INTRODUCTION Module 1

(Definition, sources, classification and characterization of air pollutants, effects of air pollution on health,
vegetation & materials, types of inversion, photochemical smog)

Air is the homogeneous mixture of gaseous substances like nitrogen, oxygen and smaller amounts of other
substances, in the earth’s atmosphere. Clean and dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen and 20.94% oxygen. The
remaining 0.97% is composed of a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide, helium, argon, krypton, xenon, as
well as very small amounts of some other organic and inorganic gases whose amount in the atmosphere vary
with time and place. Such substances enter in to the atmosphere in various quantities from both natural and
human activities. Some of these substances which interact with environment to cause toxicity, disease,
aesthetic distress, physiological effects or environmental decay, have been labelled as ‘Pollutants’.

Definition of Air pollution

Air pollution is basically the presence of foreign substances in air. Some specific definitions are given below.

Engineer’s joint council of USA defines air pollution as “Presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or
more contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour, in quantities, with
characteristics, and of durations such as to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property, or
which unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property.”

According to bureau of Indian standards, IS-4167(1966), “Air pollution is the presence in ambient
atmosphere of substances, generally resulting from the activity of man, in sufficient concentration, present
for a sufficient time and under circumstances which interfere significantly with the comfort, health or
welfare of persons or with the full use or enjoyment of property.”

According to the American medical association, “Air pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign
matter in the air which adversely affects the well being of the individual or causes damage to the property.”

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 1
Identification of Air pollution
The Air pollution in the surroundings can be identified by following three methods.
1. Sensory recognition
Basically, Sensory perception may provide the first indication of the presence of contaminants in the air.
At first, an air pollution problem is identified through effects on the individuals. These are
a) Strong or unusual odours
b) Reduction in visibility
c) Eye irritation
d) Acid taste in the mouth
e) Feel of grit under foot
These effects are highly subjective phenomena and vary from one to the others
2. Physical measurement of pollution
It is often not possible to detect trace quantities of many air-borne toxic substances or the presence of
radioactive matter through the senses. Their identification requires physical measurement by standard
methods of sampling and analysis.
3. Effects on plants, animals and buildings
Plants, animals and buildings act to some extent as indicators of certain atmospheric impurities. Effects
of air pollution can be observed on the growth of plants and health of animals. Similarly its adverse
effect on buildings can also be observed.

Classification of Air pollutants

Air pollutants can be classified as follows,
1. Natural contaminants (e.g., natural fog, pollen grains, bacteria, and products of volcanic eruptions)
2. Aerosols (Particulates) (e.g., dust, smoke, mists, fog and fumes)
3. Gases and vapours

1. Natural contaminants
The first and foremost source of air pollution is nature itself. Some naturally produced contaminants are
also there to pollute the air. The quantities of artificial pollutants released into the atmosphere are very less
compared to the quantities of natural pollutants. However, large the natural pollutants may be they are
evenly distributed over the entire globe whereas the artificial pollutants are concentrated only in highly
industrialised and urbanised areas.
Among those pollen is important because of its strange properties irritating to some people. Pollen grains
(usually 10 to 50µ and also 5 to 100µ) are the male gametophytes of gymnosperms and angiosperms and
they are discharged into the atmosphere from weeds, grasses and trees. Because of wind pollination,
thousands of pollen grains are liberated. These produce allergic problems in sensitive people. Many people
suffer from asthma or hay fever, bronchitis, dermatitis.
The water vapours present in the atmosphere cause isnophelia, asthma and other respiratory problems and
bring electrical storms.
Temperature which decreases with elevation, intensifies the chemical actions of various other air pollutants
on materials. Being the main meteorological factor it plays vital role in controlling the concentrations of
pollutants in atmosphere.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 2
Usually salt particles are emanated from the sea. These sea sprays are highly corrosive, as a result structures
in the coastal areas have less life. In addition, the abrasive action of sea breezes damage the building
materials and art treasures.

2. Aerosols
It is a colloidal system in which finely divided solid or liquid particles of microscopic size suspended
and dispersed in a gas (i.e., dispersion medium) or in atmosphere as in the case of dust, mist, fog, haze or
smoke. The term Aerosol is used only when the particle is suspended in the air. The term no longer be used
once the particle settles down on a solid or liquid surface. Thus that particle is an air pollutant only when it
is an aerosol. However it is a nuisance both as an aerosol (visibility reduction) and as settled or deposited
matter (soiling of surfaces, corrosion). Sizes of aerosol in the atmosphere range from 0.01µ to 100µ.

Dusts
These are small solid particles generated by crushing, grinding, blasting, processing or handling of organic or
inorganic materials such as coal, cement or grains. Their size ranges from 1 to 200µ. They remain
temporarily in suspension and do not diffuse but they settle down by the action of gravity. Most of the dusts
settle on the ground as dust-fall but particles less than 5µ in size become stable substances in the
atmosphere.

Smoke
Smoke consists of finely divided particles produced by incomplete combustion of fuels. It mainly consists of
carbon and other combustible material. Generally the size of the particles is less than 1µ. The size of the
coal smoke particles range from 0.2-0.01µ and oil smoke particles from 1.0-0.03µ.

Mists
Mist means a light dispersion (low concentration dispersion) of minute water droplets suspended in the
atmosphere. Natural mist particles formed from water vapour in the atmosphere range from 500 – 40µ in
size. The term mist usually applied to water droplets in air where visibility is more than 1 km.

Fog
Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of minute water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air (i.e., dispersed
phase is liquid) at or near the earth’s crust. Fog implies reduction of visibility to less than 1 km. Size of the
particles in natural fog ranges from 40 – 1.0µ. Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud and is heavily
influenced by nearby water bodies, topography and wind conditions.

Fumes
These are very fine solid or liquid particles, 0.001 to 1µ in diameter. Often, they are metallic oxides like zinc
oxide and lead oxide, formed by the condensation of vapours of solid materials. They are formed by
sublimation, distillation, calcinations or molten metal processes. They may flocculate, coalesce and settle out.
The word fumes is commonly used to imply unpleasant and smelling airborne effluents.

Smog
Fog intensified by smoke is called smog. It is the term derived from smoke and fog (Smoke + Fog = Smog).

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 3
This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, ozone, smoke or dirt
particles and also less visible particles such as CFC’s. Human made smog is derived from coal emissions,
vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these
emissions.

3. Gases
Sulphur Dioxide
The oxides of sulphur (SO2 or SO3) are principal constituents of air pollution. SO2 is a colourless gas, non
flammable and non explosive. SO2 has a suffocating odour. It is moderately soluble in water forming weak-
acidic sulphurous acid (H2SO3). It is oxidized slowly in clean air to sulphur trioxide (SO3). In a polluted
atmosphere, SO2 reacts photochemically and catalytically with other pollutants at normal atmospheric
temperatures to form SO3, H2SO4 and salts of H2SO4.
Sources: The main source of sulphur dioxide is the combustion of fuels, especially coal. Therefore its
concentration in the atmosphere depends upon the sulphur content of the fuel used for heating and power
generation. The other sources of SO2 are boilers, ore processing, roasting and heating of non-metallic
minerals, sulphuric acid plants, fertilizer manufacturing, plastics, paints and varnish manufacturing,
oxidation towers, volcanoes, oceans and biological decay by sulphide bacteria.
Effects: SO2, is an irritant gas, when inhaled, affects our mucous membranes, causes irritation of respiratory
tract. It causes effects on breathing rate and oxygen deficit in the body leading to bronchial-spasms. SO2 is
responsible for acidity in fogs, smokes and in rains. SO2 causes interveinal chlorotic bleaching of leaves,
necrosis in interveinal areas and skeletonised leaves. SO2 is the major pollutant which is responsible for
corrosion and deterioration of different materials.

Oxides of Nitrogen
Out of seven oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N203, N2O4, N2O5) only nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) arise from many human activities and are classified as pollutants. In atmospheric
analysis they are usually reported as NOx. N2O (nitrous oxide) is a colourless , odourless, non toxic gas
present in the natural atmosphere.

Sources: Sources of NOx production and emission are fuel combustion from both stationary and mobile
sources, heating of no-metallic minerals, processing of cement, glass refractories, Lightning and electrical
storms, bacterial action in soil, fossil fuels, biomass burning etc. Major source of N 2O in the atmosphere is
the biological activity of the soil and there are no anthropogenic sources.

NO (Nitric oxide) is a colourless, odourless gas produced largely by fuel combustion. It is oxidized to NO2
through photochemical – secondary reactions. NO2 is a reddish brown gas with irritating odour. It absorbs
sunlight and initiates a series of photo chemical reactions. NO 2 is emitted by fuel combustion and nitric acid
plants.

Effects: NO at low levels relatively harmless, but high concentrations cause asphyxiation and respiratory
discomfort. NO2 causes eye and nasal irritation. Long time exposure to larger concentrations of NO 2 may
cause emphysema, increased susceptibility to pneumonia, lung cancer and even death.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 4
 Asphyxiation – The loss of consciousness due to the interruption of breathing. The loss of
consciousness due to the extreme decrease in the concentration of oxygen in the body, because NO
combines about 3lakh times faster with haemoglobin than oxygen.

Emphysema – swelling due to air in body tissues.

Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colourless gas, odourless gas, has its origin in the incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous materials. It is a toxic gas, chemically inert under normal conditions.
Sources: The chief source of CO in the atmosphere is combustion. Vehicular exhausts are the largest
source of CO as the number of vehicles have increased around the world. Certain industrial operations, such
as electric and blast furnaces, some petroleum refining operations, gas manufacturing plants, and coal mines
are potential contributors of CO to the atmosphere.
Effects: CO reacts with the haemoglobin (Hb) of blood to give carboxy haemoglobin (COHb). This reduces
the capability of blood to carry oxygen. CO inhalation causes headache, dizziness, nausea, abnormal heart
beat, difficulty in breathing. At higher levels of CO, if the half of the haemoglobin is used in forming the
COHb, death occurs.

Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a foul smelling gas. It is evolved naturally due to anaerobic biological decay
processes on land, in marshes and oceans.
Sources: Major source of H2S is Kraft pulp industry as it uses sulphide process for manufacturing of paper.
Other sources of H2S are petroleum refineries, coke-oven plants, viscouse rayon plants, industrial waste
disposal ponds, sewage treatment plants and some chemical operations.
Effects: Even at low concentrations, hydrogen sulphide causes headaches, conjuctivitis, sleeplessness, and
pain in the eyes. High concentrations can lead to blockage of O 2 transfer, act as cell and enzyme poison and
damage nerve tissues. Young plant tissues are easily damaged by H2S. Scorching of young roots is observed
when plants are exposed to H2S. It discolourates and tarnishes paints, copper, zinc and silver.

Hydrogen fluoride
HF is a colourless and toxic gas, it is non-flammable having pungent smell and forms corrosive and
penetrating hydrofluoric acid upon contact with moisture.
Sources: The major sources of hydrogen fluoride are the manufacture of phosphate fertilisers, the
aluminium industry, brick plants, pottery, and ferro-enamel works. Small amounts are also emitted from zinc
foundries, open hearth steel furnaces, burning of coal.
Effects: The exposed cattle and children can suffer from fluorosis. Causes irritation of eyes, nose and throat.
HF gas can attach itself to particles in the air, which gets deposited on the surfaces and plants causing
corrosion of metallic surfaces and harmful effects on plant functioning.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are the group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Nature releases
hydrocarbons from swamps, marshes and water bodies. ‘Methane’ known as natural gas evolved due to
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when it rains and join
surface water bodies.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 5
Sources: HCs are evaporated into the atmosphere from petroleum supplies (petrol, diesel, etc), and emitted
out from the automobiles as unburnt remnants. HCs may also be contained in the smokes of incinerators
using petroleum fuels and also in the fumes of oil refineries.
Effects: HCs in higher concentration cause irritation of eyes, and respiratory tract, and atleast eight of them
have been responsible for causing chronic body cancers. HCs are responsible for formation of
photochemical smog.

Aldehydes and Ketones may also be considered under hydrocarbons because they are formed by the
photochemical oxidation of hydrocarbons, as secondary pollutants, although they may also be released from
the automobiles and incinerators along with hydrocarbons. Aldehydes are produced by combustion of
gasoline, diesel oil, fuel oil and natural gas. Incomplete combustion of motor fuel and lubricating oils leads
to the formation of aldehydes. Substances like formaldehydes cause irritation of eyes, skins and lungs, and
hence quite injurious to health.

Ozone
Ozone is a colourless gas. Ozone is poisonous and odorous at ground levels. It exists in great abundance
under natural conditions in the upper atmosphere, it is known as ozone blanket or ozone layer. It does not
allow the dangerous incoming UV rays.
Sources: The origin of the ozone at ground level has not been yet clarified, but it is likely that combustion
and sunlight are involved in its production. It is a secondary pollutant, created by chemical reactions
between oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight.
Effects: Breathing of ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat
irritation and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis and asthma. Ozone at ground level interferes with the
ability of sensitive plants to produce and store food. It damages leaves of the plants, negatively impacting
the appearance of urban vegetation (decorative plants in the urban cities).

Primary and secondary air pollutants

Air pollutants can also be classified as primary and secondary air pollutants based upon their origin.
Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly into the atmosphere from identifiable (and definite)
sources. Important primary pollutants are,
1) Particulate matter: Coarse particles (>100µ) and finer particles (<100µ) including particles of metal,
carbon, tar, resin, pollen, bacteria etc.
2) Sulphur compounds
3) Oxides of nitrogen
4) Carbon monoxide
5) Halogen compounds
6) Organic compounds
7) Radioactive compounds

Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction among two or more
primary pollutants, or by reaction with normal atmospheric constituents like sunlight, water vapour etc.,
with or without photoactivation. Important secondary air pollutants are,
1) Ozone
2) Formaldehyde

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 6
 3) PAN (Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate)
4) Photochemical smog
5) Formation of acid mists (SO2+Moisture = H2SO4)

Stationary and mobile sources

Sources of air pollution are categorised as stationary and mobile sources based on the position of the
sources. Stationary sources are the sources of air pollutants which are located at a fixed place.
Mobile sources are the sources of air pollutants which are mobile or non-stationary, which are not located at
any fixed place.
Another method of classifying emission sources is by
1) Point sources - Large stationary sources
2) Line sources - mobile sources with definite routes
3) Area sources - small stationary sources and mobile sources with indefinite routes

Total sources
Stationary sources Mobile sources
Point sources Area sources Line sources Area sources
Motor vehicles – light,
Industrial processing Domestic burning Highway lines
medium, heavy duty
Power plants Open burning Trains Railyard locomotives
Solid waste disposal –
Evaporative losses Channel vessels Port vessels
municipal incinerators
- - - Aircrafts (airports)

Sources of Air Pollution

No. Class Aerosols Gases and Vapours
Combustion processes (Domestic
Burning, thermal power plants, Dust, fumes, SO2, NO2, CO, organic vapours,
1
cars, trucks, aeroplanes, railways smoke odours
and also refuse burning)
Chemical processes (Paper mills, Dust, fume, Process-dependent (SO2, NO2, CO,
2
cement, fertilisers etc.) mist NH3, NO2, organic vapours, odours)
SO2, H2S , NH3 , CO, hydrocarbons,
3 Petroleum operations Dust, mist
mercaptans
Metallurgical Processes
4 Dust, fume SO2, CO, fluorides, organic vapours
(Aluminium refineries, Steel plants)
Process dependent (SO2, CO,
5 Mineral processing Dust, fume
fluorides, organic vapours)
6 Food and feed operations Dust, mist Odourous materials
Agricultural activities Organic phosphates, chlorinated
7 1. Crop spraying Dust, mist hydrocarbons, sulphur oxides, organic
2. Field burning Smoke, Fly ash vapours
Nuclear energy programmes Flourides
1. Fuel fabrication Iodine-131 and Argon-41
8 Dust
2. Ore preparation Radioactive gases (Sr-90, Cs-137, C-14,
3. Bomb explosion etc.)

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 7
Effects of air pollution on human health
All the impurities in the inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. It affects human health depending upon
the following prime factors.
1. Nature of the pollutants
2. Concentration of the pollutants
3. Duration of exposure
4. State of health of the receptor
5. Age group of the receptor
`
Effects of air pollution on human health occur after the contact of air pollutants with the body. Generally
bodily contact occurs at the surface of skin and exposed membranes. Pollutants may cause irritation of the
membranes of the eyes, nose, throat, larynx, tracheo-bronchial tree and lungs. Contact with exposed
membranous surface is most important because of their high absorptive capacity as compared to the skin.
Some pollutants even reach the mucosa of the digestive tract.
Respiratory system is affected more than any part of the body because basic function of the respiratory
system involves inhaling oxygen present in the air and exhaling CO 2. Pollutants enter the body through
respiratory system consisting of nasal and oral cavity, trachea, bronchial trees and lungs. At the entrance to
the lungs, the trachea divides in to two bronchial trees. At the end of the bronchioles, there is large
collection of tiny sacs called alveoli. It is across alveolar membranes that oxygen diffuses from the air in the
sacs to the pulmonary capillaries and CO2 diffuses in the opposite direction.

Health effects
1. Eye irritation.
2. Nose and throat irritation
3. Irritation of the respiratory tract
4. Gases like hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), mercaptans cause odour nuisance even at low
concentrations.
5. Increase in the mortality rate and morbidity rate.
6. A variety of particulates like pollens, initiate asthmatic attacks.
7. Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by a high concentration of SO 2,
NO2, particulate matter and photochemical smog.
8. CO combines with the haemoglobin in the blood and consequently increases stress on those suffering
from cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 8
9. Hydrogen fluoride causes diseases of the bone (fluorosis) and mottling of teeth.
10. Carcinogenic agents cause cancer.
11. Dust particles cause respiratory diseases. Diseases like silicosis, asbestosis etc, are caused from specific
dusts.
12. Certain heavy metals like lead may enter the body through the lungs and cause poisoning.
13. The biological effect of radiation may be somatic or genetic damage. Radioactive fallout causes cancer,
shortening of life span and genetic effects or mutation.

Effects induced in man by toxic substances

Skin Altered appearance, irritation, sensitization, corrosion
Eye Irritation, corneal opacity, retinal damage, cataract
Irritation, sensitization, pneumoconiosis, fibrosis,
Lung adenoma, carcinoma, neoplasis, mesothelemia,
asphyxiation
Germ cell mutation, embryotoxicity, teratogenesis
Reproductive
infertility, abortion, malformation of foetus, neonatal
system
death, developmental defects
Behavioural changes, peripheral neuropathy, mental
Nervous system depression, ataxia, narcosis, parkinsonism, stupor,
vomiting and drowsiness
Immune system Suppression, modulation
Musculoskeletal
Osteoporosis, dystrophy
system
Bone marrow depression, leukemia, aplastic anemia,
Hemopolisis
methamoglobinamia
Liver MFO induction, neoplasis, cirrhosis, necrosis
Kidney Uremia, lithiasis, aminoacidurea

Susceptibility to the effects of air pollution is more in case of infants (pre-school and school children) and
also elder people and those who are suffering from diseases. Those people with chronic diseases of lungs
and heart are thought to be at great risk. The effect of air pollution on human health is worst during the
winter seasons, when pollution levels reach a maximum.

Effects of air pollution on vegetation

Air pollution has a damaging effect on plants also. The effect of air pollutants on vegetation depends upon
their chemical nature, level of concentration and duration of exposure. The most obvious damage caused by
air pollutants to vegetation occurs in leaf structure. A cross section of a leaf shows four principal layers, the
upper epidermal cells, the palisade parenchyma, the spongy parenchyma and the lower epidermal cells. The
surface of the leaf is covered by a waxy layer known as cuticle. Between the waxy layers, epidermis is
present, which is a single layer of cells forming the surface skin of the leaf. The leaf surface has a large
number of openings called stomata, which are bounded by guard cells which also control the opening and
closing of stomata to allow gases to enter or leave the leaf. Such gases ofcourse include pollutants which
cause damage to the leaf in many forms.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 9
Damage to the leaves takes place in several forms.
1. Necrosis – It is the killing or collapse of tissue. Tissue injured by phytotoxicants often has a
characteristic colour. For example, bleaching is associated with SO2, yellowing with NH3, browning with
fluoride and silvering or bronzing of under surfaces of some leaves with PAN.
2. Chlorosis – It is the loss or reduction of the green plant pigment, chlorophyll. The loss of chlorophyll
usually results in pale green or yellow patterns. Chlorosis generally indicates a deficiency of some
nutrients required by the plant.
3. Abscission – Leaf abscission is dropping of leaves.
4. Epinasty – Leaf epinasty is a downward curvature of the leaf due to higher rate of growth on the upper
surface.
5. Pigmented lesions – may result with dark brown, black, purple or red spots appearing on the leaf
surface.

Air pollutants affecting plants

1. Sulphur dioxide
2. Fluoride compounds (like HF)
3. Ozone
4. Hydrogen chloride
5. Nitrogen oxides ( NO, NO2 etc.)
6. Ammonia
7. Hydrogen sulphide
8. Hydrogen cyanide
9. Mercury
10. Ethylene
11. PAN
12. Herbicides (sprays of weed killers)
13. Smog
Effect of some specific air pollutants on plants
Pollutant Dose Effect
1. Sulphur dioxide Mild Interveinal chlorotic bleaching of leaves
Necrosis in interveinal areas and skeletonised
sever
leaves
Flecks on upper surfaces, premature aging and
2. Ozone (O3) Mild
suppressed growth

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 10
 sever Collapse of leaf, necrosis and bleaching
3. Fluorides Cumulative effect Necrosis at leaf tip
4. nitrogen dioxide mild Suppressed growth, leaf bleaching
5. ethylene (CH2) mild Epinasty, leaf abscission
Bronzing of lower leaf surface, suppressed
6. PAN mild
growth. Young leaves are more susceptible.
The epidermis and mesophyll of plants will be
0.10 ppm for at
7. Chlorine (Cl2) affected by bleaching between veins, tip and
least 2 hours
margin burn and leaf abscission.
8. Hydrogen chloride 50 ppm Browning of tips of grasses
5 ppm Interveinal bronzing of tomato leaves
Leaf burning of broad leaf plants, bleaching and
-
necrosis
Greenhouse crops and floral parts of all
9. Mercury (Hg) - vegetation are affected; abscission and growth
reduction occur in most of the plants
Defoliation, dwarfing, curling, twisting, growth
10. Pesticides and reduction and killing of plants may occur. If
-
herbicides necessary precautions are not taken taste and
flavour of plants and cotton also are affected.
Affects quality of plants, reduces vigor & hardness
11. Particulates - and interferes with photosynthesis due to plugging
of leaf stomata and blocking of light.

Kinds of injury to plants

Acute injury –
It results from short time exposure to relatively high concentrations. The effects are noted within a few
hours to a few days and may result in visible markings on the leaves due to a collapse or death of cells. This
leads to necrotic patterns i.e., areas of dead tissues.

Chronic injury –
It results from long-term low level exposure and usually causes chlorosis or leaf abscission.

Growth or yield retardation –

Here the injury is in the form of an effect on growth without visible markings (invisible injury). Usually a
suppression of growth or yield occurs.

Effects of air pollution on materials

Air pollution damage to the property is a very important economic aspect of pollution. Air pollution damage
to property covers a wide range – corrosion of metals, soiling and eroding of building surfaces, fading of
dyed materials, rubber cracking. Following are the processes which account for the effects of air pollution
on materials.

Mechanism of deterioration by air pollutants

1. Abrasion: solid particles of considerable size travelling with higher speeds can cause abrasive action.
Large sharp edged particles embedded in fabrics can accelerate wear.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 11
2. Chemical action: Some pollutants react directly and irreversibly with materials to cause deterioration.
SO2 bleaches marble, hydrogen sulphide tarnishes silver and acidic mists cause etching of metallic
surfaces.
3. Absorption (Indirect chemical action) – Some materials absorb pollutants and get damaged when the
pollutants undergo chemical action. SO2 absorbed by leather will be converted to sulphuric acid which
deteriorates the leather.
4. Corrosion: Action of air pollutants in the presence of moisture causes corrosion. The atmospheric
deterioration of ferrous metal is due to corrosion by an electrochemical process.
5. Deposition and removal: Solid and liquid particles deposited on a surface may damage the material by
spoiling its appearance. The removal of these particles may cause deterioration as in the case of washing
of soiled clothes i.e., it needs rough rubbing action to clean the clothes which spoils its appearance.

Factors influencing the effect on materials

1. Temperature affects the rate of a chemical reaction and consequently it affects the rate of deterioration.
Most of the chemical reactions are accelerated at higher temperatures.
2. The presence of moisture in the atmosphere greatly helps in the process of corrosion. Without
moisture in the atmosphere, there would be little atmospheric corrosion, if any, even in the most
severely polluted environments. Rate of corrosion of metals will increase as the relative humidity
(moisture) in the air increases.
3. Sunlight may directly damage materials as in case of fading of dyes and cracking of rubber. Moisture
present on the materials becomes the host of several organisms like algae and fungi in the presence of
light. Sunlight is indirectly responsible for damage of materials as many secondary pollutants like PAN
and O3 are formed in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight.
4. Precipitation in the form of fog may fill the pores of materials, especially building materials and later
may freeze and expand. Due to this or due to alternate wetting and drying, the materials may be
damaged.
5. Wind direction plays a very important role as it drives the air pollutants from the sources. Damage to
the crops in the vicinity of the factories is caused by air movement only. Wind speed is also an
important factor in determining the impact of air pollutants on materials pollutants present in the wind
travelling at high speeds will cause more abrasive effects.
6. Stability of atmosphere- In highly stable atmospheres pollutant dispersion is restricted, leading to very
high ground level concentrations. Unstable atmospheres are favourable for dispersion, causing less
damage to the materials.
7. Concentration and duration- Material damage is directly related to concentration of the pollutants
and exposure time. For example, the effect of 260µg/m3 of particulates on a material for 24hours may
be the same as the effect of 75µg/m3 for one year. Usually the concentration of pollutants changes
from time to time depending upon the meteorological conditions.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 12
 Effect of Air Pollutants on Materials
Sl. Influencing
Material Air Pollutants Effects
No. Parameter
Metals and Tarnishing of surfaces, corrosion of
SO2, NO2,
alloys Moisture and metals
acid gases.
temperature

Cl2, H2S,
Particulates H2S tarnishes silver.
Chromium,
1 Silver
HCl

Etching of surfaces by acid mists,

Etching of glass by H2S,
Ferrous metals, loss of metal and loss of strength
SO2, acids,
zinc, aluminium, Moisture due to reaction of acids formed by
CO2, NOx, P
copper and glass SOx, CO2, phosphorous etc.
Building Moisture, Soiling discolouration and damage
SO2, acids &
materials wind, sea due to abrasion, alternate wetting
gases
sprays and and drying.
oily particles

Bricks and Deterioration by carbonic acid

CO2
stones formed due to (CO2 + moisture)

2
Limestone, sand Indirect chemical action,
stone, marble, Moisture Formation of loose surfaces that
SOx, NOx
roofing slate, flake off.
mortar, statues.

Softening;
Wood, fibre Moisture and stress corrosion of carbon steel due
glass, rubber, temperature to NH3.
NH3
PVC.
Soiling, reduction in life due to
SO2, acids,
abrasive action during washing,
gases,
Loss of tensile strength in cotton
O3, NO2, NH3,
Moisture and curtains and nylon drapes, oxidation
3 Textiles
sunlight of dyes turing white fabrics into
yellow.
chromium, iron
Staining due to formation of their
and manganese
oxides.
SO3, H2S and Microbial attack on organic
Paints and particulates, Moisture, constituents of paints,
4
warnishes Iron, NH3, Cl2, fungus, discolouration, deposition of
chromium, particulate matter.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 13
 microorganisms
SO2, acidic Embrittlement and discolouration,
5 Paper gases, Sunlight Decrease in folding resistance of the
Chromium paper.
Cracking of rubber by O3 attack,
Plastics,
Oxidants like Sunlight, Decrease in molecular weight and
elastomers
6 O3, NH3, NO2, weather increase in rigidity of polymers
(rubbers), tyres,
PAN inversions making them more brittle and less
insulators
resilient.
Backery and
Biological Saprophytic bacteria and fungi cause
7 other food Moisture
aerosols food spoilation
products
Leather SO2, Temperature, Embrittlement,
8
products microorganisms humidity Bacteriological degradation

Photochemical smog
It was first observed in Los angeles, USA in 1940s and now has been detected as a common phenomenon
in most of the metropolitan cities. Photochemical air pollution occurs in highly motorized areas and when
inversion conditions occur in the atmosphere. The formation of photochemical smog is due to action of
sunlight on the two pollutants- Hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. The major source of these two
pollutants is the exhaust gases from automobiles. The conditions for the formation of photochemical smog
are air stagnation, abundant sunlight and high concentrations of hydrocarbons and NO x in the atmosphere.
Due to complex photochemical reactions secondary pollutants such as ozone, aldehydes, ketones and PAN
are formed.

It has been found that photochemical smog normally occurs in the morning and evening time.
The conditions which prevail for this are lower temperatures in the morning and evening,
presence of sunlight, occurrence of natural fog in the morning and evening.

It has been found that at the time of photochemical smog formation, there is a considerable
increase in the amounts of ozone in the atmosphere. But the ozone is not found in appreciable
amounts at night, but only during the day. These facts clearly indicate formation of
photochemical smog takes place due to the action of sunlight.

In the beginning, light energy is absorbed by NO2. The highly energized molecule (NO2*) then decomposes
into nitric oxide and atomic oxygen. The atomic oxygen reacts quickly with molecular oxygen to form
ozone. A stable ozone molecule is formed when a third body (X) is present otherwise ozone decomposes
rapidly. If nitric oxide is present, it reacts with ozone to form NO 2 and an oxygen molecule.

𝑁𝑂2 + ℎ𝑣 → 𝑁𝑂∗ 2

𝑁𝑂∗ 2 → 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 14
 𝑂 + 𝑂2 + 𝑋 → 𝑂3 + 𝑋

𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2

If ozone is present in excess, then

2𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂3 → 𝑁2 𝑂5 + 𝑂2

In presence of water vapour,

𝑁2 𝑂5 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3

Ozone may be formed in the atmosphere as a byproduct during the photochemical oxidation of sulphur
dioxide to sulphuric acid. The reaction takes place as follows,

𝑆𝑂2 + ℎ𝑣 → 𝑆𝑂∗ 2

𝑆𝑂∗ 2 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂4

𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂3 + 𝑂3

𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

Further in the presence of certain hydrocarbons, other reactions take place. Some of the atomic oxygen,
ozone and nitric oxide react with hydrocarbons to form a variety of compounds.

𝑅𝐶𝑂 ∗ + 𝑂2 → 𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗

𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑠 → 𝑅𝐶𝐻𝑂 (𝐴𝑙𝑑𝑒ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑒𝑠), 𝑅2 𝐶 = 𝑂 (𝐾𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠)

𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + 𝑁𝑂 → 𝑅𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑁𝑂2

𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + 𝑂2 → 𝑂3 + 𝑅𝐶𝑂2

𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + 𝑁𝑂2 → 𝑅𝐶𝑂3 𝑁𝑂2 (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑦 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠)

With the other reactions, 𝑅𝐶𝑂3 𝑁𝑂2 may be

CH3 (CO)O2 NO2 – Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)

H (CO)O2 NO2 – Peroxy formyl nitrate (PFN)

C6H5 (CO)O2 NO2 – Peroxy benzyl nitrate (PBzN)

In presence of sunlight aldehydes produce organic free radicals.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 15
Effects of Photochemical smog

1. The compounds of formaldehyde, acrolein, PAN, and PBzN are highly irritant to eyes.
2. O3, NO2, PAN present in the photochemical smog cause necrosis and silvering or bronzing of the
upper side of the leaves. Vegetation is badly affected by photochemical smog.
3. Carbon, sulphur and halides present in the smog cause visibility problems. The usual size of the
aerosols present is about 0.3 µ.
4. Ozone present in the smog is responsible for cracking of rubber, if anti-ozonants are not used in
production of rubber materials.
5. Fading of dyes is also another important economic effect of photochemical smog.

****

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 16
SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 17