacional . . .

Cuarenta y dos habitaciones de lujo, con aire acondicionado . . . Elegante restaurante . .
. de fama internacional.

(The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask students
to circle the letter of the most appropriate answer on their copy, which consists of the
following multiple-choice options:

a. a taxi service b. a hotel c. an airport d. a restaurant

(Source: Adapted from Ontario Assessment Instrument Pool, 1980, Item No. 13019)

Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes his
lessons more communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English
children having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively and
enthusiastically, they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible when
they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the question of
whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross & Puchta, 1984,
p. 92). He continues to say that the communicative approach "puts great emphasis on
listening, which implies an active will to try to understand others. [This is] one of the
hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listening to the teacher but not
to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes. That the teacher be a patient listener is
the basic requirement" (p.98).

The observation by Gerngross on the role of the teacher as one of listener rather than
speaker brings up several points to be discussed in the next portion of this digest.

How do the roles of the teacher and student change in communicative language
teaching?

Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening
moreËbecoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the
teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A

31
classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students do
most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative
exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task. Because of the
increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using
the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own
learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).

Where can I learn more about communicative teaching?

All of the following documents on communicative language teaching are in the

ERIC database. They can be read on microfiche at any library housing an ERIC
collection or purchased in microfiche or paper copy from the ERIC Document
Reproduction Service (EDRS), 7420 Fullerton Road, Suite 110, Springfield, VA
22153-2852 (1-800-443-3742).

Ben-Barka, A. C. [1982]. In search of a language teaching framework: An adaptation of a

communicative approach to functional practice. (EDRS No. ED239507, 26 pages)

Das, B. K. (Ed.) (1984). Communicative language teaching. Selected papers from the
RELC seminar (Singapore). Anthology Series 14. (EDRS No. ED266661, 234 pages)

Littlewood, W. T. (1983). Communicative approach to language teaching methodology

(CLCS Occasional Paper No. 7). Dublin: Dublin University Trinity College, Centre for
Language and Communication Studies. (EDRS No. ED235690, 23 pages)

Pattison, P. (1987). The communicative approach and classroom realities. (EDRS No.
ED288407, 17 pages)

Riley, P. (1982). Topics in communicative methodology: Including a preliminary and

selective bibliography on the communicative approach. (EDRS No. ED231213, 31
pages)

Savignon, S. J., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1983). Communicative language teaching:

Where are we going? Studies in Language Learning, 4(2). (EDRS No. ED278226, 210
pages)

Sheils, J. (1986). Implications of the communicative approach for the role of the teacher.
(EDRS No. ED268831, 7 pages)

Swain, M., & Canale, M. (1982). The role of grammar in a communicative approach to
second language teaching and testing. (EDRS No. ED221026, 8 pages) (not available
separately; available from EDRS as part of ED221023, 138 pages)

Willems, G., & Riley, P. (Eds.). (1984). Communicative foreign language teaching and
the training of foreign language teachers. (EDRS No. ED273102, 219 pages)

32
Readers may also wish to consult the following journal articles for additional
information on communicative language teaching.

Clark, J. L. (1987). Classroom assessment in a communicative approach. British Journal

of Language Teaching, 25(1), 9-19.

Dolle, D., & Willems, G. M. (1984). The communicative approach to foreign language
teaching: The teacher's case. European Journal of Teacher Education, 7(2), 145-54.

Morrow, K., & Schocker, M. (1987). Using texts in a communicative approach. ELT
Journal, 41(4), 248-56.

Oxford, R. L., et al. (1989). Language learning strategies, the communicative approach,
and their classroom implications. Foreign Language Annals, 22(1), 29-39.

Pica, T. P. (1988). Communicative language teaching: An aid to second language

acquisition? Some insights from classroom research. English Quarterly, 21(2), 70-80.

Rosenthal, A. S., & Sloane, R. A. (1987). A communicative approach to foreign language

instruction: The UMBC project. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 245-53.

Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (1). ELT Journal, 39(1),
2-12.

Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (2). ELT Journal, 39(2),
76-87.

Terrell, T. D. (1991). The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach.

Modern Language Journal, 75(1), 52-63.

References And Resources

Berns, M. S. (1984). Functional approaches to language and language teaching:

Another look. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), Initiatives in communicative language
teaching. A book of readings (pp. 3-21). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.

Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. (1984). Beyond notions and functions: Language teaching
or the art of letting go. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), Initiatives in communicative
language teaching. A book of readings (pp. 89-107). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Littlewood, W. (1981). Language teaching. An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

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Savignon, S., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1984). Initiatives in communicative language
teaching. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.

Reflection Task:

1. It has been said that the Grammar-Translation Method teaches

students about the target language, but not how to use it. Explain
the difference in your own words.
2. In the Grammar-Translation Method, grammar is treated
deductively, while in the Direct Method it is taught inductively. Can
you explain the difference between deductive and inductive
treatments of grammar?
3. Some people believe that knowledge of a first and second
language can be helpful to learners who are trying to learn a third
language. What would an Audio-Lingual teacher say about this?
Why?
4. Why do we say that communication is a process? What does it
mean to negotiate meaning?

Apply what you have understood about the teaching methods

explained above.

1. Pick a grammatical point or two contained in the same passage.

Provide the explicit grammar rule that relates to each one and give
some examples. Design exercises that require your students to
apply the rule to some different examples.
2. Choose a particular situation (such as at the bank, at the railroad
station, or at the doctor’s office) or a particular topic (such as
articles of clothing, holidays, or the weather) and write a short
passage or a dialog on the theme you have chosen. Now think

34
 about how you will convey its meaning to students using their native
language.
3. Prepare your own dialog to introduce your students to a sentence or
sub-sentence pattern in the target language you teach.
4. Imagine that you are working with your students on the function of
requesting information. The authentic material you have selected is
a railroad timetable. Design a communicative game or problem-
solving task in which the timetable is used to give your students
practice in requesting information.

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