Research – coined from a French word “cerhier” which means seek.

Re- means to repeat.

The process of obtaining information to seek solutions to problems is called research. It may also involve in formulating a
tentative answer to research questions. This tentative answer is called hypothesis, which may be tested and verified by
engaging in research.

Quantitative vs Qualitative

In qualitative research, the end goal of the inquiry is to seek meaning and a deeper understanding of a phenomenon as
seen from the perspective of the participants.

Quantitative research, on the other hand is focus on acquiring numerical data through the use of research instruments.

Qualitative Research

-the end goal of the inquiry is to seek meaning and deeper understanding of a phenomenon as seen from the perspective of
the participants. Data collection techniques in this research method involve observations, interviews, open -ended
questioners and focus group discussion.

Quantitative Research

-Is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena through the use of computational techniques.
It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some
larger population and explain a particular observation. Simply, quantitative research is concerned with number and its
relationship with events.

Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods

Elements of Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

comparison
Assumptions  The world is complex, and no single  The world or physical reality is explained by
variable or number can adequately the laws of nature and science.
explain such phenomena.  Data can be objectively and reliably drawn
 The world is constructed from the from a sample and accurately reflect reality
point of view of participants
 Physical reality us understood from
the perspective or stories of
participants
Research Goal  To understand a social  To explain the causes of phenomena
phenomenon, seek meaning and through objective measurement and
interpret reality as seen from the numerical analysis
perspective of participants  To predict and establish relationships, and
 To gain insight, describe events and generalize findings
patterns, and increase
understanding of ideas, feelings,
beliefs, and motives of participants
Sampling  Small, purposive and context-  Randomized and controlled for extraneous
specific variables. Large samples are usually needed
to represent the population.
Data collection  Include document collection  Include administration of test
techniques participant observation, questionnaires or experimentation, survey
unstructured and informal questionnaires, and of existing data sets
interviews, intensive field notes,
review of artifacts and focus group
discussions.
Research design  Evolving and flexible. A working  Structured, predetermined, formal and
hypothesis or a “hunch” is stated in inflexible
the beginning of the research, which  Uses robust instrumentation that is
can be changed and adapted, taking designed and structured to verify the
into consideration the context and hypothesis set at the beginning of the
merging of data uncovered during inquiry process. It usually involves an
the inquiry process. interventions and manipulation of variables.
 Characterized by nonintervention
and procedures that have minimal
 disturbance to the participants and
the research setting
Hypotheses  Tentative. It evolves during the  Specific, testable, and stated at the onset of
course of the study the study.
Generalizability  Assumes that each individual,  Assumes that a researcher can discover
culture or research setting is unique. “laws” of nature that may add to liable
Because of this uniqueness, predictions and control of phenomenon.
generalizations are dependent on  During the inquiry process, the researcher
the context of the study seeks for regularities in samples of
individuals or groups.
Data analysis  Ongoing and inducive. Analysis is  Deductive and statistical. This implies that
repeated until a plausible and numeric data are subjected to statistical
credible explanation of the data is analysis that may involve descriptive,
arrived at. parametric, nonparametric, inferential, and
 Qualitative data obtained from field analytic procedures.
notes, observations and other
techniques are summarized for
codes, patterns and themes.
Role of  Deliberately interacts with  Is objective, impartial and detached.
researcher participants in a personal way  There is intersubjective reliability thus,
 Free to use intuition and judgement researchers adhere strictly to the scientific
as bases for deciding how frame a methods or to a formal set of procedures in
questions or how to conduct an collecting and analyzing data.
observation

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

1. Objective. Quantitative research accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts. It is not based on mere
intuitions and guesses. Data are gathered before proposing a conclusion or solution to a problem.-
2. Clearly Defined Research Questions. In quantitative research, the researchers know in advance what they are
looking for which objective answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are
gathered.
3. Structured research instruments. Data are normally gathered using structured research tools such as
questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics of the population like age, socio-economic status, number of
children among others.
4. Numerical Data. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often organize and presented using tables, charts,
graphs and figures that consolidate large numbers of data to show trend, relationships, or differences among
variables.
5. Large Sample Sizes. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population distribution curved is
preferred. This requires a large sample size, depending on how the characteristics of the population vary. Random
sampling is recommended in determining the sample size to avoid researcher’s biased in interpreting the results.
6. Replication. Reliable quantitative studies can be repeated to verify or confirm the correctness of the results in
another setting. This strengthen the validity of the findings thus eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions.
7. Future outcomes. By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of computes, if then scenarios may
be formulated thus predicting future results.
Variables in Quantitative Research

Types of Definition Examples

Variables

Role taken by the variable

Independent Variable that is manipulated Kind of diet (with or without supplement),

amount of fertilizer, exposure to sunlight, dose of
a medicine.

Dependent Variable that changes as a result of the Motor skills and memory test of rats, growth of
manipulation of the independent plants, response time to medication
variable

Value on Scale

Discrete Variable that assumes a distinct or Number of puppies, number of children in a

discrete value on a scale household

Continuous A variable assumes a continues point on Height, weight, average daily temperature
scale

Variables are properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can be assigned with different values or
amounts.

Dependent variable is a variable that changes as a result of an intervention or experiment. This are what the researchers are
trying to measure and test.

Independent Variable is what the researcher manipulates to see the changes in the depended variable.

Levels of measurement

Nominal Provides a label, categorization Gender (either male/female)

or classification

Ordinal Provides an order or rank of the Degree of satisfaction (not satisfied, satisfied, very
value satisfied)

Interval The difference between two Time as read on 12-hour clock

 points on a scale

Ratio Has the property of nominal, Work experience

ordinal and interval scales and
possesses a true zero point

Comparison of Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio

Characteristics Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Categorization, label or classification / / / /

Allow for the calculation of the mean and / / /

median

The “order” of the value is known / / /

Can quantify the difference between each / /

value

Can add or subtract each value / /

Can multiply and divide each value /

Has a zero point /

 Types of Quantitative Short Description Sample Studies
Research

Experimental

True experimental Characterized by rigid manipulation of The effect of a new treatment plan for
variables; use of control, selection, and breast cancer
random assignment of participants

Quasi-experimental Characterized by rigid manipulation of The use of conventional versus cooperative

variables; use of control but no randomization; learning groups on students’ academic
intact groups or participants are used instead achievement

The effect of personalized instruction

versus conventional instruction on
computational skill

Nonexperimental: According to Research Purpose

Descriptive Seeks to describe the current status of an A description of the tobacco use habits of
identified variable. Research projects are teenagers
designed to provide systematic information
A description of the kinds of physical
about a phenomenon. Survey research belongs
activities that typically occur in nursing
to this category
homes and how frequently each occurs

Predictive Designed to predict or forecast some event or Factor affecting college success
phenomenon in the future without necessarily
The relationship between the types of
establishing cause-and-effect relationship.
activities used in math classrooms an
Correlational research to a certain extent can
students’ academic achievement
be classified as predictive

Explanatory Aims to develop or test a theory to explain The role of peers and study groups in
how and why it operated and to identify causal students’ attitude in learning and academic
factors behind the phenomenon achievement in mathematics

Nonexperimental: According to time Dimension

Cross-sectional Data are collected at a single point in time, Graduating students’ beliefs perceptions,
and comparisons are made across the and experiences on their k to 12 schooling
variables of interest

Retrospective Comparisons are made between the past, as The possible causes of lung cancer and
estimated by the data, and the present for the related respiratory disorders of smokers
cases in the data set.

Longitudinal Data are collected starting at the present and A prospective longitudinal study of the
are collected again sometime in the future to correlation and consequences of early
compare past and future data sets grade retention

The kind of research is dependent on the researcher’s aim in conducting the study and the extent to which the findings will
be used.
Descriptive Research. This design is concerned with describing the nature, characteristics and components of the
population or a phenomenon. There is no manipulation of variables or search for cause and effect related to the
phenomenon. This design attempts to find general attributes of the presently existing situation and determine the
frequency with which it occurs. Descriptive research is used if, for example, you want to know how many senior high school
students spend in social media, the number of malnourished students who failed in the achievement test, and how healthy
is the food served during recess in the public schools.

Correlation Research. It is the systematic investigation of the nature of relationships, or associations between and among
the variable without necessarily investigating into causal reasons underlying them. It is also concerned with the extent of
relationships that exists between or among the variables. For example, if pre-board examination results can be used to
predict performance in the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET), then the higher the pre-board grade, the higher the
pre-board grade, the higher most likely be the score in the LET. Correlation is employed if you like to know for example, if
the following factors are related to each other: sex and mathematical ability, marriage and cancer recovery, occupation and
life span.

Causal – Comparative Research. It is also known as ex post facto (after the fact) research. This kind of research derives
conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent
variables. It discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs. For example, a researcher is interested in how much weight
influences stress-coping level of adults. Here the subjects would be separated into different groups (underweight, normal
weight, overweight) and their stress-coping levels measured. This is an ex post facto design because a pre-existing
characteristics (weight) was used to form the groups.

Experimental Research. this research utilized the scientific method to test cause-effect relationships under conditions
controlled by the researcher. In this case, an effort is made to determine and impose control over all other variables. Except
one. An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variables.

CONCEPT MAP

strengths
QUANTITATIVE has
RESEARCH
can be understood with limitations

is classified as
variables

are classified as
Experimental nonexperimental
independent
has two types

dependent True experimental

is classified according to
(with randomization)
Research goals Time dimension
qualitative

Quasi-experimental
(intact groups) Descriptive Cross-sectional
discrete

continuous Predictive retrospective

Explanatory longitudinal
 The Purpose of Research
NONEXPERIMENTAL Is there an EXPERIMENTAL
QUANTITATIVE
DESIGNS
NO intervention? YES DESIGNS

TRUE
Would you EXPERIMENTAL
YES DESIGNS
use
randomization
?
YES Are data
CROSS-
SECTIONAL
collected at a NO
time?
QUASI-
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
NO

Are you
RESTROSPECTIVE describing a
OR LONGITUDINAL Descriptive
phenomenon YES Research
NO

Predictive or
Exploratory
Research
YES

Are you PREDICTIVE

Are data establishing a RESEARCH
collected over relationship?
time? YES
LONGITUDINAL
NO
NO
EXPLAINATORY
RESEARCH
RESTROSPECTIVE

Obtaining explanation
Comparing between on a phenomenon
past and present data
set

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

STEP 2 STEP 3
STEP 1 STEP 4
Do the review of STEP 5
Define the Formulate the Prepare the
the Related Collect Data
research problem Hypothesis research Design
Literature

STEP 7
STEP 8 STEP 6
Report Finding of Write the
Analyze and interpret
the Research Research
data
Topic

Characteristics of Good Research

In the summary, the following are the three characteristics of a good research topic

1. IT is a topic that you are extremely passionate about all throughout the inquiry process

2. It is topic that is valuable and worthwhile to you, your fellow scholars, and the society.

3. IT is a topic that is doable, it allows you, as a researcher, to demonstrate your mastery of the topic and methods

Narrowing Down the topic

1. Choose a General Topic Ex. Grade 11 students

2. What are you interested to find out about? Ex. Learning
3. Specify the information that you want to focus on the topic that Ex. Cooperative learning
you are interested with. environment in science
4. Identify variables to link to your topic. Identify the Independent
and dependent variables associated with the topic
5. Write your problem statement
6. Write your research questions based on the problem statement
7 Develop a working title of the study

A. Selecting the Research Topic

1. It should be something new or different from what has already been written about.
2. It must be original
3. It should be significant to the field of study or discipline
4. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity
5. It should be of researcher’s interest and researcher must be with the topic
6. It should be a modest one for a beginner to be carried on within a limited period of time
7. It should be clear, not ambiguous
8. It should be specific, not general
9. It should consider the training and personal qualifications of the researcher
10. It should consider the availability of data involve in the study and the methods and techniques to be employed
in gathering them.
11. It should consider the availability of effective instruments for gathering the data and their treatment
12. It should consider the financial capacity of the researcher to support the project
13. It should consider the time factor involved in the undertaking

B. Selected guidelines in the formulation of a research title

1. The title must contain the following elements

a. the subject matter of the research problem

b. the setting or locale of the study
c. the respondents or participants involved in the study, and
d. the long time or period when the study was conducted (if the title becomes too long because these
elements, the timeframe

2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the study but should be brief and concise as possible,

3. The use of terms as “Analysis of” “A study of”, “An investigation of” and the like should be avoided. All these are
understood to have been done in a research.

4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written in inverted pyramid

5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all words in the title should be in capital letters

6. If possible, the title should not be longer than 15 substantive words

7. Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much information

8. To shorten the title, delete terms “assessment or evaluation” if these are already emphasized in the text.

C. Background of the Study

This present state of knowledge regarding the problem. Answers the questions: What facets of the problem (phenomenon)
are known and what need further investigation? What approaches have been used previously in research problem?
The background includes:

1. The discussion of the problem in general and the specific situations and observed and experienced by the
researcher (macro-micro approach);

2. Concepts and ideas related to the problem, including clarification of important terminologies; and

3. Discussion of the existing or present conditions and what is aimed to be in the future or the gap to be filed-in by
the research.

D. Problem Statement

Provides the scope, purpose and direction of the study. It should present the problem you will investigate, gives the
argumentative assertion about your topic, and states what you intend to prove at the end of the study. It should briefly
describe the situation that exists which is perceived as something less than the ideal; or what it should be and how you see
it to be. It answers the questions: What are the reason for this circumstance? Is it answerable or possible to be solve or
changed? What are the specific problems that the study aims to answer?

The Statement of the Problem tells what is done to make the situation that exist more like what it should be. It exposes
anything that is wrong with the situation or condition or circumstance which is being described. It has two main elements:

1. Objective;
2. Research questions

Objective or Purpose of the Study

The objective or purpose of the study is the first part of the problem where the researcher states the objective
expected to be achieved by the study. This is derived by the identification and crystallization of the research problem and as
reflected in the title.
It is prefixed by these introductory phrases:
Example: “The main objective of this study is to….”
Criteria for Evaluating Research Questions
 The research questions should be researchable. A researchable question is one that can be answered by collecting
and analyzing data.
 the problem implied in the research question should be valuable and worthwhile. Answers to the research
questions should have theoretical or practical importance.
 The research question should point toward the data-gathering procedure to employed in the study. The research
question should provide structure, direction, and guidepost to the researcher as the study is conducted
 The research question should specify samples or participants of the study. These are the people whom the
researcher intends to investigate.
 The research question should indicate the methods or data-gathering procedures to be adopted.
 The problem implied in the research question should be clear. It should neither too broad or too narrow.
Research Questions or Investigative Problems

The specific questions which are to be answered in the study are called research questions or investigative questions, and
are all in question form. The answer to the research questions should lead to the solution of the research problem. Is the
objective or purpose of the study observable, measurable or verifiable? Focus on a clear goal or objective. State the precise
goal. The problem should be limited enough in making a definite conclusion as possible.

1. The major statement or questions may be followed by minor statements or questions. The introductory statement
must be the purpose/aim or the objective of the study.

Example: Specifically, the study aims to determine the causes of low performance of selected programs in the
board examinations. Further, it seek to answer to the following sub-problems: 1…. 2…. 3…. Etc.”

2. If the goal is specifically to test a given hypothesis then state so. In many cases, the objective will be a more
general statement than that of a hypothesis.

Example: the primary objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
workplace condition and teaching performance of faculty members.
 3. Investigative questions are the specific topical questions that one must resolve to achieve research objective or
test the research hypothesis.
Example:
This study attempted to evaluate the status and extent of implementation of the Computer Education
Program in the Division of Rizal SY 2015-2016 as perceived by the teacher and student respondents. Specifically
this sought answers to the following questions:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 Teacher-respondents
1.1.1 Sex
1.1.2 Field of specialization
1.1.3 Educational attainment
1.1.4 Length of service; and
1.1.5 Computer education seminar/training attended?
1.2 students-respondents
1.2.1 sex;
1.2.2 monthly family income
1.2.3 parents’ educational background
1.2.4 accessibility to computer; and
1.2.5 performance in English and Mathematics
2. What is the extent of the Computer Education Program implementation as perceived by the teacher-
respondents with respect to:
2.1 objectives and content of instruction
2.2 teaching competencies
2.3 learning competencies
2.4 methods of teaching employed; and
2.5 computer facilities?
3. What is the extent of the computer education Program implementation as perceived by the student-
respondents with respect to:
1.1 objectives and content of instruction
1.2 teaching competencies
1.3 learning competencies

E. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The scope describes the coverage of the study. It specifies what is covered in terms concept, number of subjects or the
population included in the study, as well as the timeline when the study was conducted.

Delimit by citing factors or variables that are not to be included and the boundary in terms of time frame, number of
subjects, participants or respondents who are excluded. Specify that which you will not deal within the study.

This section discusses the parameters of the research in paragraph it answers the basic questions:

1. What- the topics of investigation and the variables included

2. Where- the venue or the setting of the research
3. When – the time frame by which the study was conducted
4. Why – the general objectives of the research
5. Who – the subject of the study, the population and sampling
6. How- the methodology of the research which may include the research design, methodology and the research
instrument

It may also discuss why certain variables were not included in the research.

Example:

The main purpose of the study is to provide information regarding metro-sexuality and how being a metrosexual
affects the lifestyle of the student. The study considers the student’s personal information such as their name
(optional) gender, age and section.

The researcher limited the study to 80 male and female secondary education students enrolled in the second semester
of school year 2015- 2016 of Technological Institute of the Philippines. Each of the respondents was given a
questionnaire to answer. The students selected came from four different sections to prevent bias and get objective
perceptions.

F. Significance of the Study

In this part of the research, the researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the study. He/She
describes how the problem will be solved and specifically pinpoints who will benefit from such findings or results.
 Usually the beneficiaries of the study are those experts concerned about the problem, the administrators or policy-
makers who make decisions or implement programs, the subject themselves, future researchers and those who
are directly or indirectly affected by the problem.

Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

1. Refer to the statement of the problem
Your problem statement can guide you in identifying the specific contribution of your study. You can do this by
observing a one-to-one correspondence between your statement of the problem and the significance of the
study.
2. Write from general to specific
Write the significance of the study by looking into the general contribution of your study, such as its
importance to society as a whole, then to individuals which may include yourself as a researcher.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Types of Literature Review

Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources the researcher has explored while researching a
particular topic and to demonstrate to the readers how the research fits within a larger field of study (university of
Southern California). The following are the basic types of literature review.

1. Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption,
or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that
establishes opposite perspective.
2. Integrative Review
This is considered a form of research the reviews, critiques and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in
an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature
include all studies that address related or identical hypothesis
3. Historical Review
The purpose of historical review is to systematically examine past events to give an account of what has happened
in the past. It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a description of past events.
Historical review is a flowing, dynamic account of past events which involves an interpretation of these events in
an attempt to recapture the nuances, personalities, and ideas that influenced these events. The main focus of this
is to communicate an understanding of past events.
4. Methodological Review
A review does not always focus on what someone said but how they came about came about (method of analysis).
Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory,
substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques), how researchers draw upon
a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the
areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling,
interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be
aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

5. Systematic Review
The purpose of a systematic review is to attain conclusion regarding the chosen topic. This form consists of an
overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and
standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data
from the studies that are included in the review.
6. Theoretical Review
The purpose of this form is to examine the body of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept,
theory phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the
relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new
hypotheses to be tested.

STEPS IN DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW

Creswell (2005) identified five steps in conducting a literature review. These are:
1. Identify key terms to use in your research for literature
2. Locate the literature about a topic by consulting several types of materials and databases.
 3. Evaluate and select the literature critically for your review
4. Organize the literature you have selected
5. Write the literature review

Evaluate Your Selected Literature

1. Make sure that the journal where the article is published is reputable. This means that the journal has an editorial board.
Having an editorial board ensures that the submitted manuscript has undergone a thorough peer review and evaluation
before publication; thus, readers are assured of the quality of articles published in journals.

2. Read the article thoroughly. Summarize important information from the article using the coding sheet as a guide. Make
sure that the research article has sections such as introductions, methods, discussion and conclusion.

3. The article for inclusion in your review must be updated in the field of your study. The article should have a similar focus
with your study in terms of topic, participants and research questions.

4. The literature to be included in the review must be updated in the field of your study. Typically, you should review
studies related to your topic for the __ years, however, you must include milestone studies about your topic.

Milestone studies are articles that have largely contributed to the development in the field of your study.

5. Rank the various sources you have gathered based on the degree of quality. Start with peer-reviewed or refereed journal
articles (usually with an editorial board) then, with non-refereed publications and conference papers. These are from
primary sources.

Continue the search from secondary sources like books, handbooks, manuals, encyclopedias and dictionaries.

Citation Style Guide

1. APA (American Psychological Association). APA is an author/date-based style. This means emphasis is placed on
the author and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it.
2. MLA (Modern Language Association). MLA is most often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly in the
USA. It is arguably the most well used of all the citation styles.
3. Harvard. Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA, Harvard referencing is the most
well used referencing style in the UK and Australia, and is encouraged for use with the humanities.
4. Vancouver. The Vancouver system is mainly used in medical and scientific papers.
5. Chicago and Turabian. These are two separate styles but are very similar just like Harvard and APA. These are
widely used for history and economics. Most of the education researches and social sciences researches used
American Psychological Association (APA) referencing.

In-text Citation
The university of Waikato released handout on how to use APA reference format.
Direct quotation – use quotation marks around the quote and include page number

Samovar and Porter (1997) point out that “language involves attaching meaning to symbols” (p.188). Alternatively,
“Language involves attaching meaning symbols” (Samovar & Porter, 1997, p.188)

Indirect quotation/paraphrasing – no quotation marks

Attaching meaning to symbols is considered to be the origin of written language (Samovar & Porter, 1997)

Citations from a secondary source

As hall (1977) asserts, “culture also defines boundaries of different groups”
lAPA Examples of References by Type
In a reference list In-text citation
1. Book with one author (King, 2000) or King (2000) compares Frame…
King, M (2000). Wrestling with the angel: A Life of
Janet Frame. Auckland, New SZealand: Viking.
2. Books with two authors (Dancey & Reidy, 2004) or Dancey and Reidy (2004) said…
Dancey, C.P., & Reidy, J. (2004). Statistics without
maths for psychology: Using SPSS for Windows
(3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Published on August 2, 2022 by Bas Swaen and Tegan George.

A conceptual framework illustrates the expected relationship between your variables. It defines the relevant objectives for
your research process and maps out how they come together to draw coherent conclusions.