DIGITAL NOTES

THERMAL ENGINEERING
(R17A0308)

B.Tech II Year II Semester

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt.of India)
Recognizes under 2(f) and 12(B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE –Accredited by NBA & NAAC-“A” Grade-ISO 9001:2015
Certified)

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 (R17A0308) THERMAL ENGINEERING

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 Introduction, Engine Types and their Operation. Application of the principles of
thermodynamics to components and systems.
 Understand and describe the gas exchange and combustion processes in diesel engines. Good
understanding of the various gas turbine, steam turbine and combined cycles for electricity
generation.
 The purpose of this course is to enable the student to gain an understanding of how
thermodynamic principles govern the behavior of various systems and have knowledge of
methods of analysis and design of complicated thermodynamic systems

UNIT – I
Actual Cycles and their Analysis: Introduction, Comparison of Air Standard and Actual Cycles, Time
Loss Factor, Heat Loss Factor, Exhaust Blowdown-Loss due to Gas exchange process, Volumetric
Efficiency. Loss due to Rubbing Friction, Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CI Engines.
I.C. ENGINES : Classification - Working principles, Valve and Port Timing Diagrams, Air – Standard, air-
fuel and actual cycles - Engine systems – Fuel, Carburetor, Fuel Injection System, Ignition, Cooling and
Lubrication
UNIT – II
Combustion in S.I. Engines : Normal Combustion and abnormal combustion – Importance of flame
speed and effect of engine variables – Type of Abnormal combustion, pre-ignition and knocking
(explanation of ) – Fuel requirements and fuel rating, anti knock additives – combustion chamber –
requirements, types.
Combustion in C.I. Engines : Four stages of combustion – Delay period and its importance – Effect of
engine variables – Diesel Knock– Need for air movement, suction, compression and combustion
induced turbulence – open and divided combustion chambers and nozzles used – fuel requirements
and fuel rating.
UNIT – III
Testing and Performance of IC Engines : Parameters of performance - measurement of cylinder
pressure, fuel consumption, air intake, exhaust gas composition, Brake power – Determination of
frictional losses and indicated power – Performance test – Heat balance sheet and chart.
UNIT-IV
Compressors – Classification –positive displacement and roto dynamic machinery – Power producing
and power absorbing machines, fan, blower and compressor – positive displacement and dynamic
types – reciprocating and rotary types.
Reciprocating: Principle of operation, work required, Isothermal efficiency volumetric efficiency and
effect of clearance, stage compression, undercooling, saving of work, minimum work condition for
stage compression.
Rotary (Positive displacement type) : Roots Blower, vane sealed compressor, Lysholm compressor –
mechanical details and principle of working – efficiency considerations
UNIT – V:
Dynamic Compressors : Centrifugal compressors: Mechanical details and principle of operation –
velocity and pressure variation. Energy transfer-impeller blade shape-losses, slip factor, power input
factor, pressure coefficient and adiabatic coefficient – velocity diagrams – power.
Axial Flow Compressors : Mechanical details and principle of operation – velocity triangles and energy
transfer per stage degree of reaction, work done factor - isentropic efficiency- pressure rise
calculations – Polytropic efficiency.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
 To be able to recognize main and supplementary elements of SI and CI engines and define
operational principles. To be able to describe the most important combustion concepts and
problems in concern with SI engines and CI engines.
 To be able to analyze energy distribution in an internal combustion engine. Develop problem
solving skills through the application of thermodynamics. Solve problems associated with
Rotodynamic compressors.
 Solve problems associated with reciprocating compressors and expanders and internal
combustion engines .To understand the velocity triangles in compressors

TEXT BOOKS:

1. I.C. Engines / V. GANESAN- TMH

2. Thermal Engineering / Rajput / Lakshmi Publications.
3. IC Engines – Mathur & Sharma – Dhanpath Rai & Sons.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Thermal Engineering / Rudramoorthy - TMH

2. Thermodynamics & Heat Engines / R.S. Yadav/ Central Book Depot., Allahabad
3. Thermal Engineering – R.S. Khurmi & J.K.Gupta – S.Chand
CONTENTS

UNIT NO NAME OF THE CONTENT PAGE NO

Introduction 1 – 29
I
Fuel air cycles & Actual Cycles 30 – 50
Fuel Supply systems in CI&SI Engines 61 – 95
Ignition systems 96-110
Supercharging &Turbo charging 111-121
Engine Cooling & Lubrication Systems 167-177

Combustion in CI & SI Engines 121-166

II

Testing & Performance of IC Engines 178- 196

III
Compressors 197-222
IV
V
Dynamic Compressors 223-245
Axial flow Compressors
 Introduction

Course Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic components and
terminology of IC engine
1.3 Working of 4-Stroke SI
engine
1.4 Working of 4-Stroke CI
engine
1.5 Comparison of SI and CI
Engines
1.6 Two-Stroke Engine
1.7 IC Engine classification
1.8 Application of IC Engine
1.9 Engine Performance
Parameters
1.10 Air standard cycles

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 Introduction

Introduction
− Once man discovered the use of heat in the form of fire, it was just a step to formulate
the energy interactions. With this, human beings started to use heat energy for
cooking, warming up living spaces, drying and so on.
− Further, due to the development of civilization and increase in population, man had to
move from one place to another. Animals were used in transportation between the 4th
and 5th centuries BC, and spread to Europe and other countries in the 5th century BC
and China in about 1200 BC.
− Gradually, man replaced the animals with motive power that was used in
transportation. The use of power vehicles began in the late 18th century, with the
creation of the steam engine. The invention of Otto (1876) and Diesel (1892) cycles in
the 19th century transformed the method of propulsion from steam to petroleum fuel.
− ENGINE: Engine is a device which converts one form of Energy into another form
− HEAT ENGINE: Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a
fuel into thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work.
Thus, thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat engine.
− Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories:
a) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
b) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
Classification of heat engines
− Engines whether Internal Combustion or External Combustion are of two types:
(i) Rotary engines
(ii) Reciprocating engines
− A detailed classification of heat engines is given in Fig. 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Classification of heat engines

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 Comparison of I.C. Engines and E.C. Engines
− Comparison of IC engine and EC engine is given in table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Comparison of IC engine and EC engine

I.C. Engine E.C. engine

1. Combustion of fuel takes place inside the 1. Combustion of fuel takes place outside
cylinder the cylinder
2. Working fluid may be Petrol, Diesel & 2. Working fluid is steam
Various types of gases
3. Require less space 3. Require large space
4. Capital cost is relatively low 4. Capital cost is relatively high
5. Starting of this engine is easy & quick 5. Starting of this engine requires time
6. Thermal efficiency is high 6. Thermal Efficiency is low
7. Power developed per unit weight of these 7. Power Developed per unit weight of
engines is high these engines is low
8. Fuel cost is relatively high 8. Fuel cost is relatively low
Basic components and terminology of IC engines
− Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, they are
highly complex machines. There are many components which have to perform their
functions effectively to produce output power.
− There are two types of engines, viz., spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (Cl)
engine.
Engine Components
− A cross section of a single cylinder spark-ignition engine with overhead valves is shown
in Fig.1.2. The major components of the engine and their functions are briefly
described below.

Fig. 1.2 Cross-section of spark-ignition engine

a) Cylinder block
− The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The
cylinder of a multicylinder engine are cast as a single unit, called cylinder block.
The
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 Introduction

cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block. The cylinder head and cylinder block
are provided with water jackets in the case of water cooling or with cooling fins in the
case of air cooling.
b) Cylinder
− As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a
reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation
of the engine is filled with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic
processes. The cylinder is supported in the cylinder block.
c) Piston
− It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of
the combustion system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight
space with the piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the
gas forces to the output shaft.
d) Combustion chamber
− The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylin•der, by the cylinder head and the
piston top during the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The
combustion of fuel and the consequent release of thermal energy results in the
building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder.
e) Inlet manifold
− The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through
which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold.
f) Exhaust manifold
− The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and
through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the
exhaust manifold.
g) Inlet and Exhaust valves
− Valves are commonly mushroom shaped pop•pet type. They are provided either on
the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into
the cylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust
valve) from the cylinder.
h) Spark Plug
− It is a component to initiate the combustion process in Spark- Ignition (SI) engines and
is usually located on the cylinder head.
i) Connecting Rod
− It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and trans•mits the gas forces from the
piston to the crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end
and the big end (Fig.1.3). Small end is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the
big end is connected to the crankshaft by crankpin.
j) Crankshaft
− It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the
output shaft. In the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there are a pair of crank arms

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 Introduction

and balance weights. The balance weights are provided for static and dynamic
balancing of the rotating system. The crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.
k) Piston rings
− Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases.
l) Gudgeon pin
− It links the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.
m) Camshaft
− The camshaft (not shown in the figure) and its associated parts control the opening
and closing of the two valves. The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve
springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the drive to the ignition system. The
camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.
n) Cams
− These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are so de•signed to open the
valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.
o) Flywheel
− The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of
the engine fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to
achieve a uniform torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the
output shaft and this wheel is called the flywheel.
p) Carburetor
− Carburetor is used in petrol engine for proper mixing of air and petrol.
q) Fuel pump
− Fuel pump is used in diesel engine for increasing pressure and controlling the quantity
of fuel supplied to the injector.
r) Fuel injector
− Fuel injector is used to inject diesel fuel in the form of fine atomized spray under
pressure at the end of compression stroke.
Terminologies used in IC engine
− Cylinder Bore (d): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the
cylinder bore and is designated by the letter d and is usually expressed in millimeter
(mm).
− Piston Area (A): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called
the piston area and is designated by the letter A and is usually expressed in square
centimeter (cm2).
− Stroke (L): It is the linear distance traveled by the piston when it moves from
one end of the cylinder to the other end. It is equal to twice the radius of the
crank. It is designated by the letter L and is expressed usually in millimeter (mm).

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 Introduction

Fig 1.3 IC Engine nomenclature

− Stroke to Bore Ratio (L/d): L / d ratio is an important parameter in classifying the
size of the engine.
− If d < L, it is called under-square engine.
− If d = L, it is called square engine.
− If d > L, it is called over-square engine.
An over-square engine can operate at higher speeds because of larger bore and shorter
stroke.
− Dead Centre:
In the vertical engines, top most position of the piston is called Top Dead Centre (TDC).
When the piston is at bottom most position, it is called Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
In horizontal engine, the extreme position of the piston near to cylinder head is called
Inner Dead Centre (IDC.) and the extreme position of the piston near the crank is called
Outer Dead Centre (O.D.C.).
− Displacement or Swept Volume (Vs): The volume displaced by the piston in one
stroke is known as stroke volume or swept volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic
centimeter (cc) and given by
𝜋 2
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴 × 𝐿 = 𝑑 𝐿
4
− Cubic Capacity or Engine Capacity: The displacement volume of a cylinder
multiplied by number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity or the
engine capacity. For example, if there are K cylinders in an engine, then
Cubic capacity  Vs  K
− Clearance Volume (Vc): It is the volume contained between the piston top and cylinder
head when the piston is at top or inner dead center.
− Compression Ratio (r): The ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume is
called the compression ratio (r) of the engine.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑟=
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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 Introduction

𝑉𝑐+ 𝑉𝑠
∴𝑟=
𝑉𝑐
For petrol engine r varies from 6 to 10 and for Diesel engine r varies from 14 to 20.
− Piston speed (Vp): It is average speed of piston. It is equal to 2LN, where N is speed
of crank shaft in rev/sec.
2𝐿𝑁
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑚⁄
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
where, L = Stroke length,
m
N = Speed of crank shaft, RPM

Working of Four Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine

− In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the
piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft.
− During the four strokes, there are five events to be completed, viz., suction,
compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust. Each stroke consists of 180° of
crankshaft rotation and hence a four-stroke cycle is completed through 720° of crank
rotation.
− The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke SI engine consists of the following four
strokes: (i) suction or intake stroke; (ii) compression stroke; (iii) expansion or power
stroke and (iv) exhaust stroke.

Fig. 1.4 Working principle of a four-stroke SI engine

− The details of various processes of a four-stroke spark-ignition engine with overhead
valves are shown in Fig. 1.4 (a-d). When the engine completes all the five events under
ideal cycle mode, the pressure-volume (p-V) diagram will be as shown in Fig.1.5.

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a) Suction or Intake Stroke: Suction stroke 0→1 (Fig.1.5) starts when the piston is at
the top dead centreand about to move
downwards. The inlet valve is assumed to
open instantaneously and at this time the
exhaust valve is in the closed position, Fig.1.4
(a).
− Due to the suction created by the motion of
the piston towards the bottom dead centre, the
charge consisting of fuel-air mixture is drawn
into the cylinder. When the piston reaches the
bottom dead centre the suction
stroke ends and the inlet valve closes Fig. 1.5 Ideal p-V diagram of a four-
stroke SI engine
instantaneously.
b) Compression Stroke: The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is
compressed by the return stroke of the piston 1→2, (Fig.1.5). During this stroke both
inlet and exhaust valves are in closed position, Fig. 1.4(b).
− The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now compressed into the
clearance volume. At the end of the compression stroke the mixture is ignited with the
help of a spark plug located on the cylinder head.
− In ideal engines it is assumed that burning takes place instantaneously when the piston is
at the top dead centre and hence the burning process can be approximated as heat
addition at constant volume.
− During the burning process the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into heat
energy producing a temperature rise of about 2000 °C (process 2→3), Fig.1.5. The
pressure at the end of the combustion process is considerably increased due to the heat
release from the fuel.
c) Expansion or Power Stroke: The high pressure of the burnt gases forces the piston
towards the BDC, (stroke 3→4) Fig .1.5. Both the valves are in closed position, Fig.
1.4(c). Of the four-strokes only during this stroke power is produced. Both pressure
and temperature decrease during expansion.
d) Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens
instantaneously and the inlet valve remains closed, Fig. 1.4(d). The pressure falls to
atmospheric level a part of the burnt gases escape. The piston starts moving from the
bottom dead centre to top dead centre (stroke 5→0), Fig.1.5 and sweeps the burnt
gases out from the cylinder almost at atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve closes
when the piston reaches TDC.
− At the end of the exhaust stroke and some residual gases trapped in the clearance
volume remain in the cylinder. These residual gases mix with the fresh charge coming
in during the following cycle, forming its working fluid.

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− Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine completes the above four operations in two
engine revolutions, first revolution of the crankshaft occurs during the suction and
compression strokes and the second revolution during the power and exhaust strokes.
− Thus for one complete cycle there is only one power stroke while the crankshaft
makes two revolutions. For getting higher output from the engine the heat addition
(process 2→3) should be as high as possible and the heat rejection (process 3→4)
should be as small as possible. Hence, one should be careful in drawing the ideal p - V
diagram (Fig.1.5), which should represent the processes correctly.
Working of Four Stroke Compression-Ignition Engine
− The four-stroke Cl engine is similar to the four-stroke SI engine but it operates at a
much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine is between 6
and 10 while for a Cl engine it is from 16 to 20.
− In the Cl engine during suction stroke, air, instead of a fuel-air mixture, is inducted.
Due to higher compression ratios employed, the temperature at the end of the
compression stroke is sufficiently high to self-ignite the fuel which is injected into the
combustion chamber.
− In Cl engines, a high pressure fuel pump and an injector are provided to inject the fuel
into the combustion chamber. The carburetor and ignition system necessary in the SI
engine are not required in the Cl engine.
− The ideal sequence of operations for the four-stroke Cl engine as shown in Fig. 1.6 is
as follows:
a) Suction Stroke: In the suction stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC. Air alone is
inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke inlet valve is open and exhaust
valve is closed, Fig.1.6 (a).

Fig. 1.6 Cycle of operation of CI engine

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 Introduction

b) Compression Stroke: In this stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC. Air inducted
during the suction stroke is compressed into the
clearance volume. Both valves remain closed
during this stroke, Fig. 1.6 (b).
c) Expansion Stroke: Fuel injection starts nearly
at the end of the com•pression stroke. The rate
of injection is such that combustion maintains
the pressure constant in spite of the piston
movement on its expansion stroke increasing
the volume. Heat is assumed to have been
added at constant pressure. After the injection Fig. 1.7 Ideal p-V diagram for a four
of fuel is completed (i.e. after cut-off) the stroke CI engine
products of combustion expand. Both the valves remain closed during the expansion
stroke, Fig. 1.6(c).
d) Exhaust Stroke: The piston travelling from BDC to TDC pushes out the products of
combustion. The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed during this stroke,
Fig. 1.6 (d). The ideal p - V diagram is shown in Fig. 1.7.
− Due to higher pressures in the cycle of operations the Cl engine has to be sturdier than a
SI engine for the same output. This results in a Cl engine being heavier than the SI
engine. However, it has a higher thermal efficiency on account of the high
compression ratio (of about 18 as against about 8 in SI engines) used.
Comparison of SI and Cl Engines
− The detailed comparison of SI and CI engine is given in table 1.2
Table 1.2 Comparison of SI and CI Engines

Description SI Engine CI Engine

Basic cycle Works on Otto cycle or constant Works on Diesel cycle or constant
volume heat addition cycle. pressure heat addition cycle.
Fuel Gasoline, a highly volatile fuel. Diesel oil, a non-volatile fuel.
Self-ignition temperature is high. Self- ignition temperature is
comparatively low
Introduction of A gaseous mixture of fuel-air is Fuel is injected directly into the
fuel introduced during the suction combustion chamber at high
stroke. A carburetor and an pressure at the end of the
ignition system are necessary. compression stroke. A fuel pump
Modern engines have gasoline and injector are necessary.
injection.
Load control Throttle controls the quantity of The quantity of fuel is regulated to
fuel-air mixture to control the control the load. Air quantity is
load. not controlled.

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Ignition Requires an ignition system with Self-ignition occurs d u e to high

spark plug in the combustion temperature of air because of the
chamber. Primary voltage is high compression. Ignition system
provided by either a battery or a and spark plug are not necessary.
magneto.
Compression 6 to 10. Upper limit is fixed by 16 to 20. Upper limit is limited by
ratio anti- knock quality of the fuel. weight increase of the engine.
Speed Due to light weight and also due Due to heavy weight and also due
to homogeneous combustion, they to heterogeneous combustion,
are high speed engines. they are low speed engines.
Thermal Because of the lower CR, the Because of higher CR, the
efficiency maximum value of thermal maximum value of thermal
efficiency that can be obtained is efficiency that can be obtained is
lower. higher.
Weight Lighter due to comparatively Heavier due to comparatively
lower peak pressures. higher peak pressures.

Two-Stroke Engine
− In two-stroke engines the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. The
main difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines is in the method of filling
the fresh charge and removing the burnt gases from the cylinder.
− In the four-stroke engine these operations are performed by the engine piston during
the suction and exhaust strokes respectively.
− In a two- stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed
in crankcase or by a blower. The induction of the compressed charge moves out the
product of combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no separate piston strokes
are required for these two operations.
− Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh charge
and the other for expansion or power stroke. It is to be noted that the effective stroke is
reduced.
− Figure 1.8 shows one of the simplest two-stroke engines, viz., the crankcase scavenged
engine. Figure 1.9 shows the ideal p - V diagram of such an engine.
− The air-fuel charge is inducted into the crankcase through the spring loaded inlet valve
when the pressure in the crankcase is reduced due to upward motion of the piston
during compression stroke. After the compression and ignition, expansion takes place
in the usual way.
− During the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is compressed. Near the end
of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and the cylinder
pressure drops to atmospheric pressure as the combustion products leave the cylinder.
− Further movement of the piston uncovers the transfer ports, permitting the slightly
compressed charge in the crankcase to enter the engine cylinder.

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 Introduction

Fig. 1.8 Crankcase scavenged two-stroke SI engine

− The piston top usually has a projection to

deflect the fresh charge towards the top of
the cylinder preventing the flow through
the exhaust ports. This serves the double
purpose of scavenging the combustion
products from the upper part of the cylinder
and preventing the fresh charge from
flowing out directly through the exhaust
ports.
− The same objective can be achieved
without piston deflector by proper shaping
of the transfer port. During the upward
motion of the piston from B D C the transfer Fig 1.9 Ideal p-V diagram of a two-stroke SI
ports close first and then the exhaust ports, engine
thereby the effective compression of the charge begins and the cycle is repeated.
IC engine Classification
− I.C. Engines may be classified according to,
a) Type of the fuel used as :
(1) Petrol engine (2) Diesel engine
(3) Gas engine (4) Bi-fuel engine (Two fuel engine)
b) Nature of thermodynamic cycle as :
(1) Otto cycle engine (2) Diesel cycle engine
(3) Duel or mixed cycle engine
c) Number of strokes per cycle as :
(1) Four stroke engine (2) Two stroke engine

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d) Method of ignition as :
(1) Spark ignition engine (S.I. engine)
Mixture of air and fuel is ignited by electric spark.
(2) Compression ignition engine (C.I. engine)
The fuel is ignited as it comes in contact with hot compressed air.
e) Method of cooling as :
(1) Air cooled engine (2) Water cooled engine
f) Speed of the engine as :
(1) Low speed (2) Medium speed
(3) High speed
Petrol engine are high speed engines and diesel engines are low to medium speed
engines
g) Number of cylinder as :
(1) Single cylinder engine (2) Multi cylinder engine
h) Position of the cylinder as :
(1) Inline engines (2) V – engines
(3) Radial engines (4) Opposed cylinder engine
(5) X – Type engine (6) H – Type Engine
(7)U – Type Engine (8) Opposed piston engine
(9) Delta Type Engine

Fig. 1.10 Engine classification by cylinder arrangements

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Application of IC Engines
− The most important application of IC engines is in transport on land, sea and air. Other
applications include industrial power plants and as prime movers for electric
generators. Table 1.3 gives, in a nutshell, the applications of both IC and EC engines.
Table 1.3 Application of Engines
IC Engine EC Engine
Type Application Type Application
Gasoline engines Automotive, Marine, Steam Engines Locomotives, Marine
Aircraft
Gas engines Industrial power Stirling Engines Experimental Space
Vehicles
Diesel engines Automotive, Steam Turbines Power, Large Marine
Railways,
Power, Marine
Gas turbines Power, Aircraft, Close Cycle Power, Marine
Industrial, Marine Gas Turbine

Engine Performance Parameters

− The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, η. Five important engine
efficiencies and other related engine performance parameters are discussed below.
Indicated Power
− The power produced inside the engine cylinder by burning of fuel is known as
Indicated power (I.P.) of engine. It is calculated by finding the actual mean effective
pressure.
sa N
Actual meaneffective pressure, Pm  (1.1)
l m2
where,
a = Area of the actual indicator diagram, cm2
l = Base width of the indicator diagram, cm
s = Spring value of the spring used in the indicator, N/m2/cm
P LAn
ip  m kW (1.2)
60000
where,
Pm = Mean effective pressure N/m2
L = Length of stroke, m
A = Area of cross section of the cylinder,
m2 N = RPM of the engine crank shaft
N
n for 4-stroke
2
nN for 2-stroke

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Brake power
− It is the power available at engine crank shaft for doing useful work. It is also known
as engine output power. It is measured by dynamometer.
2 NT P LAn
B.P.   mb kW (1.3)
60000 60000
where
TWR (1.4)
W = Net load acting on the brake drum, N
R = Effective radius of the brake drum, m
N = RPM of the crank shaft
T = Resisting torque, Nm
Pmb = Brake mean effective pressure
Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ith )
− Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, ip, to the
input fuel energy in appropriate units.
ip kJ / s
ith  (1.1)
energy in fuel per second kJ / s
ip ip
ith   (1.2)
mass of fuel/s  CV of fuel mf  CV
Brake Thermal Efficiency (bth )
− Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of power available at crank shaft, bp, to the input
fuel energy in appropriate units.
bp bp
bth   (1.3)
mass of fuel/s  CV of fuel mf  CV
Mechanical Efficiency (m )
− Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to the
indicated power (power provided to the piston).
bp bp
m   (1.4)
ip bp  fp
fp  ip  bp (1.5)
Volumetric Efficiency (v )
− Volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be noted
that the utilization of the air is that determines the power output of the engine. Intake
system must be designed in such a way that the engine must be able to take in as
much air as possible.
− Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate of air into the
intake system to the rate at which the volume is displaced by the system.
Actual volume of charge or air sucked at atm. condition
v (1.6)
Swept volume

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 15

 Introduction

Air standard efficiency

− It is the efficiency of the thermodynamic cycle of the engine.

− For petrol engine, 

air  1 1 (1.7)
r   1

− For diesel engine,

1   1 
   
air (1.8)
1  
r   1
    1 
Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio
− Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of thermal efficiency of an actual
cycle to that of the ideal cycle. The efficiency ratio is a very useful criterion which
indicates the degree of development of the engine.

rel  th (1.9)
air

Specific output
− The specific output of the engine is defined as the power output per unit area.
B.P.
Specificoutput  (1.10)
A
Specific fuel consumption
− Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is defined as the amount of fuel consumed by an
engine for one unit of power production. SFC is used to express the fuel efficiency of
an I.C. engine.
m
SFC  f k g / kWh (1.11)
B.P.
Air Standard Cycles
− In most of the power developing systems, such as petrol engine, diesel engine and gas
turbine, the common working fluid used is air. These devices take in either a mixture
of fuel and air as in petrol engine or air and fuel separately and mix them in the
combustion chamber as in diesel engine
− The mass of fuel used compared with the mass of air is rather small. Therefore the
properties of mixture can be approximated to the properties of air.
− Exact condition existing within the actual engine cylinder are very difficult to
determine, but by making certain simplifying assumptions, it is possible to
approximate these conditions more or less closely. The approximate engine cycles
thus analysed are known as theoretical cycles.
− The simplest theoretical cycle is called the air-cycle approximation. The air-cycle
approximation used for calculating conditions in internal combustion engine is called
the air-standard cycle.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 16

 Introduction

− The analysis of all air-standard cycles is based upon the following assumption:
a) The gas in the engine cylinder is a perfect gas, i.e. it obeys the gas laws and has
constant specific heats.
b) The physical constants of the gas in the cylinder are the same as those of air at
moderate temperatures i.e., the molecular weight of cylinder gas is 29 and Cp = 1.005
kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
c) The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic and they take place without
internal friction, i.e., these processes are isentropic.
d) No chemical reaction takes place in the cylinder. Heat is supplied or rejected by
bringing a hot body or a cold body in contact with cylinder at appropriate points during
the process.
e) The cycle is considered closed, with the same ‘air’ always remaining in the cylinder to
repeat the cycle.
− Because of many simplifying assumptions, it is clear that the air-cycle approximation
does not closely represent the conditions within the actual cylinder. Due to the
simplicity of the air-cycle calculation, it is often used to obtain approximate answers
to complex engine problems.
The Otto Cycle OR Constant Volume Cycle (Isochoric)
 The cycle was successfully applied by a German scientist Nicolous A. Otto to produce
a successful 4 – stroke cycle engine in 1876.

Fig. 1.11 p-V and T-s diagrams of Otto cycle

 The thermodynamic cycle is operated with isochoric (constant volume) heat addition
and consists of two adiabatic processes and two constant volume changes.
 Fig. 1.11 shows the Otto cycle plotted on p – V and T – s diagram.
Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):
 At pt. 1 cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure P1 and temp. T1.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 17

 Introduction

 Piston moves from BDC to TDC and an ideal gas (air) is compressed isentropically to
state point 2 through compression ratio,
V1
r
V2
Constant Volume Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):
 Heat is added at constant volume from an external heat source.
p
 The pressure rises and the ratio rp or   p3 is called expansion ratio or pressure
2

ratio.
Adiabatic Expansion Process (3 – 4):
 The increased high pressure exerts a greater amount of force on the piston and pushes it
towards the BDC.
 Expansion of working fluid takes place isentropically and work done by the system.
V4
 The volume ratio is called isentropic expansion ratio.
V3
Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (4 – 1):

 Heat is rejected to the external sink at constant volume. This process is so controlled
that ultimately the working fluid comes to its initial state 1 and the cycle is repeated.
 Many petrol and gas engines work on a cycle which is a slight modification of the Otto
cycle.
 This cycle is called constant volume cycle because the heat is supplied to air at
constant volume.
Air Standard Efficiency of an Otto Cycle:
 Consider a unit mass of air undergoing a cyclic change.
 Heat supplied during the process 2 – 3,
q1  CV T3 T2 

 Heat rejected during process 4 – 1 ,

q2  CV T4 T1 


 Work done,

W  q1  q2
W  CV T3 T2   CV T4 T1 
 Thermal
efficiency,

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 18

 Introduction

Work done W
 
Heat supplied q1 
C T T  CV T4 T1 
 V 3 2 
CV T3 T2 

T T 
 1 4 1

(1.12)
T3 T2 

− For Adiabatic compression process (1 – 2),

T  V  1
2
 1   r 1
T1  V2 
T  T rγ1 (1.13)
2 1

− For Isentropic expansion process (3 – 4),

T  V  1
4
 3 
T3  V4 
 V  1
T3  T4  4 
 V3 
γ1
V
T3  T4  1   V1 V4 , V2  V3 
 V2 
T  T
3 4  r  1 (1.14)

 From equation 1.16, 1.17 & 1.18, we get,

otto  1
T4 T1  

T4 r  1 T1 r  1

  1 T4 T1 

r  1 T4 T1



otto

1
  1 (1.15)
r  1
otto

− Expression 1.19 is known as the air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle.
 It is clear from the above expression that efficiency increases with the increase in the
value of 𝑟 (as γ is constant).
 We can have maximum efficiency by increasing 𝑟 to a considerable extent, but due to
practical difficulties its value is limited to 8.
 In actual engines working on Otto cycle, the compression ratio varies from 5 to 8
depending upon the quality of fuel.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 19

 Introduction

 At compression ratios higher

than this, the temperature after
combustion becomes high and
that may lead to spontaneous
and uncontrolled combustion
of fuel in the cylinder.
 The phenomenon of
uncontrolled combustion in
petrol engine is called
detonation and it leads to poor
engine efficiency and in
structural damage of engine
parts. Fig. 1.12 Variation of Otto cycle efficiency with compression
ratio
 Fig. 1.12 shows the variation of air standard efficiency of Otto cycle with compression
ratio.
Mean Effective Pressure:
 Net work done per unit mass of air,

Wnet  CV T3 T2   CV T4 T1  (1.16)

 Swept volume,
Swept volume V V   V2  RT1  1 
V1 1



 1
1 2
V P  r 
  1  1   
RT1 
  r 1 (1.17)
 P1r
 Mean effective pressure,
Work done per cycle
mep 
swept volume

CV T3 T2  CV T4 T1 

 RT1
r 1
P1r
CV P1r  T3 T2   T4 T1   (1.18)

 


R  r 1 


T1 
 For process 1 – 2,
T  V  1
  1 
2
T1  V2 

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 20

 Introduction

T  T rγ 1
2 1

 Process 2 – 3,
T3 P3
  V V 
2 3
T2 P2

T3 T2    explosion pressureratio



 T  T α rγ 1
3 1

 Process 3 – 4,
 1
T4  T3  V3
 V4 
 1
T4  T3  V3
 V4 
 V  1
T T  r 1  2  
4 1
 V1 

T T  r  1  1
4 1
r 1

T4  T1  α

− Substituting all these temperature values in equation 1.22, We get,

CV P T  r 1 T r 1  T  T 
1 r
mep   1 1 

1 1

R  r 1  T1 
C P r T r  1  1 T1  1  
mep  V 1  1 
R  r 1  T1 
C 
mep  V P1 r  r  1 1  1
R r 1  

mep  P1 r  r  1 1  1 

  (1.19)
r 1 1 
 CV 1  
R   1 


 
 CP 
 C  , CP  CV  R, 
 V  CP  
C 1  R, CV 1 
 V 

R   1 
C
  V  

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 21

 Introduction


The Diesel Cycle OR Constant Pressure Cycle (Isobaric)

 This cycle was discovered by a German engineer Dr. Rudolph Diesel. Diesel cycle is
also known as constant pressure heat addition cycle.

Fig. 1.13 p-V and T-s diagrams of Diesel cycle

Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):
V
 Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) compression with r  1 .
V2
Constant Pressure Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):
 The heat supply is stopped at point 3 which is called the cut – off point and the volume
V3
ratio   is called cut off ratio or Isobaric expansion ratio.
V2
Adiabatic Expansion Process (3 – 4):
V4
 Isentropic expansion of air  isentropic expansion ratio.
V3
Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (4 – 1):
 In this process heat is rejected at constant volume.
− This thermodynamics cycle is called constant pressure cycle because heat is supplied
to the air at constant pressure.
Air Standard Efficiency for Diesel Cycle:
 Consider unit mass of air.
 Heat supplied during process 2 – 3,
q1  C P T3 T2 
 Heat rejected during process 4 – 1,
q2  CV T4 T1 
 Work done,

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 22

 Introduction

W  q1  q2  
W  C P  T3  T2   CV  T4  T1 
 Thermal
efficiency,
Work done

Heat supplied
CP T3 T2  CV T4 T1 
 
CP T3 T2 
  1 V T4 T1 
C

CP T3 T2 
1 T4 T1 
  1
 T T 
(1.20)
 3 2

 For adiabatic compression process (1 – 2),

V1
r (1.21)
V2

P V 
2
 1 
P1  V2 

P  P  r  (1.22)
2 1
 1
T  T V1  T r 1 (1.23)
2 1 1
 V2 
− For constant pressure heat addition process (2 – 3)
P  P  P  r  (1.24)
3 2 1
V3
 Cutoff ratio (1.25)
V2
V3
T T (1.26)
3 2
V2 

T2 

T  T r 1   (1.27)
3 1

 For adiabatic expansion process (3 – 4),

 
P  P V / V   P V / V 
4 3 3 4 3 3 1

V /V
P4  P3  3 2   P3   / r  

(1.28)
 V /V
1 2 
 1  1
T4  T3  V3   T   
3
 V4   r 

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 23

 Introduction

T
   r 1    1
1
T4
r 1
T  T   (1.29)
4 1

− Using above equations in equation 1.24

1 T4 T1 
 1 
 T3 T2 
1 T1  T1 
 1 
T r  T1 r 1 
 1  1

1   ρ 1 
γ

η 1   (1.30)
r  
γ 1  γ ρ  1
 

 Apparently the efficiency of diesel cycle depends upon the compression ratio (r) and
cutoff ratio (ρ) and hence upon the quantity of heat supplied.
 Fig. 1.14 shows the air standard efficiency of diesel cycle for various cut off ratio.
 Further,
 1
K
   1

reveals that with an increase in the cut – off ratio (ρ) the value of factor K increases.
− That implies that for a diesel
engine at constant compression
ratio, the efficiency would
increase with decrease in ρ and in
the limit ρ → 1 , the efficiency
would become
1
1 
r 1 
 ργ  1
Since the factor
K is Fig. 1.14 Efficiency of Diesel cycle for various cut-off
γρ  1
always greater than unity, the ratio
Diesel cycle is always less efficient than a corresponding Otto cycle having the same
compression ratio.
 However Diesel engine operates on much higher compression ratio (14 to 18)
compared to those for S.I. Engines operating on Otto cycle.
 High compression ratios for Diesel engines are must not only for high efficiency but
also to prevent diesel knock; a phenomenon which leads to uncontrolled and rapid
combustion in diesel engines.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 24

 Introduction


Mean Effective Pressure: 
 Net work done per unit mass of air, 

Wnet  C p  T3 T2   CV T4 T1  (1.31)
 Swept volume,
 V2  RT1  1 
Swept volume V V 
V1 1



 1
1 2
V P  r 
  1  1   
 RT1 
 r 1 (1.32)
 P1r
 Mean effective pressure,
Work done per cycle
mep 
swept volume

CP T3 T2  CV T4 T1 

mep  RT1
r 1
P1r
P1r   T3 T2    T4 T1   
CV
mep  (1.33)
 


R  r 1 


T1 
 From equation 1.27, 1.31 and 1.33,
T T r 1
2 1

T  T r 1
3 1

T  T 
4 1

CV
Pr  T r 1 T r 1  T  T 
mep   1 
1

1 1 1

R r 1  T1 
 
γr γ 1  ρ1   ργ 1
P1r
mep  (1.34)
γ 1r 1 

The Dual Combustion Cycle OR The Limited Pressure Cycle

 This is a cycle in which the addition of heat is partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure.
Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):
V
 Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) compression with r  1 .
V2
Constant Volume Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):
P
 The heat is supplied at constant volume with explosion ratio or pressure ratio   3.
P2

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 25

 Introduction

Fig. 1.15 p-V and T-s diagrams of Diesel cycle

Constant Pressure Heat Addition Process (3 – 4):
 The heat supply is stopped at point 4 which is called the cut – off point and the volume
V
ratio   4 is called cut off ratio.
V3
Adiabatic Expansion Process (4 – 5):
V5
 Isentropic expansion of air with  isentropic expansion ratio.
V4
Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (5 – 1):
 In this process heat is rejected at constant volume.
− The high speed Diesel engines work on a cycle which is slight modification of the
Dual cycle.
Thermal Efficiency for Dual Cycle:
 Consider unit mass of air undergoing the cyclic change.
 Heat supplied,
q1  q23  q34
q1  CV T3 T2   C P T4 T3 
 Heat rejected during process 5 – 1,

q2  CV T5 T1 


− Work done, 
W  q1  q2 
W  CV T3 T2   C P T4 T3   C V  T5  T1 


 Thermal efficiency,

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 26

 Introduction

Work done

Heat supplied

CV T3 T2   CP T4 T3  CV  T5  T1 
 
CV T3 T2   CP T4 T3  
T5 T1  
  1 (1.35)
T3 T2    T4 T3 
 For adiabatic compression process (1 – 2),
V1
r (1.36)
V2

P V 
2
 1 
P1  V2 

P  Pr   (1.37)
2 1
 1
T  T V1  T r 1 (1.38)
2 1 1
 V2 
 For constant volume heat addition process (2 – 3)

V V  V1
3 2
r
P3 
  Pressureratio (1.39)
P2
2   P1  r 

P
3  P
P
T T 3
P2 
3 2

T2  

T  T r 1 (1.40)
3 1

 For constant pressure heat addition process (3 – 4)

P  P  Pr (1.41)
3 4 1
V4
 Cutoff ratio (1.42)
V3
V4
T T
4 3
V3
T4 T3 
T  T r 1 (1.43)
4 1

− For adiabatic expansion process (4 – 5),

PV   PV 
4 4 5 5

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 27

 Introduction

 
P  P V / V   P V / V   V  V &P  P 
5 4 4 5 3 4 1 1 5 3 4
 
V V  V V 
P5  P3  4 3   P 4 2 
3 
 V3  V2 
 V1 V3    V1 V3 
V /V
P5  P3  V4 / V 3   P3   / r           i 

(1.44)

1 2 

and
 1
T5  T4  V4
 V5 
 1

T5  T4  
 r 
T1 r   1
 1
T5 
r 1
T  T   (1.45)

5 1

− From equation 1.39,


T5 T1 
 1
T3 T2    T4 T3 



 1 T   T 
1

1

T r 1
 1
 T 1r  1
   T r   T r 1
 1
1
 1
 
   1 

 1
r  1  1      1
1   αργ 1 
η 1   (1.46)
r γ 1   α  1  γα  ρ 1 

 It can be seen from the equation 1.50 that the thermal efficiency of a Dual cycle can
be increased by supplying a greater portion of heat at constant volume (high value of
𝛼) and smaller portion at constant pressure (low value of 𝜌).
 In the actual high speed Diesel engines operating on this cycle, it is achieved by early
fuel injection and an early cut-off.
 It is to be noted that Otto and Diesel cycles are special cases of the Dual cycle.
 If 𝜌 = 1 (𝑉3 = 𝑉4)
− Hence, there is no addition of heat at constant pressure. Consequently the entire heat is
supplied at constant volume and the cycle becomes the Otto cycle.
− By substituting 𝜌 = 1 in equation 1.50, we get,
1
𝜂 = 1 − (𝛾−1) = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑟
 Similarly if 𝛼 = 1, the heat addition is only at constant pressure and cycle becomes
Diesel cycle.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 28

 Introduction

− By substituting 𝛼 = 1 in equation 1.50, we get,

1 (𝜌𝛾 − 1)
𝜂=1− [ ] = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑟𝛾−1 𝛾(𝜌 − 1)
− Mean Effective Pressure: 

 Net work done per unit mass of air,

Wnet  CV T3 T2   C p T4 T3   CV T5 T1  (1.47)
 Swept volume,
Swept Volume V V  V  RT
 V1  1 2   1 1 
1
1 2
V P r 
  

 1  1  
 RT1
 r 1

(1.48)
P1r
 Mean effective pressure,
Work done per cycle
mep 
swept volume

CV T3 T2   C p T4 T3  CV T5 T1 

mep  RT1
r 1
P1r
P1r  T3 T2     T4 T3   T5 T1  
CV
mep 
 


R  r 1 



T1 
 From equation 1.42, 1.44, 1.47 and 1.49,
T T r 1
2 1
T  T r 1 
3 1
T  T r 1   
4 1
T  T  
5 1

CV Pr  T r 1 T r 1   T r 1 T r 1 T  T 

mep   1 
1

1 1 1 1 1

R  r 1  T1 

 α –1 r γ 1  γαr γ 1  ρ 1   αρ γ –1 
P1r
mep  (1.49)
γ 1r 1 

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 29

 FUEL AIR CYCLES & ACTUAL AIR CYCLES

Course Contents

Fuel-Air cycle
Variable specific heat
Change of internal energy and enthalpy
during a process with variable specific
heats
Isentropic expansion with
variable specific heats
Effect of variable specific heats on air
standard efficiency of Otto and Diesel
cycle
Dissociation
Effect of operating variables
Comparison of air standard and actual
cycle
Deviation of actual cycle from fuel air
cycle
Valve and Port timing diagram

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 30

 Fuel-Air cycle
Introduction
− The air cycle approximation of air standard theory has highly simplified assumptions.
The air standard theory gives an estimate of engine performance which is much
greater than the actual performance. For example the actual indicated thermal
efficiency of a petrol engine of, say compression ratio 7:1, is of the order of 30%
whereas the air standard efficiency is of the order of 54%.
− This large divergence is partly due to non-instantaneous burning and valve operation,
incomplete combustion, etc. But the main reason of divergence is the
oversimplification in using the values of the properties of the working fluid for cycle
analysis.
− In the air cycle analysis it was assumed that the working fluid is nothing but air and
this air was a perfect gas and had constant specific heats.
− In actual engine the working fluid is not air but a mixture of air, fuel and residual gases.
Furthermore, the specific heats of the working fluid are not constant but increase as
temperature rises, and finally, the products of combustion are subjected to dissociation
at high temperature.
Factors considered for Fuel-Air cycle calculations
The following factors are taken into consideration while making fuel-air cycle
calculations:
− The actual composition of the cylinder gases: The cylinder gases con•tains fuel, air,
water vapour and residual gas. The fuel-air ratio changes during the operation of the
engine which changes the relative amounts of CO2, water vapour, etc.
− The variation in the specific heat with temperature: Specific heats increase with
temperature except for mono-atomic gases. Therefore, the value of γ also changes
with temperature.
− The effect of dissociation: The fuel and air do not completely combine chemically at
high temperatures (above 1600 K) and this leads to the presence of CO, H2, H and O2
at equilibrium conditions.
− The variation in the number of molecules: The number of molecules present after
combustion depends upon fuel-air ratio and upon the pressure and temperature after the
combustion.
Assumptions made for Fuel-Air cycle analysis
− There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
− Subsequent to combustion, the charge is always in chemical equilibrium.
− There is no heat exchange between the gases and the cylinder walls in any process,
i.e. they are adiabatic. Also the compression and expansion processes are frictionless.
− In case of reciprocating engines it is assumed that fluid motion can be ignored inside
the cylinder.
− With particular reference to constant- volume fuel-air cycle, it is also assumed that

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 31

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− The fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with the air, and
− The burning takes place instantaneously at top dead centre (at constant
volume).
Importance of Fuel-Air cycle
− The air-standard cycle analysis shows the general effect of only compression ratio on
engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle analysis gives the effect of variation of
fuel-air ratio, inlet pressure and temperature on the engine performance. It will be
noticed that compression ratio and fuel-air ratio are very important parameters of the
engine while inlet conditions are not so important.
− The actual efficiency of a good engine is about 85 per cent of the estimated fuel-air
cycle efficiency. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine
can be made from fuel-air cycle analysis. Also, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures which affect the engine structure and design can be estimated reasonably
close to an actual engine. Thus the effect of many variables on the performance of an
engine can be understood better by fuel-air cycle analysis.
Variable Specific Heats
− All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat with
temperature. The increase in specific heat does not follow any particular law.
However, over the temperature range generally encountered for gases in heat engines
(300 K to 2000 K) the specific heat curve is nearly a straight line which may be
approximately expressed in the form
Cp  a1  K1T
(2.1)
Cv  b1  K1T
where a1,b1 and K1 are constants. Now,
R  C p  C v  a1  b1 (2.2)
where R is the characteristic gas constant.
− Above 1500 K the specific heat increases much more rapidly and may be expressed in
the form
CaKTKT2 (2.3)
p 1 1 2

CbKTKT2 (2.4)
v 1 1 2

− In above equations if the term T2 is neglected it becomes same as Eqn.2.1. Many

expressions are available even upto sixth order of T (i.e. T6) for the calculation of Cp
and Cv.
− The physical explanation for increase in specific heat is that as the temperature is
raised, larger fractions of the heat would be required to produce motion of the atoms
within the molecules. Since temperature is the result of motion of the molecules, as a
whole, the energy which goes into moving the atoms does not contribute to
proportional temperature rise. Hence, more heat is required to raise the temperature

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 32

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

of unit mass through one degree at higher levels. This heat by definition is the specific
heat. The values for Cp and Cv for air are usually taken as
Cp =1.005 kJ/kg K , Cv =0.717 kJ/kg K at 300 K
Cp =1.345 kJ/kg K , Cv =1.057 kJ/kg K at 2000 K
− Since the difference between Cp and Cv is constant, the value of γ decreases with
increase in temperature. Thus, if the variation of specific heats is taken into account
during the compression stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be lower than
if constant values of specific heat are used. This point is illustrated in Fig.2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Loss of power due to variation of specific heat

− With variable specific heats, the temperature at the end of compression will be 2',
instead of 2. The magnitude of drop in temperature is proportional to the drop in the
value of ratio of specific heats. For the process 1—>2, with constant specific heats
 1
 v1 
T2  T1   (2.5)
 v2 
with variable specific heats,
k 1

T2'  T1  v1  (2.6)

 v2' 
Cp
where k  . Note that v2’ = and v1/v2 = = r.
Cv v2 v1/v2’
− For given values of T1, p1 and r, the magnitude of T2 depends on k. Constant volume
combustion, from point 2 ' will give a temperature T3’ instead of T3. This is due to the
fact that the rise in the value of Cv because of variable specific heat, which reduces the
temperature as already explained.
− The process, 2'-3' is heat addition with the variation in specific heat. From 3', if
expansion takes place at constant specific heats, this would result in the process 3'-4"

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 33

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

whereas actual expansion due to variable specific heat will result in 3'-4' and 4' is
higher than 4". The magnitude in the difference between 4' and 4 " is proportional to
the reduction in the value of γ.
− Consider the process 3'-4"
k 1
T4"  T3'  v3  (2.7)
 v4 
For the process 3’-4’
 1
T4'  T3'  v3  (2.8)
 v4 
− Reduction in the value of k due to variable specific heat results in increase of
temperature from T4” to T4’.
Change of Internal energy and enthalpy during a process with variable specific
heats
Change of Internal energy
− The small change in internal energy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in
temperature (dT) is given by:
du  Cv dT
u  u  T2
C dT
2 1 
T1 v
T2

 (b  KT ) dT
T1

 bT  K T 2   b T  T   T 2  T 2 
T2 K
 2  2 1


2 2 1 

 T1
 T  T2  T1  
 T 
1 
b  K
2 

2 

 
 T  T b  KT  where, T  T1  T2
2 1 m m
2
Cvm  b  KTm ( Cvm mean specific heat at constant volume)
u2  u1  Cvm T2  T1  (2.9)
Change of Enthalpy
− The small change in enthalpy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in temperature
(dT) is given by:
dh  Cp dT

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 34

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

h  h  T2
C dT
2 1 
T1 p
T2

 (a  KT ) dT
T1

 aT  K T 2   a T  T   T 2  T 2 
T2 K
 2  2 1


2 2 1 

 T1
 T   T  T  
 T1  a  K 2 1 

2 

2
 
 T  T a  KT  where, T  T1  T2
2 1 m m
2
Cpm  a  KTm ( Cpm mean specific heat at constant pressure)
 h2  h1  C pm T2  T1  (2.10)

Isentropic expansion with variable specific heats

− Consider one kg of air, the heat transfer to a system using first law can be written as
dQ  du  dW
dQ  Cv dT  pdv
− For isentropic process, dQ  0
Cv dT  pdv  0
dT p
Cv  dv  0
T T
dT dv
Cv R 0  pv  RT 
T v
− Putting the values of R and Cv in the above equation, we get
dT dv
b  KT   a  b 0
T v
− Integrating both sides we get
dT dv
  b  KT    a  b   constant
 T  v
dT dv
 b  K  dT   a  b    constant
T v
 b loge T  KT  (a  b) loge v  constant
 log Teb  log eKTe  log v(ab)
e  constant

 TbeKTv(ab)  constant
K a
T ( 1)
 Te b
vb  constant (2.11)
K a
T T
 e b vb  constant (2.12)
v
pv  RT 
T p
 
p
v R a b

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 35

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− Inserting the value of above equation in eq. 2.13.

K a
p T
 e b vb  constant
a b
a KT

 pv e b  constant
b (2.13)

Effect of variable specific heats on air standard efficiency of Otto and diesel
cycle
Otto cycle
− The air standard efficiency of Otto cycle is given by
1
  1  1
r
Now, Cp  Cv  R


Cv
Cp
1 
R
Cv
 

   1  R
C  
 p    (2.14)
 

 
Cv  Cv 

R
C
1
  1  1 r
v

R
Cv
r
R
 1  r 

Cv

− Taking log on both sides, we have

R
 loge 1    loge r 
Cv
− Differentiating the above equation, we have
1 d
  R log  1 
r 
 2 


1 dCv


e
 Cv 
d R dC
 1     log e r  C v
Cv v
d 1
    1log dC (2.15)
r v
  e
Cv
− Negative sign indicates the decrease in efficiency with increase in Cv.
− The Eq. 2.15 gives the percentage variation in air standard efficiency of Otto cycle on
account of percentage variation in Cv.
Diesel Cycle
− The air standard efficiency of diesel cycle is given by

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 36

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

1   1 
  

1  
 r  1     1 
1   1 
  
1  
 

 
r   1
   1 
− Taking log on both sides, we get
 log 1    log    1  log  r   log   log   1
 1

 log 1    log    1   1 log r  log   log   1

− Differentiating the above equation with respect to γ
1 1 1
 d     log   log r 
  
1  d  1 


e e


d    log e  1 
  1  loge r 

  
 

d   1  
d
− Multiplying the above equation by 

d  1      log e  1 
  log r     d
     e
(2.16)
 

   

   1 
R
− Eq. 2.14 is  1  , differentiating this equation with respect to Cv
Cv
d R
dC   C 2 d   R  dCv
C C
v v v v
dCv
d     1   (2.17)
Cv
− Inserting the value of Eq. 2.17 into Eq. 2.16, we get
d 1    log  1  dC
      1 loge r  e
  v (2.18)
 

  
 C
 1  v
Dissociation
− Dissociation process can be considered as the disintegration of combustion products at
high temperature.
− Dissociation can also be looked as the reverse process to combustion. During
dissociation the heat is absorbed whereas during combustion the heat is liberated.
− In IC engines, mainly dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 occurs, whereas there is a
very little dissociation of H2O.
− The dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 starts commencing around 1000 °C and the
reaction equation can be written as
2CO2  Heat 2CO  O2

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 37

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− Similarly, the dissociation of H2O occurs at temperatures above 1300 °C and written
as
2H2O  Heat 2H2  O2
− The presence of CO and O2 in the gases tends to prevent dissociation of CO2; this is
noticeable in a rich fuel mixture, which, by producing more CO, suppresses
dissociation of CO2.
− On the other hand, there is no dissociation in burnt gases of a lean fuel-air mixture.
This is mainly due to the fact that temperature produced is too low for this
phenomenon to occur.
− Hence, the maximum extent of dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of the chemically
correct fuel-air mixture when the temperatures are expected to be high but decreases
with the leaner and richer mixtures.
− In case of internal combustion engines heat transfer to the cooling medium causes a
reduction in the maximum temperature and pressure. As the temperature falls during
the expansion stroke the separated constituents recombine; the heat absorbed during
dissociation is thus again released, but it is too late in the stroke to recover entirely the
lost power. A portion of this heat is carried away by the exhaust gases.

Fig. 2.2 Effect of dissociation on temperature

− Figure 2.2 shows a typical curve that indicates the reduction in the temperature of the
exhaust gas mixtures due to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio. With no
dissociation maximum temperature is attained at chemically correct air-fuel ratio.
− With dissociation maximum temperature is obtained when mixture is slightly rich.
Dissociation reduces the maximum temperature by about 300 °C even at the
chemically correct air-fuel ratio. In the Fig. 2.2, lean mixtures and rich mixtures are
marked clearly.

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 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

Fig. 2.3 Effect of dissociation on power

− The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in Fig.2.3 for a typical four-stroke
spark-ignition engine operating at constant speed. If there is no dissociation the brake
power output is maximum when the mixture ratio is stoichiometric.
− The shaded area between the brake power graphs shows the loss of power due to
dissociation. When the mixture is quite lean there is no dissociation. As the air-fuel
ratio decreases i.e., as the mixture becomes rich the maximum temperature raises and
dissociation commences.
− The maximum dissociation occurs at
chemically correct mixture strength.
As the mixture becomes richer,
dissociation effect tends to decline
due to incomplete combus•tion.
− Dissociation effects are not so
pronounced in a Cl engine as in an SI
engine. This is mainly due to
(i) the presence of a heterogeneous
mixture and
(ii) excess air to ensure complete
combustion.
Both these factors tend to reduce the Fig. 2.4 Effect of dissosiation shown on a p-V
diagram
peak gas temperature attained in the Cl
engine.
− Figure 2.4 shows the effect of dissociation on p-V diagram of Otto cycle. Because of
lower maximum temperature due to dissociation the maximum pressure is also
reduced and the state after combustion will be represented by 3' instead of 3. If there
was no reassociation due to fall of temperature during expansion the expansion

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 39

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

process would be represented by 3'-4" but due to reassociation the expansion follows
the path 3'-4'.
− By comparing with the ideal expansion 3-4, it is observed that the effect of dissociation
is to lower the temperature and consequently the pressure at the beginning of the
expansion stroke. This causes a loss of power and also efficiency. Though during
recombining the heat is given back it is too late to contribute a convincing positive
increase in the output of the engine.

Effect of operating variables

The effect of common engine operating variables on the pressure and temperature
within the engine cylinder is better understood by fuel-air cycle analysis. The details
are discussed in this section:
Compression Ratio
− The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with the compression ratio in the same manner
as the air-standard cycle efficiency, principally for the same reason (more scope of
expansion work. This is shown in fig 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 Effect of compression ratio and mixture strength on efficiency

− The variation of indicated thermal efficiency with respect to the equivalence ratio for
various compression ratios is given in fig 2.6. The equivalence ratio,  , is defined as
ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to chemically correct fuel-air ratio on mass basis.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 40

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

Fig. 2.6 Effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency for various compression ratios
− The maximum pressure and temperature increase with compression ratio since the
temperature, T2, and pressure, p2, at the end of compression are higher. However, it
can be noted from the experimental results that the ratio of fuel-air cycle efficiency to
air-standard efficiency is independent of the compression ratio for given equivalence
ratio for the constant volume fuel-air cycle.
Fuel Air ratio
a) Efficiency
− As the mixture is made lean (less
fuel) the temperature rise due to
combustion will be lowered as a
result of reduced energy input per
unit mass of mixture. This will
result in lower specific heat.
− Further, it will lower the losses due
to dissociation and variation in
specific heat. The efficiency is
therefore, higher and, in fact,
approaches the air-cycle efficiency
as the fuel-air ratio is reduced as Fig. 2.7 Effect of mixture strength on thermal
efficiency
shown in Fig. 2.7.
b) Maximum Power
− Fig. 2.8 gives the cycle power as affected by fuel-air ratio. By air-standard theory
maximum power is at chemically correct mixture, but by fuel-air theory maximum

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 41

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

power is when the mixture is about 10% rich. As the mixture becomes richer the
efficiency falls rapidly.

Fig. 2.8 Effect of fuel-air ratio on power

− This is because in addition to higher specific heats and chemical equilibrium losses,
there is insufficient air which will result in formation of CO and H2 in combustibles,
which represents a direct wastage of fuel.
c) Maximum temperature
− At a given compression ratio the
temperature after combustion reaches
a maximum when the mixture is
slightly rich, i.e., around 6 % or so
(F/A = 0.072 or A/F = 14:1) as
shown in Fig. 2.9.
− At chemically correct ratio there is
still some oxygen present at the point
3 because of chemical equilibrium
effects a rich mixture will cause more
fuel to combine with oxygen at that
point thereby raising the temperature
T3. However, at richer mixtures
increased formation of CO counters
this effect.
d) Maximum Pressure
− The pressure of a gas in a given space
Fig. 2.9 Effect of equivalence ratio on T3 and P3
depends upon its temperature and
the number of molecules The curve of p3, therefore follows T3, but because of the
increasing number of molecules p3 does not start to decrease until the mixture is
somewhat richer than that for maximum T3 (at F/A = 0.083 or A/F = 12:1), i.e. about
20 per cent rich (Fig.2.9).

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 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

e) Exhaust Temperature
− The exhaust gas temperature, T4 is
maximum at the chemically correct
mixture as shown in Fig. 2.10. At
this point there is reassociation as
the temperature decrease so heat
will be released these heat cannot
be used in engine cylinder so the
exhaust gases carry these heat with
them and it result in higher exhaust
temperature.
− At lean mixtures, because of less
fuel, T3 is less and hence T4 is less.
At rich mixtures less sensible
energy is developed and hence T4 is
less. That is, T4 varies with fuel-air
ratio in the same manner as T3
except that maximum T4 is at the Fig. 2.10 Effect of fuel-air ratio on the exhaust gas
chemically correct fuel-air ratio in temperature
place of slightly rich fuel-air ratio (6 %) as in case of T3.
− However, the behaviour of T4 with compression ratio is different from that of T3 as
shown in Fig. 2.10 Unlike T3, the exhaust gas temperature, T4 is lower at high
compression ratios, because the increased expansion causes the gas to do more work
on the piston leaving less heat to be rejected at the end of the stroke. The same effect is
present in the case of air-cycle analysis also.
Comparison of air standard and actual cycles
The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard cycles in
many respects. These differences are mainly due to:
− The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapour or finely atomized liquid
fuel in air combined with the products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
− The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
− The variation of specific heats with temperature.
− The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh charge
because of the residual gases.
− The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
− The heat transfer to and from the working medium
− The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the expan•sion stroke due
to early opening of the exhaust valve.
− Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.

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 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

Most of the factors listed above tend to decrease the thermal efficiency and power
output of the actual engines. On the other hand, the analysis of the cycles while taking
these factors into account clearly indicates that the estimated thermal efficiencies are
not very different from those of the actual cycles.
Deviation of Actual cycle from Fuel-Air cycle
− Major deviation from of actual cycle from the Fuel air cycle is due to
− Variation in Specific heats
− Dissociation
− Progressive combustion
− Incomplete combustion of fuel
− Time loss factor
− Heat loss factor
− Exhaust blowdown factor
Time losses
Time losses may be burning time loss and spark timings loss.
Burning time loss
− In theoretical cycle, the burning is assumed to be instantaneous but actually burning
takes some time. The time required depends upon F:A ratio, fuel chemical structure
and its ignition temperature. This also depends upon the flame velocity and the
distance from the ignition point to the opposite side of combustion chamber.
− During combustion, there is always increase in volume. The time internal between the
spark and complete burning of the charge is approximately 40° crank rotation.

Fig. 2.11 Effect of time losses on p-V diagram

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 44

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− The effect of time required for combustion; the maximum pressure is not produced
when volume is minimum (vc) as expected. It is produced some time after TDC.
Therefore, the pressure rises from b to c as shown in Fig. 2.11.
− The point 3 represents the maximum pressure if the combustion should have taken
place instantly. The difference in area of actual cycle and fuel-air cycle shows the loss
of power as shown in Fig. 2.11. This loss of work is called burning time loss. This
time loss is defined as the loss of power due to time required for mixing the fuel with
air and for complete combustion.
b) Spark Timing Loss
− A definite time is required to start the burning of fuel after generating the spark in the
cylinder. The effect of this, the maximum pressure is not reached at TDC and it reaches
late during the expansion stroke. The time at which the burning starts is varied by
varying the angle of advance (spark advance).
− If the spark is given at T.D.C., the maximum pressure is low due to expansion
of gases.
− If the spark is advanced by 40° to start combustion at T.D.C., the combustion
takes place at T.D.C. But the heat loss and the exhaust loss may be higher and
again work obtained is not optimum.
− In the above two cases, the work area is less, and, therefore, power developed per
cycle and efficiency are lower.

Fig. 2.12 Effects of angle of advance a on p - v diagram

− Thus for getting maximum work output, a moderate spark advance of 15° to 25° is the
best.
c) Incomplete Combustion Loss
− The time loss always includes a loss due to incomplete combustion. It is impossible
obtain perfect homogeneous air-fuel mixture. Fuel vapour, air, and residual gas is
present in the cylinder before ignition takes place. Under these circumstances it is
possible to have excess oxygen in one part of the cylinder and excess fuel in another
part of it. Therefore, some fuel does not burn or burns partially. Both CO and O 2 will
appear in the exhaust.

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 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− It should be noted that it is necessary to use a lean mixture to eliminate fuel wastage
while a rich mixture is required to utilize all the oxygen. Slightly leaner mixture will
give maximum efficiency but too lean a mixture will burn slowly, increasing the losses
or will not burn at all causing total waste. In the rich mixture some of the fuel will not
get oxygen and will be completely wasted. Also, the flame speed in the rich mixture is
low, thereby increasing the time losses and lowering the efficiency.
Direct heat loss
− During the combustion process and expansion process, the gases inside the engine
cylinder are at a considerably higher temperature, so the heat is lost to the jacket
cooling water or air. Some heat is lost to the lubricating oil where splash lubrication
system is used for lubricating cylinder and piston.
− The loss of heat which takes place during combustion has the maximum effect, while
that lost before the end of the expansion stroke has little effect, since it can do very
small amount of useful work.
− During combustion and expansion, about 15% of the total heat is lost. Out of this,
however, much is lost too late in the cycle to have done any useful work.
− In case all heat loss is recovered, about 20 percent of it may appear as useful work.
Exhaust blowdown loss
− At the end of exhaust stroke, the
cylinder pressure is about 7 bar. If
the exhaust valve is opened at
B.D.C., the piston has to do work
against high cylinder pressure
costing part of the exhaust stroke.
When the exhaust valve is opened
too early entire part of the
expansion stroke is lost.
− Thus, best compromise is that
exhaust valve be opened 40° to 70°
before B.D.C., thereby, reducing the
cylinder pressure to halfway to Fig. 2.13 Effect of blow down
atmosphere before the start of the
exhaust stroke.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 46

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

Pumping losses
− In case of ideal cycles the suction and
exhaust processes were assumed to be at
atmospheric pressure. However some
pressure differential is required to carry
out the suction and exhaust processes
between the fluid pressure and cylinder
pressures.
− During suction the cylinder pressure is
lower them the fluid pressure in order to
induct the fluid into the cylinder and the
Fig. 2.14 Pumping Loss
exhaust gases are expelled at a pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure.
− Therefore some work is done on the gases during suction and exhaust stroke. This
work is called pumping work as shown in Fig. 2.14 by shaded area.
Rubbing Friction Losses
− The rubbing friction losses are caused due to
− Friction between piston and cylinder walls
− Friction in various bearings
− Friction in auxiliary equipment such as pumps and fans.
− The piston friction increases rapidly with engine speed and to small extent by
in•creases in m.e.p.
− The bearing and auxiliary friction also increase with engine speed.
− The engine efficiency is maximum at full load and reduces with the decrease in load.
It is due to the fact that direct heat loss, pumping loss and rubbing friction loss increase
at lower loads.
Valve and port timing diagrams
− The valve timing diagram shows the position of the crank when the various operations
i.e., suction, compression, expansion exhaust begin and end.
− The valve timing is the regulation of the positions in the cycle at which the valves are
set to at open and close
− The poppet valves of the reciprocating engines are opened and closed by cam
mechanisms. The clearance between cam, tappet and valve must be slowly taken up
and valve slowly lifted, at first, if noise and wear is to be avoided. For the same reasons
the valve cannot be closed abruptly, else it will bounce on its seat. (Also, the cam
contours should be so designed as to produce gradual and smooth changes in
directional acceleration).
− Thus, the valve opening and closing periods are spread over a considerable number of
crankshaft degrees. As a result, the opening of the valve must commence ahead of the
time at which it is fully opened (i.e. before dead centres). The same reasoning applies
for the closing time and the valves must close after the dead centres.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 47

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

Valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Petrol engine

− The actual valve timings used for low speed and high speed engines are shown in Fig.
2.15 (a) and (b).
a) Inlet valve
− The inlet valve opening occurs a few degrees prior to the arrival of the piston at TDC
during the exhaust stroke. This is necessary to insure that the valve will be fully open
and fresh charge starts to flow into the cylinder as soon as the piston starts to move
down.
− If the inlet valve is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less charge than
its capacity and the pressure of the charge at the end of suction stroke will be below
atmosphere. To avoid this, the inlet valve is kept open for 40°-50° rotation of the crank
after the suction stroke for high speed engine and 20° to 25° for low speed engine.
− The kinetic energy of the charge produces a ram effect which packs more charge into
the cylinder during this additional valve opening. Therefore, the inlet valve closing is
delayed.
− Higher the speed of the engine, the inlet valve closing is delayed longer to take an
advantage of ram effect.

Fig. 2.15 Valve timing diagram for low and high speed 4-stroke SI engine
b) Exhaust valve
− The exhaust valve is set to open before BDC (say about 25° before BDC in low speed
engines and 55° before BDC in high speed engines).

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 48

 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− If the exhaust valve did not start to open until BDC, the pressures in the cylinder would
be considerably above atmospheric pressure during the first portion of the exhaust
stroke, increasing the work required to expel the exhaust gases. But opening the
exhaust valve earlier reduces the pressure near the end of the power stroke and thus
causes some loss of useful work on this stroke.
− However, the overall effect of opening the valve prior to the time the piston reaches
BDC results in overall gain in output.
− The closing time of exhaust valve effects the volumetric efficiency. By closing the
exhaust valve a few degrees after TDC (about 15° in case of low speed engines and 20°
in case of high speed engines) the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to scavenge the
cylinder by carrying out a greater mass of the gas left in the clearance volume. This
results in increased volumetric efficiency.
c) Ignition
− Theoretically it is assumed that spark is given at the TDC and fuel burns
instantaneously. However, there is always a time lag between the spark and ignition of
the charge. The ignition starts some time after giving the spark, therefore it is
necessary to produce the spark before piston reaches the TDC to obtain proper
combustion without losses. The angle through which the spark is given earlier is
known as "Ignition Advance" or "Angle of Advance".
d) Valve Overlap
− From the valve timing diagram it is obvious that there will a period when both the
intake and exhaust valves are open at the same time. This is called valve overlap (say
about 15° in low speed engine and 30° in high speed engines). This overlap should not
be excessive otherwise it will allow the burned gases to be sucked into the intake
manifold, or the fresh charge to escape through the exhaust valve.
Valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel engine
− The actual valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel cycle engine is shown in fig. 2.16.
The various strokes are modified for similar reasons as explained in case of petrol
engine.

Fuel Injection Timing

− The opening of fuel valve is necessary for better evaporation and mixing of the fuel.
As there is always lag between ignition and supply of fuel, it is always necessary to
supply the fuel little earlier.
− In case of diesel engine, the overlapping provided is sufficiently large compared with
the petrol engine. More overlapping is not advisable in petrol engine because the
mixture of air and petrol may pass out with the exhaust gases and it is highly
uneconomical. This danger does not arise in case of diesel engine because only air is
taken during the suction stroke.

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 Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

1 – TDC
2 – BDC
3– Inlet Valve
Opens 4 – Inlet
Valve Closes 5 –
Fuel Valve Opens 6
– Fuel Valve Closes
7 – Exhaust Valve
Opens 8 – Exhaust
Valve Closes

2.16 Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel Cycle Engine

− The valve timing of diesel engine have to be adjusted depending upon the speed of the
engine. The typical valve timings are as follows:
− IV opens at 250 before TDC
− IV closes at 300 after BDC
− Fuel injection starts at 50 before TDC
− Fuel injection closes at 250 after TDC
− EV opens at 450 before BDC
− EV closes at 150 after TDC
Port Timing Diagram of 2-stroke engine
− The port timing diagram for actual working of the two-stroke petrol and diesel engine
is shown in Fig. 2.17. The port timing diagram is self-explanatory.

(a) Petrol (b) Diesel

Engine Engine
Fig. 2.17 Port Timing Diagram for 2-stroke Engine

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 50

 COMBUSTION

Course Contents

3.1.− CoCm oubrussetiCoonntents

3.2. Co mtrboudsuticotnioenquation
1. 1 In
3.3.1.C 2oSm taptiocsBitaiolannocfinagir
3.4.1.M 3 Tayspses foraf cBtaiolanncinagnd mole
1.f4raBcatliaonncingof Several Masses
StR ooicthaitoinmgeitnrythe Same Plane 3.6.1.D 5
eDtyenrm
am iniactBioanlanocfingminimum
1. a6irBfaolarnccoim
ngpoleftSeecvoem rabl uMstaisosnes
EnRtohtaalptiyngof fionrmthateiondifferent
AdPilaabnaetsicflame temperature 3.9.−
Calorific value of fuel and its
determination

51
Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET
 Combustion

Combustion
− In chemical thermodynamics the study of systems involving chemical reactions is
important topic. A chemical reaction may be defined as the rearrangement of atoms
due to redistribution of electrons. In a chemical reaction the terms, reactants and the
products are frequently used.
− ‘Reactants’ comprise of initial constituents which start the reaction while ‘products’
comprise of final constituents which are formed by the chemical reaction. Although
the basic principles which will be discussed in this chapter apply to any chemical
reaction, here main attention will be focused on an important type of chemical
reaction—“combustion”.
− Combustion is a chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen combines with other
substances to produce heat and usually light.
Combustion equations
− All fuels contain combustible elements such as C, H2 and S which readily combine
with oxygen and evolve heat during combustion. It is always necessary to supply
sufficient air for the complete combustion of fuels.
− The following chemical equations are used to calculate the amount of oxygen
required, and the amount of gases produced by the combustion of fuel,
− The oxygen supplied for combustion is usually provided by atmospheric air, and it is
necessary to use accurate and consistent analysis of air by mass and by volume. It is
usual in combustion calculations to take air as 23.3% O2, 76.7% N2 by mass, and 21%
O2, 79% N2 by volume.
− The small traces of other gases in dry air are included in nitrogen, which is sometimes
called ‘atmospheric nitrogen'. Some important combustion equations are given below:
1) Combustion of Hydrogen:
2H2 + O2  2H2O
2 moles of H2 + 1 mole of O2  2 moles of
H2O 4 kg of H2 + 32 kg of O2  36 kg of
H2O
1 kg of H2 + 8 kg of O2  9 kg of H2O
2) Combustion of Carbon
a. Complete combustion of carbon to carbon dioxide
C + O2  CO2
1 mole of C + 1 mole of O2  1 moles of
CO2 12 kg of C + 32 kg of O2 
44 kg of CO2
8 11
1 kg of C + kg of O2  kg of H2O
3 3
b. Incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide
Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 52
 Combustion

2C + O2  2CO
2 mole of C + 1 mole of O2  3 moles of CO
24 kg of C + 32 kg of O2  56 kg of CO2
4 7
1 kg of C + kg of O2  kg of H2O
3 3
3) Combustion of Sulphur
S + O2  SO2
1 mole of S + 1 mole of O2  1 moles of SO2
32 kg of S + 32 kg of O2  64 kg of SO2

1 kg of S + 1 kg of O2  2 kg of SO2

4) Combustion of Methane
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
1 mole of + 2 mole of O2  1 moles of CO2 + 2 mole of H2O
CH4
16 kg of CH4 + 64 kg of O2  44 kg of CO2 + 36 kg of H2O
11 9
1 kg of CH4 + 4 kg of O2  4 kg of CO2 + kg of H2O
4

Composition of Air
− Approximate composition of air by mass and by volume is shown in below table. Here
we assume that air contains nitrogen and oxygen only the rests are negligible.

Table 3.3.1 Composition of Air

By Volume By Mass Molecular Mass
79 % 77 %
N2 32
3.76 moles 3.347 kg
21 % 23 %
O2 28
1 mole 1 kg
100 %
Air 100 %
4.76 moles 28.97 29
4.347
kg

Mass fraction and Mole fraction

Mass Fraction
− It is defined as the ratio of mass of a constituent of a mixture or compound to the total
mass of mixture or compound.
Mass of a constituent in the mixture
Mass Fraction =
Mass of mixture
Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET. 53
 Combustion

Mole fraction
− The ratio of moles of a constituent gas to the total moles of mixture of gases is called
the mole fraction.
Moles of a constituent in the mixture
Mole Fraction =
Total moles of mixture of gases
Stoichiometry
Air fuel Ratio:
ma
− It is expressed in a mass basis and defined as A/F ratio = .
mf
Stoichiometric (Theoretical) Air
− The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is called
the stoichiometric or theoretical air.
− A mixture of theoretical air and fuel is called Stoichiometric or Chemically correct
mixture.
Excess Air
− In practice the combustion of fuel is never complete due to non-homogeneity of
mixture.
− In order to ensure complete combustion of fuel, usually, actual air supplied is more
than the theoretical air required for complete combustion of fuel. Then,
Excess air = Actual air - Stoichiometric (theoretical) air
Actual A/F ratio - Stoichiometric A/F ratio
% excess air = ×100
Stoichiometric A/F ratio

− The magnitude of excess air supplied depends on the homogeneity of mixture,

turbulence and maximum pressure and temperature to be attained in combustion
process.
Equivalence Ratio (∅)
− It is a measure of the stoichiometric AF ratio relative to actual AF ratio.
AF FA
  st  a
AFa FAst
where AF = ma/mf, FA = mf/ma and FA = 1/AF.
− When  1 , mixture is stoichiometric.
− Lean mixture (   1 ): If actual A.F. ratio is more than stoichiometric A.F. ratio, the
mixture is said to lean or weak mixture.
− Rich mixture (   (  1 ): If actual A.F. ratio is less than stoichiometric A.F. ratio, the
mixture is said to rich mixture.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 54

 Combustion

Determination of Minimum Air Required Per kg of Solid or Liquid Fuel for

Complete Combustion
− Let us consider 1 kg of fuel, the ultimate analysis of which shows that carbon is ‘C’
kg, hydrogen is ‘H’ kg, sulphur is ‘S’ kg and oxygen is ‘O’ kg. The amount of oxygen
required can be computed with the help of combustion.
− From the combustion equations in section 3.2
8
1 kg of carbon requires kg of O2
3
8
C kg of carbon requires
 3  kg of O2
 
− Similarly,
H kg of hydrogen requires (8 H) kg of
O2 S kg of hydrogen requires (S) kg of
O2
Total oxygen required = (8/3)C + 8H + S kg
− Since O kg of oxygen is already present in the fuel. Therefore, minimum oxygen
required for complete combustion
Min. Oxygen required for complete combustion
8 8  O
   C  8H  S  O  C 8 H    S
3 3 8
   
− Air contains 23% of oxygen by mass and therefore kg of air required per kg of fuel for
complete combustion is given by
1 8  O  100
 100 3C  8  H  8   S  23
   
1 8  O 
 23 3C  8 H    S 
8
   
Enthalpy of formation
− A combustion reaction is a particular kind of chemical reaction in which products are
formed from reactants with the release or absorption of energy as heat is transferred to
and from the surroundings.
− In some substances like hydrocarbon fuels which are many in number and complex in
structure the heat of reaction or combustion may be calculated on the basis of known
values of the enthalpy of formation, ∆Hf of the constituent of the reactants and
products at the temperature T0 (reference temperature).
− The enthalpy of formation (∆Hf) is the increase in enthalpy when a compound is
formed from its constituent elements in their natural form and in a standard state.
− The standard state is 25°C, and 1 atm. pressure, but it must be borne in mind that not
all substances ran exist in natural form, e.g. H20 cannot be a vapour at 1 atm. and
25°C.
− The expression of a particular reaction, for calculation purposes, may be given as:

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 Combustion

H 0   ni H fi   ni H fi
P R

− Typical values of ∆Hf for different substances at 25℃ (298 K) in kJ/mole are given
below:
Table 3.2 Values of Enthalpy of formation for different substances
Sr. Substance Formula State ∆Hf
No.
1 Oxygen O Gas 249143
O2 Gas 0
2 Water H2O Liquid -285765
Vapour -241783
3 Carbon C Gas 714852
Diamond 1900
Graphite 0
4 Carbon Monoxide CO Gas -111508
5 Carbon Dioxide CO2 Gas -393443
6 Methane CH4 Gas -74855
7 Methyl alcohol CH3OH Vapour -240532
8 Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH Vapour -281102
9 Ethane C2H6 Gas -83870
10 Ethene (Ethylene) C2H4 Gas 51780
11 Propane C3H8 Gas -102900
12 Butane C4H10 Gas -125000
13 Octane C8H18 Liquid -247600

Adiabatic flame temperature

− In a given combustion process that takes place adiabatically and with no work or
changes in kinetic or potential energy involved, the temperature of the products is
referred to as the adiabatic flame temperature.
− With the assumptions of no work and no changes in kinetic or potential energy, this is
the maximum temperature that can be achieved for the given reactants because any
heat transfer from the reacting substances and any incomplete combustion would tend
to lower the temperature of the products.
− The following points are worth noting
i) The maximum temperature achieved through adiabatic complete combustion
varies with the type of reaction and percent of theoretical air supplied.
ii) For a given fuel and given pressure and temperature of the reactants, the
maximum adiabatic flame temperature that can be achieved is with a
stoichiometric mixture.
iii) The adiabatic flame temperature can be controlled by the amount of excess air that
is used. This is important, for example, in gas turbines, where the maximum
permissible temperature is determined by metallurgical consideration in turbine,
and close control of the temperature of the product is essential.

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 Combustion

Calorific values of fuels and its determination

− The calorific value of the fuel is the amount of heat generated by burning unit mass or
unit volume of the fuel. A fuel is more desirable whose heat generating capacity is
high.
− If a fuel contains hydrogen, water will be formed as one of the products of combustion.
If this water is condensed, a large amount of heat will be released than if water exist
in the vapour phase.
− For this reason two heating values are defined; the higher or gross heating value and
the lower or net heating value.
− The C.V. of the fuel determined by an experiment gives H.C.V. as the products of
combustion are cooled to atmospheric temperature at which most water-vapour in the
exhaust is cooled and condensed and its latent heat is given to the cooling medium.
− In actual practice, the latent heat of vapour in exhaust is carried with the water vapour
and is not available. Therefore the L.C.V. of the fuel is calculated by deducting latent
heat of water vapour from HCV (determined by experiment).
 LCV  HCV  mH2 O  hfg
where mH 2O is the mass of water vapour formed per kg of fuel burned and hfg is the
latent heat of water vapour at partial water-vapour pressure in the exhaust gases.
− In actual practice, for all practical purposes, the LCV of the fuel is considered.
− Two different methods for finding HCV of liquid fuel and gaseous fuel are described
here.
Bomb calorimeter
− The calorific value of powdered and liquid fuels is determined at constant volume in
the bomb calorimeter. It resembles the shape of a bomb, and thus it is known as the
bomb calorimeter. It is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Construction
− The fuel is burnt in a strong steel chamber, known as bomb, which is immersed in a
known mass of water. The fuel sample is placed in a crucible inside the bomb, which
is filled with oxygen under a pressure above 25 atm. It is then ignited by an electrically
heated platinum wire. The combustion thus takes place at constant volume, the fuel
bums almost in a constant-pressure environment due to the high pressure of oxygen.
To reduce any losses of heat, the calorimeter is also provided with additional water
jacket and air. A motor-driven stirrer is used to keep the water temperature uniform
around the bomb and an accurate thermometer (Beckman type) is immersed in water to
measure the temperature accurately.

Procedure
− A known quantity of fuel sample as a briquette is placed into the crucible and a fuse
wire is connected with the electrodes as shown in Fig. 16.6. The bomb is then placed
in a calorimeter with a weighed quantity of water. After making necessary

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 Combustion

connections, the stirrer is started and temperature measurements are taken every
minute. At the end of the fifth minute, a charge is fired and temperature readings are
taken carefully every 10 seconds during this period. When the temperature readings
begin to fall, the frequency of readings may be reduced to one every minute.

Fig.3.1 Sectional view of a bomb calorimeter

− After experimentation, the bomb is taken out from its housing. The products of
combustion are released through the release valve. Then it is opened, and the unburnt
fuse wire, if any, is collected and weighed. A temperature-time curve is plotted.
− The measured temperature rise is corrected for various losses. The allowance for
combustion of fuse wire is determined from the weight of the fuse and its known
calorific value. The water equivalence of a calorimeter must be used in calculation to
accommodate its allowance.
− The heat released by combustion of fuel is absorbed by water surrounding the bomb
and calorimeter. Thus an energy balance yields to
Mass of fuel  calorific  Mass of water equivalent 
value + mass of fuse of calorimeter  specific 
   
  heat of water  corrected 
wire burn  caloric   
value of fuse wire 
  temperature rise 
m f CV  m fuse CV1  (mw  me )C pw T2  T1   Tc 

 mw  me  C pw T2 T1   Tc   m fuseCV1

CV  (3.1)
mf
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 Combustion

where
Tc = radiation correction to temperature, it is obtained from graphical presentation of
observation before and after firing
mf = mass of fuel
mfuse = mass of fuse water
mw = mass of water filled in calorimeter
me = water equivalent of calorimeter
CV1 = Calorific value of fuse wire
T2 – T1 = Observed temperature difference
− The bomb calorimeter measures a higher calorific value of fuel. If a liquid fuel is being
tested, it is contained in a gelatin capsule and the firing may be assisted by paraffin of
known calorific value in the crucible.
Junkers gas calorimeter
− Junkers gas calorimeter is shown in fig. 3.2. It is designed to burn a gaseous fuel under
a steady flow conditions at atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 3.2 Junkers Gas Calorimeter

− Heat is transferred from the products to water flowing steadily through the outer
jacket of the calorimeter. The operating conditions are adjusted to obtain a gas outlet
temperature equal to the inlet temperature of the fuel and combustion air.

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 Combustion

− From observed water temperatures and measured quantities of fuel and jacket water,
the heating value is calculated and reduced to the corresponding value for 25°C
operation.
− Some of the water vapour in the products condenses and drains from the calorimeter in
to a collecting vessel. This measured quantity of condensate is used in the sub sequent
conversion of the calorimetric heating value to the constant pressure higher and lower
heating values that are based, respectively, upon complete and zero condensation of
the water vapour formed during the combustion reaction.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 60

FUELS & ITS SUPPLY SYSTEM FOR SI
AND CI ENGINE

Course Contents
Important qualities of IC engine fuels
Rating of Fuels
Carburetion
Simple Carburetor
Complete Carburetor
Calculation of Air-Fuel ratio provided
by simple carburetor
Types of Carburetor
Gasoline Injection
MPFI
Functional requirement of an Injection
system
Classification of Injection System
Injection Pump
Fuel Injector
Types of Nozzles
Spray Formation
Quantity of fuel and size of orifice

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

Fuels
− Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical work. In an
internal combustion engine the heat energy is released by burning fuel in the engine
cylinder. The chemical reactions which permit the release of heat energy are quite fast
but the time taken in preparing a proper mixture of fuel and air depends mainly upon
the nature of fuel and method of introducing it into combustion chamber.
Important qualities of IC Engine fuels
− A good I.C. engine fuel must possess the following properties.
− It must have high energy density (kJ/kg).
− It should be easy to handle.
− It must possess good combustion qualities.
− It must have thermal stability.
− It must have low deposit forming tendency.
− It should be easy to handle and store.
− It should be free from hazard.
− It should not have chemical reactions with engine components, through which it flows.
− It should easily mix with air and evaporate as quickly as possible (low hfg).
− Products of combustion should not be corrosive to the engine parts.
− It must possess low toxicity.
− Its effect on air-pollution should be minimum.
− It should be economically available in very large quantities.
− The basic requirement of I.C. engine fuel is, the combustion should be fast with
maximum amount of heat release without forming any deposits and should not have
destructive effects on the engine parts and atmospheric air by exhaust gases.
Rating of Fuels
Rating of SI engine fuels
− Fuels differ widely in their ability to resist the knocking and detonation in S.l. engines.
It is expressed in terms of octane number.
− Fuel rating specifications require the standard engines operating under prescribed
standard conditions.
− The rating of a particular fuel is compared on the standard engine with that of a
standard reference fuel which is usually the combination of iso-octane (2,2,4 trimethyl
pentane) and n-heptane (C7 H16) by volume.
− Arbitrarily the iso-octane is assigned a rating of 100 octane number since this fuel has
minimum knocking tendency and the n-heptane is assigned a rating of zero octane
because of its high tendency to knock.
− The percentage volume of iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane
represents the octane number rating of a fuel.

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

− If a fuel is assigned a knock rating of 80, it means the fuel has the same tendency to
knock under standard operating conditions as the mixture of standard fuel having 80%
iso-octane and 20% of n-heptane fuels by volume.
− Hence the octane number rating of the fuel is an expression which indicates the ability
of a fuel to resist knock or detonation in SI Engines.

Method of Determination Octane Rating of Fuel:

− Octane rating of fuels is determined by testing a fuel on a variable compression
co-operative fuel research (CFR) engine under specified conditions.
− The fuel to be tested for knock rating is used in this engine to produce standard knock
by varying the compression ratio under standard operating conditions. Knockmeter
reading is noted.
− The fuel to be tested for knock rating is used in this engine to produce standard knock
by varying the compression ratio under standard operating conditions. Knockmeter
reading is noted.

Performance Number (PN)

− Certain fuels show even less tendency to knock than iso-octane fuel i.e. they have
octane number more than 100. In order to extend the octane scale, the knock rating of
fuel is measured in terms Army-Navy performance number represented by “PN”.
− It is defined as the ratio of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure (KLi.m.e.p)
of the fuel under test to the knock limited indicated mean effective pressure of iso-
octane.
KLi.m.e.p of test fuel
PN  (4.1)
KLi.m.e.p of iso-octane
− In certain cases the knock rating of fuel can be improved by adding tetra ethyl lead
(TEL) and when added to iso-octane it shows improved anti-knock characteristics.
− If ‘x’ ml of TEL is added to a U.S. gallon of iso-octane, the octane number (ON > 100)
is expressed as (100 + x) ml of TEL.
− Another method of octane scale is given by Wiese, and expressed as,
PN - 100
ON = 100 + (4.2)
3
Rating of CI engine fuels
− Increased delay period or ignition lag promotes knocking in C.I. engines. The property
of ignition lag is generally measured by cetane number.
− The fuel cetane (C16H34) is straight chain paraffin with good ignition qualities and it is
arbitrarily assigned a rating of 100 cetane number.
− While the hydrocarbon fuel alpha-methyl-naphthalene (C10H7CH3) has poor ignition
quality and it is assigned zero cetane number.
− These two fuels are mixed by volume and the mixture is matched with a fuel under
test in a standard engine running under prescribed conditions.

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 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

− The cetane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of Cetane in a

mixture of cetane (C16H34) and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces the same
delay period or ignition lag as the fuel being tested under same operating conditions
on the same engine.
− Higher the cetane number of fuel lesser will be the tendency for diesel knock.
Diesel Index
− An alternative method of expressing the quality of diesel fuel is called diesel index.
− It is defined as
Aniline point (  F)  API gravity at 15 C
Diesel Index = (4.3)
100
where
Aniline point represents the lowest temperature at which the diesel fuel is completely
miscible with an equal volume of aniline.
American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity is the density of diesel oil and it is
expressed as
141.5
API gravity= - 131.5 (4.4)
Specific gravity at 15 °C

Fuel supply system for SI Engine

− Spark ignition engine normally use volatile liquid fuels. Preparation of fuel-air mixture
is done outside the engine cylinder and formation of a homogeneous mixture is
normally not completed in the inlet manifold. Fuel droplets which remain in
suspension continue to evaporate and mix with air even during suction and
compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is extremely important for
SI engines. The purpose of carburetion is to provide a combustible air-fuel mixture in
the required quantity and quality for efficient operation of the engine under all
conditions.
Carburetion
− The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper
amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion and
the device which does this job is called a carburetor.
Factors affecting carburetion
a) The engine speed
− Since modern engines are high speed type, the time available for mixture formation is
very limited. For example, an engine sunning at 3000 rpm has only 10 milliseconds for
mixture induction during intake stroke. When the speed becomes 6000 rpm the time
available is only 5 ms.
b) The vapourization characteristics of the fuel
− The factors which ensure high quality carburetion within short period are the presence
of highly volatile hydrocarbons in the fuel. Therefore, suitable evaporation

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

characteristics of the fuel, indicated by its distillation curve, are necessary for efficient
carburetion especially at high speed.
c) The temperature of the incoming air
− The temperature and pressure of the surrounding air has large influence on efficient
carburetion. Higher atmospheric air temperature increases the vapourization of fuel
and produce a more homogeneous mixture. An increase in atmospheric temperature,
however leads to a decrease in power output of the engine when the air-fuel ratio is
constant due to reduced mass flow into the cylinder or, in other words, reduced
volumetric efficiency.
d) The design of carburetor
− The design of the carburetor, the intake system and the combustion chamber have
considerable influence on uniform distribution of mixture to the various cylinders of
the engine. Proper design of carburetor elements alone ensures the supply of desired
composition of the mixture under different condition of the engine.
Automotive engine mixture requirement at different loads and speeds
− Actual air-fuel mixture requirements in an automotive engine is not constant but
varies with load and speed.

Fig. 4.1 Carburetor Performance to fulfill engine requirements

− For successful operation of the engine, the carburetor has to provide mixtures which
follow the general shape of the curve ABCD (single cylinder) and A'B'C'D' (multi
cylinder) in Fig. 4.1 which represents a typical automotive engine requirement. The
carburetor must be suitably designed to meet the various engine requirements.

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

− As indicated in Fig. 4.1 there are three general ranges of throttle operation. In each of
these, the automotive engine requirements differ. As a result, the carburetor must be
able to supply the required air-fuel ratio to satisfy these demands. These ranges are:
(i) Idling (mixture must be enriched)
(ii) Cruising (mixture must be leaned)
(iii) High Power (mixture must be enriched)
i) Idling Range
− An idling engine is one which operates at no load and with nearly closed throttle.
Under idling conditions, the engine requires a rich mixture, as indicated by point A in
Fig. 4.1.
− This is due to the existing pressure conditions within, the combustion chamber and the
intake manifold which cause exhaust gas dilution of the fresh charge. The pressures
indicated in Fig. 4.2 are representative values which exist during idling. The exhaust
gas pressure at the end of the exhaust stroke does not vary greatly from the value
indicated in Fig. 4.2, regardless of the throttle position.

Fig. 4.2 Schematic diagram of combustion chamber and induction system at the start of intake
stroke
− Since, the clearance volume is constant, the mass of exhaust gas in the cylinder at the
end of the exhaust stroke tends to remain fairly constant throughout the idling range.
The amount of fresh charge brought in during idling, however, is much less than that
during full throttle operation, due to very small opening of the throttle (Fig. 4.2).
− This results in a much larger proportion of exhaust gas being mixed with the fresh
charge under idling conditions. Further, with nearly closed throttle the pressure in the
intake manifold is considerably below atmospheric due to restriction to the air flow.
− When the intake valve opens, the pressure differential between the combustion
chamber and the intake manifold results in initial backward flow of exhaust gases into
the intake manifold. As the piston proceeds down on the intake stroke, these exhaust
gases are drawn back into the cylinder, along with the fresh charge.
− As a result, the final mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber is diluted more
by exhaust gas. The presence of this exhaust gas tends to obstruct the contact of fuel

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

and air particles - a requirement necessary for combustion. This results in poor
combustion and, as a result, in loss of power.
− It is, therefore, necessary to provide more fuel particles by richening the air-fuel
mixture. This richening increases the probability of contact between fuel and air
particles and thus improves combustion.
− As the throttle is gradually opened from A to B, (Fig. 4.1), the pressure differential
between the inlet manifold and the cylinder becomes smaller and the exhaust gas
dilution of the fresh charge diminishes. Mixture requirements then proceed along line
AB (Fig. 4.1) to a leaner A/F ratio required for the cruising operation.
ii) Cruising Range
− In the cruising range from B to C (Fig. 4.1), the exhaust gas dilution problem is
relatively insignificant.
− The primary interest lies in obtaining the maximum fuel economy. Consequently, in
this range, it is desirable that the carburetor provides the engine with the best
economy mixture.
iii) Power Range (From about 75% to 100% rated power)
− The mixture requirement for maximum power is a rich mixture, of A/F about 14 : 1 or
(F/A ≈ 0.07).
− Besides providing maximum power, a rich mixture also prevents overheating of
exhaust valve at high load and inhibits detonation. At high load there is greater heat
transfer to engine parts.
− Enriching the mixture reduces the flame temperature and the cylinder temperature,
thereby reducing the cooling problem and lessening the chances of damaging the
exhaust valves. Also, reduced temperature tends to reduce detonation. Aircraft
engines have elaborate arrangement far enrichment of mixture, as detonation can
wreck the engine in a matter of seconds.
Simple carburetor
− A simple carburetor is shown in the figure 4.3.
− It mainly consist of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle and a metering orifice, a
venturi, a throttle valve and a choke.
− The float and a needle valve system maintains a constant level of gasoline in the float
chamber.
− If the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls below the designed level, the float goes
down, thereby opening the fuel supply valve and admitting fuel. When the designed
level has been reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping additional
fuel flow from the supply system.
− Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to the upstream side of the
venturi.

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

− During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. Venturi is a tube of decreasing
cross-section with a minimum are at the throat. Venturi tube is also known as choke
tube and is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow.

Fig. 4.3 A simple or elementary carburetor

− As air is passes through the venturi the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the
venturi throat. Correspondingly, the pressure decrease reaching a minimum.
− From the float chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in
the throat of venturi.
− Because of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the
venturi, known as carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air stream. The
fuel discharge is affected by the size of the discharge jet and it is selected to give the
required air-fuel ratio.
− The pressure at the throat at the fully open throttle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of
Hg, below atmospheric and seldom exceeds 8 cm Hg below atmospheric. To avoid
overflow of fuel through the jet, the level of the liquid in the float chamber is
maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the discharge jet. This is called the lip of
the nozzle. The difference in the height between the top of the nozzle and the float
chamber level is marked h in Fig. 4.3.
− The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power output is to
be varied at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the cylinder is
varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle valve usually of the butterfly type which
is situated after the venturi tube.
− As the throttle is closed less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity
of air-fuel mixture delivered to the cylinder and hence power output is reduced. As the
throttle is opened, more air flows through the choke tube resulting in increased

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

quantity of mixture being delivered to the engine. This increases the engine power
output.
Drawbacks:
− It provides the required A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle
positions the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is
opened less or more.
− It provides increasing richness of A/F mixture as the speed of the engine increases.
Reason behind that is as the throttle valve is opened gradually, the pressure at the
venturi throat decreases, which decreases density of air with increase in its air
velocity. Whereas, the quantity of fuel flow remains constant. Therefore, A/F ratio
decreases with increase in speed of engine.
− If the speed is too low, we get very lean mixtures which may not be sufficient to ignite
the mixture.
− So the simple carburettor is only suitable for small stationary engines to run at
constant speed.
Complete Carburetor (Modification in Simple carburetor)
− For meeting the demand of the engine under all conditions of operation, the following
addi-tional devices/systems are added to the simple carburetor:
1. Main metering system
2. Idling system
3. Power enrichment or economiser system
4. Acceleration pump system
5. Choke.
Main metering system
− The main metering system of a carburetor is designed to supply a nearly constant basis
fuel-air ratio over a wide range of speeds and loads. This mixture corresponds
approximately to best economy at full throttle (A/F ratio ≈ 15.6 or F/A ratio 0.064).
− Since a simple or elementary carburetor tends to enrich the mixture at higher speeds
automatic compensating device are incorporated in the main metering system to
correct this tendency. These devices are:
a) Compensating Jet device
− The principle of compensating jet device is to make the mixture leaner as the throttle
opens progressively. In this method, as can be seen from Fig. 4.4 in addition to the
main jet, a compensating jet is incorporated. The compensating jet is connected to the
compensation well. The compensating well is also vented to atmosphere like the main
float chamber.
− The compensating well is supplied with fuel from the main float chamber through a
restricting orifice. With the increase in air flow rate, there is decrease of fuel level in
the compensating well, with the result that fuel supply through the compensating jet
decreases.

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

Fig 4.4 Compensating jet device

Fig 4.5 Effect of compensating device on fuel-air ratio

− The compensating well is supplied with fuel from the main float chamber through a
restricting orifice. With the increase in air flow rate, there is decrease of fuel level in
the compensating well, with the result that fuel supply through the compensating jet
decreases.
− The compensating jet thus progressively makes the mixture leaner as the main jet
progressively makes the mixture richer. The sum of the two tends to keep the fuel-air
mixture more or less constant as shown in Fig. 4.5. The main jet curve and the
compensating jet curve are more or less reciprocals of each other.
b) Emulsion tube or air bleeding device
− In the modem carburetors the mixture correction is done by air bleeding alone. In this
arrangement the main metering jet is fitted about 25 mm below the petrol level and it
is called a submerged jet (see Fig. 4.6).
− The jet is situated at the bottom of a well, the sides of which have holes which are in
communication with the atmosphere.

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

− Air is drawn through the holes in the well, the

petrol is emulsified, and the pressure
difference across the petrol column is not as
great as that in the simple or elementary
carburetor.
− Initially, the petrol in the well is at a level equal
to that in the float chamber. On opening the
throttle this petrol, being subject to the low
throat pressure, is drawn into the air. This
continues with decreasing mixture richness as
the holes in the central tube are progressively
uncovered. Normal flow then takes place from
the main jet.
c) Auxiliary valve carburetor
− Fig. 4.7 (a) shows a simplified picture of an Fig. 4.6 Emulsion Tube
auxiliary valve device for under-standing the principle. When the engine is not
operating the pressure, p1 acting on the top of the auxiliary valve is atmospheric. The
vacuum at the venturi throat increases (the throat pressure, p2 decreases) with increase
in load. This pressure differential (p1 – p2) lifts the valve against the tension of the
spring. And as a result, more air is admitted and the mixture is prevented from
becoming rich.

Fig. 4. Auxiliary Valve and Port carburetor

d) Auxiliary port carburetor

− An auxiliary port carburetor is illustrated in fig. 4.6(b).
− By opening the butterfly valve, additional air is admitted and at the same time the
depression at the venturi throat also reduced, decreasing the quantity of fuel drawn in.
This method is used in aircraft carburetors for altitude compensation.

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 Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

Idling system
− During starting or idling, engine runs
without load and throttle valve remains
in closed position. Engine produces
power only to overcome friction
between the parts, and a rich mixture is
to be fed to the engine to sustain
combustion.
− The idling system as shown consist of an
idling fuel passage and an idling port.
When the throttle is partially closed, a
depression past the throttle allows the
fuel to go into the intake through the
idle tube.
− The depression also draws air through
the idle air bleed and mixes with fuel. As
the throttle is opened, the main jet
gradually takes over while the idle jet Fig. 4.8 Idling Jet
becomes ineffective.
− The fuel flow depends on the location of the idle nozzle and the adjustment of the idle
screw.
Power enrichment or Economiser system
− As the maximum power range of
operation (75% to 100% load) is
approached, some device must allow
richer mixture (A/F about 13:1, F/A
0.08) to be supplied. Such a device is the
meter rod economiser shown in Fig. 4.8.
The name economiser is rather
misleading.

− The meter rod economizer shown in Fig.

4.9, simply provides a large orifice
opening to the main jet as the throttle is
opened beyond a certain point. The rod
may be tapered or stepped.

Fig. 4.9 Meter rod economiser

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Acceleration Pump System

− When it is desired to accelerate the engine rapidly, a simple carburetor will not
provide the required rich mixture. Rapid opening of the throttle will be immediately
followed by an increased airflow, but the inertia of the liquid fuel will cause at least a
momentarily lean mixture just when richness is desired for power.

Fig. 4.10 Acceleration Pump

− To overcome this deficiency an acceleration pump is provided, one example of which
is shown in Fig. 4.10. The pump consists of a spring loaded plunger. A linkage
mechanism is provided so that when the throttle a rapidly opened the plunger moves
into the cylinder and forces an additional jet of fuel into the venturi.
− The plunger is raised again against the spring force when the throttle is partly closed.
Arrangement is provided so that when the throttle is opened slowly, the fuel in the
pump cylinder is not forced into the venturi but leaks past plunger or some holes into
the float chamber.
Choke
− During cold starting period, at low cranking speed
and before the engine has warmed up, a mixture
much richer than usual mixtures (almost 5 to 10
times more fuel) must be supplied simply because
a , large fraction of the fuel will remain liquid even
in the cylinder, and only the vapour fraction forms
a combustible mixture with the air.
− The most common means of obtaining this rich
mixture is by the use of a choke, which is a
butterfly type of valve placed between the
entrance to the carburetor and the Venturi throat
as shown in Fig. 4.11.
− By partially closing the choke, a large pressure Fig.4.11 Choke valve spring-
drop can be produced at the venturi throat that loaded bypass

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would normally result from the amount of air flowing through the venturi. This strong
suction at the throat will draw large quantities of fuel from the main nozzle and supply a
sufficiently rich mixture so that the ratio of evaporated fuel to air in the cylinders is
within combustible limits.
− Choke valves are sometimes made with a spring loaded by-pass so that high pressure
drops and excessive choking will not result after the engine has started and has
attained a higher speed. Some manufacturers make the choke operate automatically by
means of a thermostat such that when the engine is cold the choke is closed by a
bimetallic element. After starting and as the engine warms up the bimetallic element
gradually opens the choke to its fully open position.
Calculation of the Air-fuel ratio supplied by simple carburetor
− A simple carburetor with the tip of the fuel nozzle z metres above the fuel level in the
float chamber is shown in fig. 4.12. The expression for air-fuel ratio for the carburetor
can be found (a) accurately, by taking compressibility of air into account, or (b)
approximately, by neglecting the change in density of air from inlet to the throat of
the carburetor, i.e. neglecting the compressibility of the air.

Fig. 4.12 Principles of a simple carburetor

Accurate analysis
− Applying the steady flow energy equation to section AA and BB and assuming unit
mass flow of air, we have
1
q  w  (h  h )  (C2  C2 ) (4.5)
2 1
2 2 1
− Here q, w are the heat and work transfers from entrance to throat and h and C stand
for enthalpy and velocity respectively.
− Assuming an adiabatic flow, we get q  0, w  0 and C1  0 ,

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C2  2  h1  h2  (4.6)
− Assuming air to behave like ideal gas, we get h  CPT. Hence, eq. 4.6 can be written
as,
C2  2CP T1 T2  (4.7)
− As the flow process from inlet to the venturi throat can be considered to be isentropic,
we have
    1
T2  p2    (4.8)
   
 

T 1 p1 

  p   1 
T  T  T 1 2  

(4.9)

1 2 1    

p
 1 


− Substituting eq. 4.9 in eq. 4.7, we get
  1 
  
  p 
  
C2  2CPT1 1  2 (4.10)
 
  1 
p

− Now, mass for air,
ma  1 A1C1 2 A2C2 (4.11)
where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional area at section 1-1 and section 2-2.
− To calculate the mass flow rate of air at venturi throat, we have
p1 p
 2 (4.12)

1 2
 p 1
2  1  2 
p
 1  



p  1 
   1 
m 2 A  p 2    (4.13)

  1 2 2CPT1 1 
a
p  
 1    p1 


 p   p 2
1
   1 
 p2 RT1
A 2C T 1   
  p 2




 P 1  
 1
  1 
1 p
 
  2    
  1

A2 p1   p2    p 2 
 

ma  R T 2C P  
  
(4.14)
 1   1 
p p
1


− The above equation gives theoretical mass flow of air. The actual mass flow is obtained
by multiplying by the coefficient of discharge of the venturi.

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 2
   
  1

m  C A2 p1  p 
  p 
2   
 (4.15)
aactual da 2CP    
2

 1   1 
RT1 p p

− In order to calculate the air-fuel ratio, fuel flow rate is to be calculated. As the fuel is
incompressible, applying Bernoulli’s Theorem we get
p1 p2 C 2f  gz
  (4.16)
f f 2
where  f is the density of fuel, Cf is the fuel velocity at the nozzle exit and z is the
height of the nozzle exit above the level of fuel in the float chamber
pp2 
Cf  2  1  gz (4.17)
 f 
− Mass flow rate of fuel,

mf  Af Cf  f (4.18)

 Af 2 f  p1  p2  gz f  (4.19)
where Af is the area of cross-section of the nozzle and  f is the density of the fuel
− Above equation gives theoretical mass flow of the fuel to find actual mass flow
coefficient of discharge of fuel nozzle must be taken into consideration.
mf
actual
 Cdf Af 2 f  p1  p2  gz f  (4.20)
maactual
A/F ratio 
mf
actual

  1
 2
 
 p2   p 2   

2CP      
  1   1 
p p
A Cda A2 p1  
    (4.21)
F Cdf Af R T1 2 f  p1  p2  gz f 
Approximate analysis
− When air is considered as incompressible, Bernoulli’s Theorem is applicable to air flow
also. Hence, assuming C1 ≈ 0
p p C2
1
 2 2 (4.22)
 f f 2
 p  p 
C2  2 1 2 (4.23)
 f 

ma  A2C2 a  A2 2a  p1  p2  (4.24)

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ma
actual
 Cda A2 2a  p1  p2  (4.25)
ma
A/F ratio actual
mf
 a  p1  p2 
actual

AC A 
 da  2  (4.26)
F Cdf Af  f  p1  p2  gz f 
− If nozzle lip can be neglected then, z = 0
A Cda A2
   a (4.27)
F Cdf Af f
Air-Fuel ratio provided by a simple carburetor
− It is clear from expression for m f (Eq. 4.20) that if (p1 – p2) is less than gzpf there is no
fuel flow and this can happen at very low air flow. As the air flow increases, (p1 – p2)
increases and when (p1 – p2) > gzpf the fuel flow begins and increases with increase in
the differential pressure.
− At high air flows where (p1 – p2) is large compared to gzpf the fraction gzpf /(p1 – p2)
becomes negligible and the air-fuel ratio approaches
Cda A2  a
 
Cdf Af f
− A decrease in the density of air reduces the value of air-fuel ratio (i.e., mixture
becomes richer). It happens at
(a) High air flow rates where (p1 – p2) becomes large and 2 decreases.
(b) High altitudes where the density of air is low.

Types of carburetors
− Depending upon the direction of air and fuel flow, the carburettors are classified as:
(i) Updraft carburettors (ii) Downdraft carburettors (iii) Side draft or horizontal
carburettors.
− Fig. 4.13(a) shows the updraft carburettor in which the air enters the carburettor
against the gravity from bottom in the upward direction.
− The disadvantage of such a carburettor is that it has to lift the sprayed fuel droplets by
air friction.
− Since the fuel droplets have the tendency to separate out from air stream due to high
inertia, it becomes necessary to design the jet tube and throat of relatively smaller area
in order to increase the air velocity to an extent it carries the fuel particles along even
at low engine speeds, otherwise, the mixture reaching the engine will be lean.
− However, with relatively smaller cross-section of jet tube, the carburettor cannot
supply the mixture at the required rapid rate at high engine speeds. Due to this the
updraft carburettors have now become almost obsolete.

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Fig. 4.13 Types of Carburetors

− Fig. 4.13(b) shows the down-draft carburettor. These are usually installed at a level
higher than the intake manifolds. In these carburettors the flow of mixture is assisted
by the gravity in its passage into intake manifolds. This allows the proper flow of
mixture even at low engine speeds and at the same time the carburettor is reasonably
accessible.
− Fig. 4.13(c) shows the side-draft carburettor. It consists of a horizontal jet tube. Such
a carburettor has the advantage where under bonnet space is limited and also the
resistance to flow is reduced due to elimination of one right angled turn in the intake
passages.
− Most automotive carburetors are either downdraft or side-draft. In the United States,
downdraft carburetors were almost ubiquitous, partly because a downdraft unit is
ideal for V engines. In Europe, side-draft carburetors are much more common in
performance applications. Small propeller-driven flat airplane engines have the
carburetor below the engine (updraft).
Gasoline Injection
− In a carburettor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is difficult to realize in each
cylinder of a multicylinder engine. Figure 4.14 shows a typical pattern of mixture
distribution in an intake manifold of a multicylinder engine.

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Fig. 4.14 Typical pattern of mixture distribution in a multi-cylinder engine

− As may be noticed that the intake valve is open in cylinder 2. As can also be observed
the gasoline moves to the end of the manifold and accumulates there. This enriches
the mixture going to the end cylinders.
− However, the central cylinders, which are very close to the carburettor, get the leanest
mixture. Thus the various cylinders receive the air-gasoline mixture in varying
quantities and richness. This problem is called the maldistribution and can be solved
by the port injection system by having the same amount of gasoline injected at each
intake manifold.
− Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop injection systems for gasoline engines.
By adopting gasoline injection each cylinder can get the same richness of the air-
gasoline mixture and the maldistribution can be avoided to a great extent.
− Gasoline injection system is preferred a carburetion for one or more of the following
reasons:
(i) To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multicylinder engine.
(ii) To improve breathing capacity i.e. volumetric efficiency.
(iii) To reduce or eliminate detonation.
(iv) To prevent fuel loss during scavenging in case of two-stroke engines.
Types of Gasoline Injection Systems
− The fuel injection system can be classified as:
(i) Gasoline direct injection into the cylinder (GDI)
(ii) Port injection
(a) Timed, and (b) Continuous
(iii) Manifold injection
− The above fuel injection systems can be grouped under two heads, viz., single-point
and multi-point injection. In the single point injection system, one or two injectors are
mounted inside the throttle body assembly. Fuel sprays are directed at one point or

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at the center of the intake manifold. Another name of the single point injection is
throttle body injection. Multipoint injection has one injector for each engine cylinder.
In this system, fuel is injected in more than one location. This is more common and is
often called port injection system.
− The gasoline fuel injection system used in a spark- ignition engine can be either of
continuous injection or timed injection.
Continuous injection systems:
This system usually has a rotary pump. The pump maintains a fuel line gauge pressure
of about 0.75 to 1.5 bar. The system injects the fuel through a nozzle located in the
manifold immediately downstream of the throttle plate. In a supercharged engine, fuel
is injected at the entrance of the supercharger. The timing and duration of the fuel
injection is determined by Electronic Control Unit (ECU) depending upon the load and
speed.

Timed fuel injection system:

− This system has a fuel supply pump which sends fuel at a low pressure of about 2 bar
when the engine is running at maximum speed. A fuel metering or injection pump and
a nozzle are the other parts of the system. The nozzle injects the fuel in the manifold
or the cylinder head port at about 6.5 bar or into the combustion chamber at pressures
that range from 16 to 35 bar.
− Timed injection system injects fuel usually during the early part of the suction stroke.
During maximum power operation injection begins after the closure of the exhaust
valve and ends usually after BDC. Direct in-cylinder injection is superior and always
desirable and better compared to manifold injection. In this case both low and high
volatile fuels can be used and higher volumetric efficiencies can be achieved.
− Typical fuel injection methods used in four stroke gasoline engines are shown in Fig.
4.15.

Fig. 4.15 Different methods of fuel injection

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Components of Injection System

− The objectives of the fuel injection system are to meter, atomize and uniformly
distribute the fuel throughout the air mass in the cylinder. At the same time it must
maintain the required air-fuel ratio as per the load and speed requirement the engine.
− To achieve all the above tasks, a number of components are required in the fuel
injection system, the functions of which are mentioned below.
(i) Pumping element - moves the fuel from the fuel tank to the injector. This includes
necessary piping, filter etc.
ii) Metering element - measures and supplies the fuel at the rate demanded by load
and speed conditions of the engine.
iii) Mixing element - atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air to form a homogenous
mixture.
iv) Metering control - adjusts the rate of metering in accordance with load and speed
of the engine.
v) Mixture control - adjusts fuel-air ratio as demanded by the load and speed.
vi) Distributing element - divides the metered fuel equally among the cylinders.
ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
− Modern gasoline injection systems use engine sensors, a computer, and solenoid
operated fuel injectors to meter and inject the right amount of fuel into the engine
cylinders. These systems called electronic fuel injection (EFI) use electrical and
electronic devices to monitor and control engine operation.
− An electronic control unit (ECU) or the computer receives electrical signals in the form
of current or voltage from various sensors. It then uses the stored data to operate the
injectors, ignition system and other engine related devices. As a result, less unburned
fuel leaves the engine as emissions, and the vehicle rives better mileage.
− Typical sensors for an electronic fuel injection system includes the following:
Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor - senses the amount of oxygen in the en-gine exhaust
and calculates air-fuel ratio. Sensor output voltage changes in proportion to air-fuel
ratio.
Engine temperature sensor - senses the temperature of the engine coolant, and from
this data the computer adjusts the mixture strength to rich side for cold starting.
Air flow sensor - monitors mass or volume of air flowing into the intake manifold for
adjusting the quantity of fuel.
Air inlet temperature sensor - checks the temperature of the ambient air entering the
engine for fine tuning the mixture strength.
Throttle position sensor - senses the movement of the throttle plate so that the
mixture flow can be adjusted for engine speed and acceleration.
Manifold pressure sensor - monitors vacuum in the engine intake mani-fold so that
the mixture strength can be adjusted with changes in engine load.
Camshaft position sensor - senses rotation of engine camshaft/crankshaft for speed
and timing of injection.

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Knock sensor - microphone type sensor that detects ping or preignition noise so that
the ignition timing can be retarded.
MPFI (Multi Point Fuel Injection System)
− The main purpose of the MPFI system is to supply a proper ratio of gasoline and air to
the cylinders. These systems function under two basic arrangements namely
i) Port Injection
ii) Throttle body injection
Port Injection
− In the port injection arrangement, the injector is placed on the side of the intake
manifold near the intake port (fig. 4.16), the injector sprays gasoline into the air, inside
the intake manifold. The gasoline mixes with the air in a reasonably uniform manner.
This mixture of gasoline and air then passes through the intake valve and enters into
the cylinder.

Fig. 4.16 Port Injection Fig. 4.17 Multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) near port

− Every cylinder is provide with an injector in its intake manifold. If there are six
cylinders, there will be six injectors. Fig. 4.17 shows a simplified view of a port or
multi point fuel injection (MPFI) system.
Throttle body injection System
− Fig. 4.18 illustrates the simplified sketch of throttle body injection system (Single point

Fig. 4.18 Throttle body injection (single point)

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-injection). This throttle body is similar to the carburettor throt-tle body, with the
throttle valve controlling the amount of air entering the intake manifold.
− An injector is placed slightly above the throat of the throttle body. The injector sprays
gasoline into the air in the intake manifold where the gasoline mixes with air. This
mixture then passes through the throttle valve and enters into the intake manifold.
− As already mentioned, fuel-injection systems can be either timed or continuous. In the
timed injection system, gasoline is sprayed from the injectors in pulses. In the
continuous injection system, gasoline is sprayed continuously from the injectors.
− The port injection system and the throttle-body injection system may be either pulsed
systems or continuous systems. In both systems, the amount of gasoline injected
depends upon the engine speed and power demands. In some literature MPFI systems
are classified into two types: D- MPFI and L-MPFI.
D- MPFI system
− The D-MPFI system is the manifold fuel injection system. In this type, the vacuum in
the intake manifold is first sensed. In addition, it senses the volume of air by its density.
Fig. 4.19 gives the block diagram regarding the functioning of the D-MPFI system.

Fig 4.19 D-MPFI gasoline injection system

− As air enters into the intake manifold, the manifold pressure sensor detects the intake
manifold vacuum and sends the information to the ECU. The speed sensor also sends
information about the rpm of the engine to the ECU.
− The ECU in turn sends commands to the injector to regulate the amount of gasoline
supply for injection. When the injector sprays fuel in the intake manifold the gasoline
mixes with the air and the mixture enters the cylinder.
L-MPFI system
− The L-MPFI system is a port fuel-injection system. In this type the fuel metering is
regulated by the engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters the engine.
This is called air-mass metering or air-flow metering. The block diagram of an L-
MPFI system is shown in Fig. 4.20.

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Fig. 4.20 L-MPFI gasoline injection system

− As air enters into the intake manifold, the air flow sensor measures the amount of air
and sends information to the ECU. Similarly, the speed sensor sends information about
the speed of the engine to the ECU.
− The ECU processes the information received and sends appropriate commands to the
injector, in order to regulate the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When
injection takes place, the gasoline mixes with the air and the mixture enters the
cylinder.
Fuel supply system for CI Engine
− In C.I. engines, the air is taken in during the suction stroke and compressed to a high
pressure (28 to 70 bar) and high temperature (520° to 720°C) according to the
compres-sion ratio used (12 : 1 to 20 : 1). The high temperature of air at the end of
stroke is sufficient to ignite the fuel.
− Fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke; the pressure of
fuel injected lies between 100 to 200 bar. During the process of injection the fuel is
broken into very fine droplets. The droplets vaporise taking the heat from the hot air
and form a combustible mixture and start burning. As the burning starts, the
vaporisation of fuel is accelerated as more heat is available. As the combustion
progresses, the amount of oxygen available for burning reduces and therefore heat
release is reduced.
− The period between the start of injection and start of ignition, called the ignition delay,
is about 0.001 second for high speed engines and 0.002 second for low speed engines.
The injection period covers about 25° of crank rotation. After the ignition the
temperature and pressure rise rapidly. The whole performance of engine is totally
dependent on the delay period; the lesser the delay period better is the engine
performance.

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Functional Requirements of an Injection System

For a proper running and good performance from the engine, the following requirements
must be met by the injection system:
− Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle. This is very critical due to the fact
that very small quantities of fuel being handled. Metering errors may cause drastic
variation from the desired output. The quantity of the fuel metered should vary to
meet changing speed and load requirements of the engine
− Timing the injection of the fuel correctly in the cycle so that maximum power is
obtained ensuring fuel economy and clean burning.
− Proper control of rate of infection so that the desired heat-release pattern is achieved
during combustion.
− Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets
− Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air
− Uniform distribution of fuel droplets in the combustion chamber
− To supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders in case of multi cylinder
engines
− No lag during beginning and end of injection i.e., to eliminate dribbling of fuel droplets
into the cylinder.
Classification of Injection Systems
− In a constant-pressure cycle or diesel engine, only air is compressed in the cylinder and
then fuel is injected into the cylinder by means of a fuel-injection system. For
producing the required pressure for atomizing the fuel either air or a mechanical
means is used. Accordingly the injection systems can be classified as:
(i) Air injection systems
(ii) Solid injection systems
Air Injection System
− In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air.
− This system is little used nowadays, because it requires a bulky multi-stage air
compressor. This causes an increase in engine weight and reduces the brake power
output further.
− One advantage that is claimed for the air injection system is good mixing of fuel with
the air with resultant higher mean effective pressure. Another is the ability to utilize
fuels of high viscosity which are less expensive than those used by the engines with
solid injection systems. These advantages are off-set by the requirement of a
multistage compressor thereby making the air-injection system obsolete.
Solid Injection System
− In this system the liquid fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber without
the aid of compressed air. Hence, it is also called airless mechanical injection or solid
injection system. Solid injection systems can be classified as:
(i) Individual pump and nozzle system

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(ii) Unit injector system

(iii) Common rail system
(iv) Distributor system
Typical fuel feed system for a CI engine
− Fuel feed system of CI engine comprise mainly of the following components.
i) fuel tank
ii) fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection system
iii) injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection
iv) governor to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in accordance with
variation in load
v) injector to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combus-tion
chamber by atomizing it into fine droplets
vi) fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and
injectors thereby minimizing the wear and tear of the components.

Fig. 4.21 Typical fuel feed system for a CI engine

− A typical arrangement of various components for the solid injection system used in a
Cl engine is shown in Fig. 4.21.
− Fuel from the fuel tank first enters the coarse filter from which is drawn into the
plunger feed pump where the pressure is raised very slightly. Then the fuel enters the
fine filter where all the dust and dirt particles are removed.
− From the fine filter the fuel enters the fuel pump where it is pressurized to about 200
bar and injected into the engine cylinder by means of the injector. Any spill over in the
injector is returned to the fine filter. A pressure relief valve is also provided for the
safety of the system.
− The above functions are achieved with the components listed above. The types of solid
injection system described in the following sections differ only in the manner of
operation and control of the components mentioned above.

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Types of Solid injection systems

a) Individual Pump and Nozzle System
− The details of the individual pump and nozzle system are shown in Fig. 4.22(a) and (b).
In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector.
− In this arrangement a separate metering and compression pump is provided for each
cylinder. The pump may be placed close to the cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.22(a) or they
may be arranged in a cluster as shown in Fig. 4.22(b).
− The high pressure pump plunger is actuated by a cam, and pro-duces the fuel pressure
necessary to open the injector valve at the correct time. The amount of fuel injected
depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.

Fig. 4.22 Injection systems with pump and nozzle arrangements used in Cl engines

b) Unit Injector system

− The unit injector system, Fig. 4.22(c), is one in which the pump and the injector nozzle
are combined in one housing. Each cylinder is provided with one of these unit
injectors.
− Fuel is brought up to the injector by a low pressure pump, where at the proper time, a
rocker arm actuates the plunger and thus injects the fuel into the cylinder. The

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amount of fuel injected is regulated by the effective stroke of the plunger. The pump
and the injector can be integrated in one unit as shown in Fig. 4.22(c).
c) Common Rail System
− In the common rail system, Fig. 4.22(d), a HP pump supplies fuel, under high pressure,
to a fuel header. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the nozzles
located in the cylinders.
− At the proper time, a mechanically operated (by means of a push rod and rocker arm)
valve allows the fuel to enter the proper cylinder through the nozzle. The pressure in
the fuel header must be that, for which the injector system was designed, i.e., it must
enable to penetrate and disperse the fuel in the combustion chamber.
− The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying the length of the push
rod stroke. A high pressure pump is used for supplying fuel to a header, from where
the fuel is metered by injectors (assigned one per cylinder). The details of the system
are illustrated in Fig. 4.22(d).
d) Distributor System
− Fig. 4.23 shows a schematic diagram of a distributor system. In this system the pump
which pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it. The fuel pump after metering the
required amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating distributor at the correct time for
supply to each cylinder.

Fig. 4.23 Schematic diagram of distributor system

− The number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump is equal to the number of
cylinders. The details of the system are given in Fig. 4.23. Since there is one metering
element in each pump, a uniform distribution is automatically ensured. Not only that,
the cost of the fuel-injection system also reduces to a value less than two-thirds of that
for individual pump system. A comparison of various fuel-injection systems is given
in Table 4.1.

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Table 4.1 Comparison of various fuel injection system

Air Solid Injection System
Job Injectio Individua Commo Distributor
n l Pump n Rail
System
Metering Pump Pump Injection valve Pump
Timing Fuel cam Pump cam Fuel cam Fuel cam
Injection Rate Spray valve Pump cam Spray valve Fuel cam
Atomization Spray valve Spray tip Spray tip Spray tip
Distribution Spray valve Spray tip Spray tip Spray tip
Injection Pump
− The main objectives of fuel-injection pump is to deliver accurately metered quantity of
high pressure fuel (in the range from 120 to 200 bar) at the correct time to the injector
fitted on each cylinder. Injection pumps are of two types, viz. (i) Jerk type pumps (ii)
Distributor type pumps
Jerk Type Pump (BOSCH fuel Injection Pump)
− Commonly used pump is shown in fig. 4.24.
− It consists of a reciprocating plunger inside a barrel. The plunger is driven by a
camshaft. The working principle of jerk pump is illustrated in Fig. 4.25.
− A sketch of a typical plunger is shown.
− A schematic diagram of the plunger
within the barrel is shown. Near the port
A, fuel is always available under
relatively low pressure. While the axial
movement of the plunger is through cam
shaft, its rotational movement about its
axis by means of rack D. Port B is the
orifice through which fuel is delivered to
the injector. At this stage it is closed by
means of a spring loaded check valve.
− When the plunger is below port A, the
fuel gets filled in the barrel above it. As
the plunger rises and closes the port A the
fuel will flow out through port C. This is
because it has to overcome the spring
force of the check valve in order to flow
through port B. Hence it takes the easier
way out via port C.
− At this stage rack rotates the plunger and Fig. 4.24 BOSCH fuel pump
as a result port C also closes. The only escape route for the fuel is past the check valve
through orifice B to the injector. This is the beginning of injection and also the effective
stroke of the plunger.

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− The injection continues till the helical indentation on the plunger un-covers port C.
Now the fuel will take the easy way out through C and the check valve will close the
orifice B. The fuel-injection stops and the effective stroke ends.
− Hence the effective stroke of the plunger is the axial distance traversed between the
time port A is closed off and the time port A is uncovered.
− The plunger is rotated to the position shown. The same sequence of events occur. But
in this case port C is uncovered sooner. Hence the effective stroke is shortened.
− It is important to remember here that though the axial distance traversed by the
plunger is same for every stroke, the rotation of the plunger by the rack determining
the length of the effective stroke and thus the quantity of fuel injected.

Fig. 4.25 Principle of helix bypass pump

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Distributor Type Pump

− This pump has only a single pumping element and the fuel is distributed to each
cylinder by means of a rotor (Fig. 4.26).
− The rotor has a central longitudinal passage two sets of radial holes (each equal to the
number of engine cylinders) located at different heights. One set is connected to pump
inlet via central passage whereas the second set is connected to delivery lines leading
to injectors of the various cylinders.

Fig. 4.26 Principle of working of distributor type fuel-injection pump

− The fuel is drawn into the central rotor passage from the inlet port when the pump
plunger move away from each other. Wherever, the radial delivery passage in the
rotor coincides with the delivery port for any cylinder the fuel is delivered to each
cylinder in turn.
− Main advantages of this type of pump lies in its small size and its light weight.

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Fuel Atomiser or Injector

− A fuel atomiser which is
commonly used is shown, in Fig.
4.27. The high pressure fuel
coming out of fuel pump enters
into the atomiser as shown in the
figure.
− The nozzle valve is lifted up due to
high pressure fuel entering at the
bottom of the valve and the fuel is
injected into the cylinder through
the nozzle.
− The pressure of the fuel falls as it is
injected into the cylinder and the
nozzle valve moves down under
the spring force and closes the
nozzle inlet to the inlet fuel
passage. Thus the fuel supply to
the engine is cut-off.
− Any high pressure fuel leaking past
the plunger of the nozzle valve is
fed back to the fuel tank through
the outlet fuel passage. The
adjusting screw helps to adjust the
tension in the spring.
Types of Nozzles
− The type of nozzle used is greatly
dependent on the type of
combustion chamber as open type
or pre-combustion chamber. The
nozzles are classified as per the
type of orifice and its number used
for injecting the fuel in the
combustion chamber.
− The nozzles are classified as
1. Single hole nozzle
2. Multihole nozzle Fig. 4.27 Fuel Atomiser
3. Pintal nozzle
4. Pintaux nozzle.

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Single Hole Nozzle

− This is the simplest type of nozzle and is used in open
combustion chambers.
− It consists of a single hole bored centrally through the
noz-zle body and closed by the needle valve. The size of the
hole is usually larger than 0.2 mm.
− Its spray cone angle varies from 5 to 15°. In some cases, a
cone is given a series of spiral grooves in order to impart a
rotational motion to the fuel for better mixing with the air.
− The arrangement is shown in fig. 4.28.
Advantages
Fig. 4.28 Single hole nozzle
− Simple in construction and operation.
Disadvantages
− Very high injection pressure is required because whole of the fuel passes through a
single hole and, also, because the relative fuel velocity required is high.
− This type of nozzle has a tendency to dribble.
− As the spray angle is very narrow (usually about 15°), this does not facilitate good
mixing unless higher air velocities are provided.
Multihole Nozzle
− This type of nozzle finds extensive use in automobile engines,
particularly having open combustion chambers. It mixes the
fuel with air properly even with slow air move-ment available
with open combustion chambers.
− The number of holes varies from 4 to 18; the greater number
provides better fuel distribution. The hole diameter lies
between 0.25 to 0.35 mm and hole angle lies between 20° to
45°.
− Usually the holes are drilled symmetrically but many times
they are non-symmetrical to meet certain specific
requirements of the combustion chamber.
Fig. 4.29 Multihole nozzle
Advantages
− Gives good atomisation.
− Distributes fuel properly even with lower air motion available in open combustion
chambers.

Disadvantages
− Holes are small and liable to clogging.
− Dribbling between injections
− Very high injection pressures (180 bar and above)
− Close tolerance in manufacture (due to small holes) and hence costly.

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Pintle Nozzle
− The stem of the nozzle valve is extended to form a pin
or pintle which protrudes through the mouth of the
nozzle body. It may be either cylindrical or conical in
shape.
− The size and shape of the pintle can be varied according
to requirement. The spray core angle is gen-erally 60°.
− When the valve lifts, the pintle partially blocks the
orifice and thus does not allow the pressure drop to be
greater. As the lift of the valve increases the entire
orifice is uncovered and full area for flow is available. Fig. 4.30 Pintle nozzle
Thus dribbling is avoided.
− The spray obtained by the pintle nozzle is hollow conical spray.
Advantages
− It is self-cleaning type and prevents the carbon deposition on the nozzle hole.
− It avoids weak injection and dribbling.
− It results in good atomisation.
− Its injection characteristics are more near the required one.
Disadvantages
− Distribution and penetration poor, hence not suitable for open combustion chambers.
Pintaux Nozzle
− It is a type of pintle nozzle which has an
auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body [Fig.
4.31)].
− It injects a small amount of fuel through this
additional hole which is called pilot injection
in the upstream direction slightly before the
main injection.
− The needle valve does not lift fully at low
speeds and most of the fuel is injected through Fig. 4.31 Pintaux Nozzle
the auxiliary hole.
Advantage
− This nozzle gives better cold starting performance.
Disadvantage
− Its injection characteristics are poorer than the multihole nozzle.
Spray Formation
− The various phases of spray formation as the fuel is injected through the nozzle are
shown in Fig. 4.32.

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Fig. 4.32 Successive phases of spray formation

− At the start of the fuel-injection the pressure difference across the orifice is low.
Therefore single droplets are formed as in Fig. 4.32(a). As the pressure difference
increases the following process occur one after the other.
− A stream of fuel emerges from the nozzle, [Fig. 4.32(b)].
− The stream encounters aerodynamic resistance from the dense air present in the
combustion chamber (12 to 14 times the ambient pressure) and breaks into a spray,
say at a distance of l3, [Fig. 4.32(c)]. The distance of this point where this event occurs
from the orifice is called the break-up distance.
− With further and further increase in the pressure difference, the break-up distance
decreases and the cone angle increases until the apex of the cone practically coincides
with the orifice [Fig. 4.32(d), (e) and (f)].
− At the exit of the orifice the fuel jet velocity, V/, is of the order of 400 m/s. It is given
by the following equation
2  pinj  pcyl 
Vf  Cd (4.28)
f
where Cd = coefficient of discharge for the orifice
pinj = fuel pressure at the inlet to the injector, N/m2
pcyl = pressure of charge inside the cylinder, N/m2
ρf = fuel density kg/m3
− The spray from a circular orifice has a denser and compact core, surrounded by a cone
of fuel droplets of various sizes and vaporized liquid.

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− Larger droplets provide a higher penetration into the chamber but smaller droplets are
required for quick mixing and evaporation of the fuel. The diameter of most of the
droplets in a fuel spray is less than 5 microns.
Quantity of fuel and size of orifice
− The quantity of the fuel injected per cycle depends to a great extent upon the power
output of the engine.
− The fuel is supplied into the combustion chamber through the nozzle holes and the
velocity of the fuel for good atomization is of the order of 400 m/s. The velocity of the
fuel through nozzle orifice in terms of h can be given by
Vf  Cd 2gh (4.29)
where h is the pressure difference between injection and cylinder pressure, measured in
m of fuel column.
− The volume of fuel injected per second, Q, is given by
Q = Area of all orifices × fuel jet velocity × time of one injection × number of injections
per second for one orifice
 2 
Q d  n V     60   Ni (4.30)
  f  
4  360 N  60
where Ni for four-stroke engine is rpm/2 and for a two-stroke engine Ni is rpm itself
d is the diameter of one orifice in m,
n is the number of orifices,
θ is the duration of injection in crank angle degrees and
Ni is the number of injections per minute.
− Usually the rate of fuel-injection is expressed in mm3/degree crank angle/litre cylinder
displacement volume to normalize the effect of engine size.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 95

 5

IGNITION AND GOVERNING SYSTEM

Course Contents
Introduction
Requirement of an Ignition
system
Battery Ignition System
Components of Battery Ignition system
Magneto ignition system
Spark plug
Firing order
Governing of IC engine

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Introduction
− In S.I. engine the combustion process is initiated by spark between the two electrodes
of spark plug. This occurs just before the end of compression stoke. The ignition
process must add necessary energy for starting and sustaining burning of the fuel till
combustion takes place.
− Ignition is only a pre-requisite of combustion. It does not influence the gross
combustion process. It is only a small scale phenomenon taking place within a
specified small zone in the combustion chamber.
− Ignition only ensures initiation of combustion process and has no degree intensively
or extensively.
Energy requirements for ignition:
− A spark energy below 10 millijoules is adequate to initiate combustion for A/F ratio
12-13 : 1 (Range of mixtures normally used); the duration of few micro-seconds is
sufficient to start combustion.
− A spark can be struck between the gap in the in two electrodes of the spark plug by
sufficiently high voltage. There is a critical voltage called breakdown voltage below
which no sparking would occur. In practice the pressure, temperature and density
have a profound influence on the voltage required to cause the spark. Also, the striking
voltage is increased due to the fouling factor of the electrodes owing to deposits and
abrasion.
− For automotive engines, in normal practice, the spark energy to the tune of 40
millijoules and duration of about 0.5 millisecond is sufficient over entire range of
operation.
Requirements of an Ignition System
− For an ignition system to be acceptable it must be moderately priced, reliable and its
performance must be adequate to meet all the demands imposed on it by various
operating conditions.
− An ignition system should fulfil the following requirements:
i) It should have an adequate reserve of secondary voltage and ignition energy over the
entire operating speed range of the engine.
ii) It should consume the minimum of power and convert it efficiently to a high-energy
spark across the spark-plug electrode gap.
iii) It should have a spark duration which is sufficient to establish burning of the air-fuel
mixture under all operating conditions.
iv) It should have an ability to produce an ignition spark when a shunt is established over
the spark plug electrode insulator surface, due possibly to carbon, oil or lead deposit,
liquid fuel or water condensation.
v) Good performance at high speed.
vi) Longer life of breaker points and spark plug.
vii) Good starting when the breaker points open slowly at cranking speed.

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viii) Good reproducibility of secondary voltage rise and maximum rise.

ix) Adjustment of spark advance with speed and load.
− The basic source of electrical energy is either battery, a generator or magneto,
− The battery and generator normally provide 6 V or 12 V direct current, while
the magneto provides an alternating current of higher voltage.
− The low voltage (6 V to 12 V) is boosted to a very high potential of about 10
kV to 20 kV, in order to overcome the spark gap resistance and to release
enough energy to initiate self-propagating flame within the combustible
mixture.
Battery ignition system
− It is a commonly used system because of its combined cheapness, convenience of
mainte•nance, attention and general suitability.
− Construction. This system consists of the following components:
1. Battery (6 or 12 volts) 2. Ignition switch
3. Induction coil 4. Circuit/Contact breaker
5. Condenser 6. Distributor
− The system is shown in fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 Battery or Coil Ignition system.

− One terminal of the battery is ground to the frame of the engine, and other is
connected through the ignition switch to one primary terminal of the ignition coil
(consisting of a comparatively few turns of thick wire wound round an iron core).
− The other primary terminal is connected to one end of the contact points of the circuit
breaker and through closed points to ground. The primary circuit of the ignition coil

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thus gets completed when contact points of the circuit breaker are together and switch
is closed.
− The secondary terminal of the coil is connected to the central contact of the distributor
and hence to distributor rotor. The secondary circuit consists of secondary winding
(consisting of a large number of turns of fine wire) of the coil, distributor and four
spark plugs.
− The contact breaker is driven by a cam whose speed is half the engine speed (for four
stroke engines) and breaks the primary circuit one for each cylinder during one
complete cycle of the engine.
− The breaker points are held on contact by a spring except when forced apart by lobs of
the cam.
− A ballast resistor is provided in series with the primary winding to regulate primary-
current. For starting purposes this resistor is by passed so that more current can flow
in the primary circuit.

Working:
− To start with, the ignition switch is made on and the engine is cranked i.e. turned by
hand when the contacts touch, the current flows from battery through the switch,
primary winding of the induction coil to circuit breaker points and the circuit is
completed through the ground. A condenser connected across the terminals of the
contact breaker points prevent the sparking at these points.
− The rotating cam breaks open the contacts immediately and breaking of this primary
circuit brings about a change of magnetic field; due to which a very high voltage to the
tune of 8000 to 12000 V is produced across the secondary terminals. (The number of
turns in the secondary winding may be 50 to 100 times than in primary winding). Due
to high voltage the spark jumps across the gap in the spark plug and air fuel mixture is
ignited in the cylinder.
− Fig. 5.2 shows the gradually building up of the primary current from the time the
points close until they open.

Fig. 5.2 Built up time for primary current Fig. 5.3 Typical pattern of normal ignition action
− Fig 5.3 shows a typical wave-form or pattern of the normal ignition action.

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− At point L the distributor opens and the magnetic field of the coil-primary
winding collapses and consequently the secondary voltage, indicated by the
firing line, rises to point M. The height of firing line shows the voltage needed
to jump the rotor gap and to ionize the gap between the spark plug electrodes.
− After the spark is initiated the gap becomes ionized resulting in decreased gap
resistance and a smaller voltage is then required to maintain the arc across the
gap. The lower voltage and the spark duration is represented by the height and
length of the spark line NP.
− At point P the major portion of the energy of the coil is expended and
consequently there is a drop in the secondary voltage which result in
extinguishing of the spark.
− Due to spark extinction the circuit becomes open, the current flow is stopped,
and, hence the magnetic field (produced in the secondary winding, during the
firing period NP while the current was flowing in the secondary winding and
across the spark gap to ground) collapses, thereby, inducing a current in the
primary winding, which eventually flows into the condenser and charge it.
− When voltage in the condenser becomes higher than that in the primary
winding, it discharges back in the primary winding. This results in collapsing
of the magnetic field and rebuilding up of voltage in the secondary winding.
This pulsing back and forth, weaked each time, continues till whole of the
energy is dissipated (Refer Fig. 5.3-intermediate section).
− At point Q the contact points close and remain so during dwell period. At the
end of this period the points again open at S (there being no condenser action
during the period, since it is shorted out across the closed points).

Advantages:
− It offers better sparks at low speeds, starting and for cranking purposes.
− The initial cost of the system is low.
− It is a reliable system and periodical maintenance required is negligible except for
battery.
− Items requiring attention can be easily located in more accessible position than those
of magnetos.
− The high speed engine drive is usually simpler than magneto drive.
− Adjustment of spark timing has no deterimental effect over the complete ignition
timing range.

Disadvantages:
− With the increasing speed, sparking voltage drops.
− Battery, the only unreliable component of the system needs regular attention. In case
battery runs down, the engine cannot be started as induction coil fails to operate.
− Because of battery, bulk of the system is high.

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Components of Battery Ignition system

In this section we will discuss the essential components used in battery ignition system.
The battery:
− The function of battery is to store electricity in the form of chemical energy, when
required to convert the latter back into electrical energy.
− Motor vehicles use lead-acid batteries which have a series of positive and negative
plates which are interpersed, the plates being immersed in a solution of dilute
sulphuric acid, called the electrolyte. For compactness the plates are placed close
together and separators are used to reduce the chance of shorting taking place.

Advantage of 12 V ignition system over 6 V system:

− Considerably higher voltages are obtainable.
− For transmitting equal power with excessive voltage drop, the cable in a 6-V system
needs theoretically to be four times the thickness of 12-V system, cables.
− Improved starting.
− Adequate electric power to supply the increasing number of electrical accessories
used.
The ignition coil
− To create an adequate spark across the gap
of sparking plug high electrical pressure is
needed. Electrical pressure is measured in
volts and the 12 volts supplied by the
battery is totally inadequate.
− The function of ignition coil is to increase
the voltage between 10,000 and 15,000
volts in some conditions, although the
voltage which occurs under normal running
conditions is of the order of 4000-5000
volts.
− Two coils of insulated wire are wound on a
laminated soft iron core. The inner coil,
called the secondary, has more turns than
the outer primary coil. There are about
20000 turns on the secondary and 400 turns
on the primary.
− If a low voltage passing through the primary
Fig. 5.4 The Ignition coil
coil is switched off a higher voltage is
induced in the secondary coil, the increase being approximately in the same
proportion to the number of turns of the two coils. The core and windings are placed
in an iron sheath. The entire assembly being housed in a sealed container (Fig. 5.4).

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− A high tension lead from the centre of the coil carries the supply to the distributor.
Two small terminals are situated either side of the high tension lead, one being
connected to the contact breaker and marked CB and the other to the ignition switch
identified by the letters SW.
Contact breakers:
− This is a mechanical device for making [Fig. 5.5 (a)] and breaking [Fig. 5.5 (b)] the
primary circuit of the ignition coil. It consists essentially of a fixed metal point against
which, another metal point bears which is being on a spring loaded pivoted arm.

Fig. 5.5 Contact breaker

− The metal used is invariably one of the hardest metals, usually tungsten and each point
has a circular flat face of about 3 mm diameter.
− The fixed contact point is earthed by mounting it on the base of the contact breaker
assembly whereas the arm to which the movable contact point is attached, is
electrically insulated. When the points are closed the current flows and when they are
open, the circuit is broken and the flow of current stops. The pivoted arm has,
generally, a heel or a rounded part of some hard plastic material attached in the
middle and this heel bears on the cam which is driven by the engine. Consequently,
every time the cam passes under the heel, the points are forced apart and the circuit is
broken.
− The pivoted arm is spring loaded, so that when the points are not separated by the
action of the cam, they are held together by the pressure of the spring thereby closing
the primary circuit. The condition and adjustment of the contact breaker points are
important. The points are subjected to a very severe hammering during their period of
service. Uneven wear of the points may require a refacing or replacing depending
upon the condition of the points.
− An eight cylinder engine running at 3000 rpm requires 12000 sparks per minute, i.e.
200 sparks per second. If the breaker is to operate satisfactorily at this speed, the

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travel of the breaker arm must be held down to the minimum to ensure a positive spark
and the breaker arm must be made very light.
The distributor
− The distributor includes the contact breaker points and the mechanism for
automatically advancing or retarding the spark timing in accordance with the engine
speed for optimum power to be developed by the engine.
− The function of the distributor is to distribute the ignition surges to the individual
spark plugs in the correct sequence and at the correct instants in time. Depending on
whether a particular engine has 4, 6 or 8 cylinders, there are 4, 6 or 8 ignition pulses
(surges) generated for every rotation of the distributor shaft. The use of a distributor
represents a considerable simplification in a battery ignition system because in most
cases we want to use only a single ignition circuit.
The Condenser
− It consists of sheets of metal foil separated by an insulating material (e.g. mica) placed
face to face.
− One sheet of metal foil is connected to condenser terminal, next to the metal case of
the condenser and so on alternatively.
− The condenser terminal is connected to one side of contact breaker and the casing to
the other side of contact breaker and usually earth so that the condenser remains in
parallel with the contact breaker.
− As the contact breaker points separate in the distributor, the flow of current from the
battery through the primary winding of the coil is interrupted.
− Instantly the magnetic field begins to collapse and this collapse attempts to re-
establish the flow of current.
− If the condenser is not provided, the current would be re-established which would
result into a heavy arc across the separating contact breaker points and the energy of
the ignition coil will be consumed by the arc. This may bum the contact breaker points.
− The condenser prevents the arcing across the contact breaker points and prolongs its
life.
− Therefore, the functions of condenser are:
(i) To minimise arcing and pitting of contact breaker points.
(ii) To intensify the spark
Magneto ignition system
− Magneto is a special type of ignition system with its own electric generator to provide
the necessary energy for the system.
− It is mounted on the engine and replaces all the components of the coil ignition system
except the spark plug. A magneto when rotated by the engine is capable of producing a
very high voltage and does not need a battery as a source of external energy.
− A schematic diagram of a high tension magneto ignition system is shown in Fig. 5.6.
The high tension magneto incorporates the windings to generate the primary voltage

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 Ignition and Governing System

as well as to step up the voltage and thus does not require a separate coil to boost up
the voltage required to operate the spark plug.

Fig. 5.6 High tension magneto ignition system

− Magneto can be either rotating armature type or rotating magnet type. In the first type,
the armature consisting of the primary and secondary windings all rotate between the
poles of a stationary magnet, whilst, in the second type the magnet revolves and the
windings are kept stationary. A third type of magneto called the polar inductor type is
also in use. In the polar inductor type magneto both the magnet and the windings
remain stationary but the voltage is generated by reversing the flux field with the help
of soft iron polar projections, called inductors.
− The working principle of the magneto
ignition system is exactly the same as
that of the coil ignition system. With the
help of a cam, the primary circuit flux
is changed and a high voltage is
produced in the secondary circuit.
− Fig. 5.7 compares the breaker current
vs. speed curve of the coil ignition
system with that of the magneto
ignition system.
− It can be seen that since the cranking Fig. 5.7 Break current vs. speed for coil and
speed for starting is low the current magneto ignition systems
generated by the magneto is very low. As the engine speed increases the current
increases. Thus, with magneto there is almost always a starting difficulty and a
separate battery is needed for starting. The magneto is best at high speeds, and
therefore, is widely used for sports and racing cars, craft engines, etc.

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 Ignition and Governing System

− In comparison to the coil ignition system magneto system is more costly but highly
reliable. However, due to the poor starting characteristics and due to the fact that
voltage generated is effected with the changes in spark timing, almost invariably the
coil ignition system is preferred to the magneto system.
− The coil or battery ignition system requires more maintenance than the magneto
system. It is also heavier than the magneto system.
Low Tension Magneto Ignition system
− The main disadvantage of the high tension magneto ignition system lies in the fact
that the wirings carry a very high voltage current and thus there is a high possibility of
causing engine misfire due to leakage. To avoid this the high tension wires must be
suitably shielded.
− The development of the low tension magneto system is an attempt to avoid this
trouble.
− In the low tension magneto system the secondary winding is changed to limit the
secondary voltage to a value of about 400 volts and the distributor is replaced by a
brush contact. The high voltage is obtained with the help of a step-up transformer. All
these changes have effect of limiting the high voltage current only in a small portion
of the ignition system wiring and, thus, avoid the possibilities of leakage, etc.
Comparison between Battery (coil) Ignition System and Magneto Ignition System
Table 5.1 Comparison of Battery (coil) and Magneto Ignition system

Battery (coil) Ignition System Magneto Ignition System

1. Battery is must. Impossible to start 1. No battery is needed hence no
the engine when battery is problem of battery discharge.
discharged.
2. Current for primary circuit is 2. The required electric current is
obtained from the battery. generated by the magneto.
3. A good spark is available at spark 3. During staring quality of spark is
plug at low speed. poor due to low speed.
4. Staring of engine is easier. 4. Engine starting is rather difficult.
5. Efficiency of the system falls with 5. The intensity of spark keeps on
fine fall of spark intensity as engine improving as the speed goes on
speed rises. increasing. The efficiency of the
system thus improves as the
engine speed rises
6. Occupies more space. 6. Occupies less space.
7. Mostly employed in petrol cars and 7. Used in racing cars, motor
buses. cycles, scooters, etc.

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 Ignition and Governing System

Spark plug
− The function of the spark plug is to generate the
spark in the combustion chamber using a high
voltage communicated by the secondary. The
spark plug provides two electrodes with a proper
gap across which, high potential is discharged and
spark is generated.
− A sectional view of a conventional spark plug is
shown in Fig. 5.8. It consists of a steel shell, an
insulator, and two electrodes. The high voltage
supply from secondary is given to the central
electrode which is insulated with porcelain. The
other electrode is welded to the steel shell of the
plug and thereby automatically grounded when
the plug is fitted in the cylinder head of the
engine. The electrodes are made of high nickel Fig. 5.8 Schematic of a Typical Spark Plug.
alloy to withstand severe corrosion and erosion to which they are subjected.
− The tips of central electrode and insulation are exposed to the burned gases. This
results high thermal stresses and the insulator may crack. As the tips are subjected to
high temperature (2000-2500°C), the heat must flow from the insulator and tip to the
surrounding shell in order to cool the electrodes and prevent preignition.
− The spark plugs are classified as hot plug and cold plug depending upon the
temperature at the tip of the electrodes. The operating temperature of the tip depends
upon the amount of heat transferred and it depends upon the path followed by the heat
to flow. A cold plug has a short heat flow path where as hot plug follows a long flow
path for the heat to flow as shown in Fig. 5.9.

Fig. 5.9 Heat Transfer Path of Hot and Cold Spark Plug

− The hot plug is used to avoid cold fouling where combustion chamber temperatures
are relatively low as during low power operation and continuous idling.
− A spark plug which runs satisfactory, the temperature at cruising speed may run cool
at idling speed and tips will be fouled by unburned carbon deposits or excess

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lubricating oil. The carbon deposits burns at 350°C where as lubricating deposits burn
at 550°C. If the spark plug runs hot at idling speed to prevent carbon deposits, it may
run too hot at high speed. This may cause undesirable preignition. If the plug runs
above 800°C, then preignition generally occurs.
− Insulator tip length is the most important parameter which controls the operating
temperature. Therefore, the tip temperature is generally controlled by varying
insulator tip position and electrode material.
− It is necessary in practise to compromise in order to obtain a proper spark plug which
would operate satisfactorily throughout the engine operating range. An improper
spark plug has remained a major source of engine trouble as misfiring and preignition.
Firing order
− The sequence in which, firing impulses occur in multicylinder SI-engine is called the
firing order. The angle between the successive crank throws in multi-cylinder engine
govern the order in which successive pistons arrive at TDC.
− The firing order should be such that there must be always a proper balance and it does
not cause vibrations.
− In 4-cylinder, 4-stroke engine, the firing in all cylinders will over in two revolutions
of the crank-shaft. With crank throws at 180°, the cylinders 1 and 4 will reach TDC
simultaneously. If the firing interval is made 180°, the firing in cylinder-1 cannot be
followed by the cylinder-4. Similarly, the firing of the cylinder-2 cannot be followed
by cylinder-3. Therefore, the possible firing order in 4-cylinder engine is 1-2-4-3 or 1-
3-4- 2, the latter is more popular.
− In case of inline 6-cylinders engine, the cranks are set at 120° and the cylinders 1-6, 2-
5 and 3-4 will be at TDC simultaneously. Therefore, the firing order should be arranged
to take place in front and rear halves of the engine cylinder. The possible sequence of
6-cylinder engine is
1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-4-2-6-3-5
− In 8-cylinder engines, the cranks are set (360 x 2/8) to 90° and possible firing orders
are
1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 and 1-5-4-8-6-3-7-2
1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2 and 1-8-7-3-6-5-4-2
− To decide the sequence for V-arrangement is more complicated.
Governing of IC engine
− The purpose of governing is to maintain the speed of the engine constant regardless of
the changes in the load on the engine. The mechanism used for this purpose is known
as governor and method used is kwon as governing.
− If the load on the engine decreases, the speed of the engine will begin to increase if
the fuel supply is not decreased. On the other hand, if the load on the engine increases,
the speed of the engine will begin to decrease if the fuel supply is not

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 Ignition and Governing System

increased. The purpose of governing is to supply the fuel to the engine according to the
load on the engine and to maintain the speed of the engine constant.
The methods of governing:
− The governing of speed of the engine according to the load is done by one of the
following methods:
i) The fuel supplied to the engine is completely cut off during few cycles of the
engine. This is known as Hit and Miss Governing. This is generally used for
gas engine.
ii) The fuel supplied per cycle of the engine is varied according to the load on the
engine. This is known as Quality Governing. The A : F ratio is changed
according to the load on the engine. Rich mixture is supplied at high loads and
lean mixture is supplied at low loads. This is used for diesel engines.
iii) The quantity of air-fuel mixture supplied is varied according to the load on the
engine. The A : F ratio of the mixture supplied to the engine at all loads remain
merely constant, therefore it is known as Quantity Governing. This is used
for petrol engine.
− All these methods are discussed in detail below.
Hit and Miss Governing
− This method is used for gas engines as well as for oil engines but is more popular in
gas engines only.
− This system of governing omits the explosions occasionally when the speed of the
engine rises above the mean speed of the engine. The number of omitted explosions
are increased with the increase in speed.

Fig. 5.10 hit and Miss Governing

− The usual method adopted for missing an explosion is to omit the opening of the gas
valve in case of gas engine and putting the plunger of the oil pump out of action in the
case of oil engines. During the missing cycle, the engine performs an idle cycle.
− The outline of the method used in gas engine is shown in Fig. 5.10.

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 Ignition and Governing System

− The position of all the components of the system are shown in the figure when the
engine is running at full load. The cam 'C' rotates at half speed of the crankshaft. As
the cam C pushes the point A, the point D is lifted upwards because the lever BD turns
about the fulcrum B and hits the valve steam through the knife-edged point E and
opens the valve to allow the gas to the engine cylinder. At full load condition, there is
working stroke for every cycle of the engine.
− When the load on the engine is decreased, the speed of the crank-shaft increases and
the speed of the governor also. The balls fly out as the speed of the spindle, on which
the governor is fixed, increases. The governor sleeve is pushed up and the point 'H' of
the lever GH also goes up and the point F on the lever GF moves towards the right as
shown in figure.
− The point 'E' on the knife edge is also moved towards the right and misses the opening
of the gas valve. The loss of power due to missing cycle decreases the speed of the
engine. The point E is lifted up by the cam during the missing cycle also but as it is
pushed away (towards the right) from the original position, it is not possible to open
the gas valve.
− The number of the missing cycles increases with the further decrease in load. The
missing cycles are zero when the engine is running at full load condition. The directions
of motion of all components under low load condition are shown by an arrow on the
figure.
− This method is known as Hit and Miss method because the valve is opened by giving
the hit and speed control is achieved by missing the openings of the gas valve.
− The principle and mechanism of the method used for oil engine are exactly same but
the plunger of the fuel pump is put out of action instead of gas valve.
− With this method of governing the engine, the engine either works under maximum
efficiency condition or does not fire at all. This method gives better economy at light
loads than any other method.
− The great disadvantage of this method is, the engine requires heavy flywheel as the
absence of turning effort on the crankshaft during the idle cycle. This method is used
for the engines of small B.P. (below 20 kW) and do not require close speed regulation.
Quality Governing
− The amount of fuel supplied to the diesel engine cylinder per cycle is varied according
to the load on the engine in this method of governing.
− The quantity of fuel supplied according to the load on the engine is varied by one of
the following methods.
a) The stroke of the fuel pump plunger is varied by the governor and quantity of oil
supplied is varied according to load.
− The weight of fuel supplied by the fuel pump is given by

m  d 2 L
f f
4
where d is the diameter of the fuel pump and L is the stroke of the fuel pump.

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As L, is varied, the fuel supplied to the engine cylinder also varies.

b) A control valve is inserted to the delivery side of the fuel pump. The opening of the
valve is controlled by the governor. It opens after a part of delivery stroke is
performed. In this system, the oil is delivered to the engine cylinder from the fuel
pump during some part of the delivery stroke and returned back to the suction side
during the remaining part of the delivery stroke.
c) The closing of suction valve of the fuel pump may be delayed. The suction valve of the
fuel pump remains open during first part of the delivery stroke, therefore part of the
fuel oil is returned back to the fuel pump during some part of the delivery stroke and
delivered to the engine during the remaining part of the delivery stroke. The method is
known as "Spill Method”.
d) The stroke of the pump plunger remains constant at all loads but the effective stroke is
changed according to the load on the engine. By changing the angular position of the
helical groove on the plunger of the fuel pump relative to the suction port, the amount
of fuel delivered can be changed. This is the common method used in all modem C.I.
high speed engines.
− In all these systems, the air supply remains constant and the quantity of fuel supplied
is changed, therefore the quality of the mixture (A : F) changes according to the load
on engine.
Quantity Governing
− This is used in many gas engines and
is commonly used for all petrol
engines. The mixture strength
supplied to the engine is maintained
constant but the quantity supplied
to the engine is varied by means of
a throttle valve. The movement of
the throttle valve is regulated by the
lift of the centrifugal governor.
− The arrangement is shown in Fig. Fig. 5.11 Quantity governing used for petrol engine
5.11.
− As the engine speed increases (due to decrease in load), the governor balls fly out and
the governor sleeve lifted up and partly throttle valve is closed reducing the quantity
of mixture supplied to the engine cylinder. This reduces the indicated mean effective
pressure and ultimately the power developed by the engine.
− This system of governing can be used for gas engines in various ways. The air and gas
supplied, each can be throttled by separate valves in the air and gas passages and then
supplied to the engine or a mixture of air and gas of constant A : F ratio coming out
from the mixing valve is supplied to the engine cylinder. The quantity of mixture
supplied is controlled by varying the lift of the main inlet valve.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 110

 6
SUPERCHARGING

Course Contents
Objectives of super charging,
Types of Superchargers.
Supercharging of SI and CI engines.
Effects of supercharging,
supercharging Limits.
Methods of supercharging.
Turbo Charging.

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Objectives of super charging

̶ Supercharging of internal combustion engines has been used for many years as a
method to improve engine performance and efficiency. Entering the millennium, a
new trend is appearing. The trend points to small displacement engines in order to
meet federal emission legislation on fuel consumption and emission control. The
driver, however, still demands the same performance they're used to.
̶ A good way to meet these needs is supercharging otherwise known as forced
induction. The purpose of supercharging an engine is to raise the density of the air
charge, before it's delivered to the cylinders. Thus, the increased mass of air trapped
and then compressed in each cylinder during each induction and compression stroke
makes more oxygen available for combustion than the conventional method of
drawing the fresh air charge into the cylinder (naturally aspirated). Consequently,
more air and fuel per cycle will be forced into the cylinder, and this can be efficiently
burnt during the combustion process to raise the engine power output to higher than
would otherwise be possible.
̶ Generally, there are three basic types of "superchargers," the most popular being the
exhaust-gas driven turbocharger, mechanically driven superchargers and the pressure-
wave supercharger. The mechanically driven supercharger is broken up into two
groups as well, the mechanically driven centrifugal supercharger and the
mechanically-driven positive displacement supercharger such as the screw-type and
roots-type.
̶ In automotive and marine applications, the pressure-wave supercharger is rarely used.
The turbo and roots-type superchargers have been the most popular forced induction
methods in the past. While the turbo creates great peak horsepower, turbo lag and
high cold start emissions due to the thermal mass are severe drawbacks of the
turbocharger. Small displacement engines need higher-pressure ratios to achieve the
performance demanded by the driver.
̶ This fact increases the mentioned drawbacks of the turbo and makes the turbocharger
a less desirable alternative for supercharging than the mechanical twin-screw
supercharger. The Whipple twin-screw charger does not have the usual drawbacks of
earlier mechanical superchargers such as the roots-type, such as poor efficiency
especially at high-pressure ratios, high rpm, high noise level as well as high price.
̶ Comparative tests, made independently by Whipple Industries, show that the twin-
screw compressor is the most effective supercharging method available.
̶ The purpose of supercharging in diesel engine is to compress the fresh air out of the
working cylinder. And then the density of air in cylinder can be increased by
increasing the air pressure. So more fuel can be combusted and the power of diesel
engine is increased too. Lots of practice indicates that supercharging is the best way to
increase the power and economy of diesel engine. So supercharging is widely used
recently.

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 Supercharging

̶ The equipment which presses the air or mixed air to definite pressure is called
compressor. The pressure of air which has been pressed is called supercharging
pressure. And it is signed with Pk. Supercharging system of diesel engine contains
compressor, compressor driving equipment and cooler. Supercharging system can be
divided into 3 types by the difference of energy source in driving supercharge.
Types of Superchargers.
The working principle of centrifugal compressor
̶ The power and efficiency of an internal combusting engine can be increased with the
use of an air compression device such as a supercharger or turbocharger. Increasing
the pressure and density of the inlet air will allow additional fuel to be inducted into
the cylinder, increasing the power produced by the engine.
̶ Spark ignition engines are knocking limited, restricting the allowable compressor
pressure increase; in many cases the compression ratio of a SI engine is reduced.
Superchargers and turbochargers are used extensively on a wide range of diesel
engines, since they are not knocking limited.
̶ The types of compressors used on internal combustion engines are primarily of two
types: positive displacement and dynamic. With a positive displacement compressor,
a volume of gas is trapped, and compressed by movement of a compressor boundary
element.
̶ Three types of positive displacement compressors are the roots, vane, and screw
compressor, as shown in figure 6.1. Centrifugal compressor is based on that the action
of high speed airflow and working impeller or fixed blade. Compared with the cubage
compressor, centrifugal compressor has many merits.
̶ For example, the efficient of centrifugal compressor is higher than cubage compressor
with consuming same power. And the supercharging pressure is usually high. There
are also many other advantages, such as light weight and compact structure.
̶ At present, centrifugal compressor is used widely in supercharging of inner
combustion engine. Though it has many advantage, its supercharging pressure will
reduce sharply with the reduce of rotational speed.
̶ Centrifugal compressor is constituted with the following parts. Air flows into the gas
passage from the filter. In order to increase the stability of airflow, the section of
intake gas passage is smaller and smaller along the direction of airflow. Intake gas
passage must transport air to the working impeller equably under the situation of the
least flowing loss. Working impeller can be drive mechanically by crankshaft or
turbine.
̶ Air flows into the working impeller along intake gas passage and rotates together with
the working impeller. Air is compressed when it flows along the passage formed by
the blade of working impeller with centrifugal effect. At the time, pressure changes
from P1 to P2; speed of airflow changes from c1 to c2.

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̶ The mechanical power which drives working impeller changes into kinetic energy and
potential energy. The power at the outtake of working impeller is half of the whole
energy of airflow. So, diffuser is used after working impeller to change the power to
pressure energy.
̶ The main parameters of compressor characteristic are flux and supercharging rate.
The air supplied for diesel engine in one unit time is called flux. And the
supercharging rate is the ratio of air pressure at intake and outtake.

Fig. 6.1 Centrifugal Compressor

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The working principle of root compressor

̶ Let us consider how the action of a displacement device like the Roots blower differs
from that of a true compressor. Imagine a simple hypothetical reciprocating piston
compressor in 2 versions, both delivering air through a valve into a chamber in which
the pressure is significantly above atmospheric. Both inhale a fresh charge of air on
the piston down-stroke but in one version the delivery valve opens at the
commencement of the up-stroke whilst in the other the delivery valve opens only
when the charge of air has been compressed to the same pressure as the chamber.
Both convey the same amount of air into the chamber but the way in which it is done
is quite different.
̶ In the first case the higher pressure air in the chamber will initially flow back into the
compressor cylinder until pressures are equal and then it will be driven out again
along with the new charge as the piston approaches the top of the stroke. Clearly
unnecessary work is involved in this rather turbulent process but a further
disadvantage is that the full pressure from the chamber is acting against the piston
throughout the up stroke.
̶ In the second case no such back-flow from the chamber occurs and the pressure acting
against the piston rises gradually as the up stroke proceeds and only reaches that of
the chamber towards the end of the stroke, at which point the valve opens allowing
the charge to be expelled into the chamber. It must be obvious that this involves
considerably less pumping work and can be carried out with less power.
̶ In fact the excess power required by the first device is converted into heat which is
added to the air transferred to the chamber. So this device not only consumes more
power for the same job but it also heats up the air more as it does so. Hardly ideal for
a detonation prone internal combustion engine - yet that is more or less how the Roots
blower works, with adiabatic efficiency of barely 60%.
̶ There are a great many examples of true compressors analogous to our second
hypothetical device but the most viable for use as an engine driven supercharger is the
screw compressor devised in the 1930s by a noted Swedish engineer called Lysholm.
It has two helical rotors, male and female, which intermesh very closely without ever
making contact. The helix action is of a continuous movement from the entry port
towards a closed face adjacent to which is the delivery port. Air is drawn in normally
at the open end of the rotors and is trapped as the rotors mesh together, gradually
compressed between the rotor lobes and the closed end face as it is propelled along,
then expelled from the delivery port at the required pressure.
̶ An important point is that the area of the rotor lobes acting on the charge diminishes
as compression takes place therefore the power requirement remains more or less
constant throughout the process. This is a significant advantage over our hypothetical
piston compressor where increasing effort is required to drive the piston against the
rising pressure. Of course the Roots device fares badly in this

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respect having the entire lobe area exposed to the higher pressure as delivery takes
place.

Fig. 6.2 Root Compressor

Fig. 6.3 Screw Compressor, Lobe Compressor and Vane Compressor

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The working principle of vane compressor

̶ This is positive type supercharger. Its vanes are so designed as to crowd the air in a
smaller space. The air blades slide in slots designed as to crowd the air in smaller
space. The air blades slide in a slots or groove ion the hub of the supercharger.
Comparison between three superchargers
̶ The required characteristics of a centrifugal type supercharger are poor and suitable
for only low speeds. The root’s superchargers simple in construction requires
minimum maintenance and has longer life. The vane type supercharger has a special
problem of wear of tips of the vanes with time. Therefore, one has to take into account
the application and then decide type of supercharger for that application.

Effect of supercharging
̶ Air is supplied at high pressure which increases volumetric efficiency.
̶ Supercharged engines develop more power
̶ Mechanical efficiency is more than that of naturally aspirated engines.
̶ Supercharging gives better turbulence, proper air fuel ratio and efficient combustion
of fuel
̶ The specific fuel consumption of super charged engines is less due to better
turbulence and proper air fuel mixture.
̶ Super charging tends to increase the possibility of detonation in SI engines.
̶ Super-charging tends to decrease the possibility of knocking in CI engines.
̶ At high altitudes, it is possible to obtain sufficient air by supercharging only.
̶ Super-charging shortens the 'delay period'
Supercharging of SI and CI engines
̶ An engine that uses normal vacuum to draw in its air fuel fixture is called normally
aspirated, that is not supercharged. Use of an air pump to deliver an air fuel mixture to
the engine cylinders at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure is called
supercharging. Boost is the measure of the amount of air pressurization, above
atmospheric, that a supercharger can deliver. The term supercharger usually applies to
an air pressurizing pump, driven mechanically by the engine crankshaft through gears,
shafts, chains or belts. These mechanical linkages consume a lot of power from the
engine. Some superchargers are often driven at speeds of 50,000 to 90,000 rpm.
Engine-driven superchargers, therefore, have not been popular for passenger car
engines. Turbocharger is a super-charging device that uses exhaust gases to turn a
turbine to force extra air into the cylinders.
̶ Turbo-charging has been very common on large CI engines for many years because
this type of engine is particularly suited to pressure charging. Unlike the SI engine,
the CI engine does not suffer from compression limitations. In addition, since only air
being in the induction system and more under-bonnet space is available on a CI unit,
fitting of a turbocharger is much easier

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 Supercharging

Fig. 6.4 Methods of Supercharging

TURBOCHARGERS:
̶ Turbochargers are a type of forced induction system whose function is same as that of
Supercharger. They compress the air flowing into the engine. A turbocharged engine
produces more power overall than the same engine without the charging. This can
significantly improve the power-to-weight ratio for the engine.
̶ In order to achieve this boost, the turbocharger uses the exhaust flow from the engine
to spin a turbine, which in turn spins an air pump. The turbine in the turbocharger
spins at speeds of up to 150,000 RPM. The turbocharger is bolted to the exhaust
manifold of the engine. The exhaust from the cylinders spins the turbine, which
works like a gas turbine engine. The turbine is connected by a shaft to the

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 Supercharging

compressor, which is located between the air filter and the intake manifold. The
compressor pressurizes the air going into the pistons.
̶ The exhaust from the cylinders passes through the turbine blades, causing the turbine
to spin. The more exhaust that goes through the blades, the faster they spin. On the
other end of the shaft that the turbine is attached to, the compressor which pumps air
into the cylinders. The compressor is a type of centrifugal pump; it draws air in at the
centre of its blades and flings it outward as it spins. In order to handle speeds of up to
150,000 rpm, the turbine shaft has to be supported very carefully. Most turbochargers
use a ‘Fluid Bearing’. This type of bearing supports the shaft on a thin layer of oil that
is constantly pumped around the shaft. This serves two purposes: It cools the shaft
and some of the other turbocharger parts and it allows the shaft to spin without much
friction. Some turbochargers use ‘Ball Bearings’ instead of fluid bearings to support
the turbine shaft. But these are not your regular ball bearings, they are super-precise
bearings made of advanced materials to handle the speeds and temperatures of the
turbocharger.
̶ Ceramic turbine blades are lighter than the steel blades used in most turbochargers.
When air is compressed, it heats up; and when air heats up, it expands. So some of the
pressure increase from a turbocharger is the result of heating the air before it goes into
the engine. An intercooler or charge air cooler is an additional component that looks
something like a radiator, except air passes through the inside as well as the outside of
the intercooler. The intake air passes through sealed passage ways inside the cooler,
while cooler air from outside is blown across fins by the engine cooling fan.

Methods of Turbo charging and their Advantages and Limits:

Constant Pressure Turbo charging:

The exhaust from various cylinders discharge into a common manifold at pressure at
pressures higher than the atmospheric pressure. The exhaust gasses from all the expanded in
the exhaust valves to an approximately constant pressure in common manifold from here it
passes to turbine. Thus the blow-down energy, in the form of internal energy, is converted
into work in the turbine. The exhaust gases are maintained at constant pressure during the
whole cycle so that a pure Reaction turbine can be used.

Advantages:
̶ The exhaust piping is very simple for a multi-cylinder engine as well as single-
cylinder; highly efficient turbine can be used.
̶ Engine speed is not limited by the pressure waves in the exhaust pipes.
Disadvantages:
̶ Scavenging is not efficient.
̶ At part load the efficiency of turbine reduces due to partial admissions to the turbine.

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 Supercharging

Pulse Turbo charging: Considerable part of the blow-down energy is converted into exhaust
pulses as soon as the exhaust valve opens. Towards the end of exhaust the pressure in the
exhaust pipe drops below the scavenging and large air pressure making scavenging quite
easy. The rate of the exhaust gas at the various turbine inlets is different and variable in time.

Advantages:
̶ The space required is less due to short and smaller diameter pipes.
̶ Comparatively better scavenging is obtained at low loads due to reduced pressure.
Disadvantages:
̶ With large number of cylinders complicated inlet and exhaust pipe arrangements are
needed.
̶ The length of the pipe or engine speed is limited.

Two Stage Turbo charging: Two –stage turbo charging is defined as use of two
turbochargers of different sizes in series; for example a high-pressure stage operating on
pulse system and a low-pressure stage on constant pressure operation.

Fig. 6.5 Methods of Turbo Charging

Advantages:
̶ Better matching of the turbochargers to engine operating conditions possible.
̶ The efficiency of two-stage turbocharger is higher than that of a single stage
turbocharger having a high boost ratio.
Disadvantages:
̶ The space requirement is higher.
̶ The total system is heavier.

Limitations of Turbo charging:

̶ The use of turbochargers requires special exhaust manifolds.

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 Supercharging

̶ Fuel injection has to be modified to inject more fuel per unit time.
̶ The efficiency of the turbine blades is very sensitive to gas velocity so that it is very
difficult to obtain good efficiency over a wide range of operations.
̶ One of the main problems with turbochargers is that they do not provide an immediate
power boost. It takes a second for the turbine to get up to speed before boost is
produced. This results in a lag known as ‘Turbo Lag’.
Methods to overcome Turbo lag
̶ One way to decrease turbo lag is to reduce the inertia of the rotating parts, mainly by
reducing their weight. This allows the turbine and compressor to accelerate quickly,
and start providing boost earlier.
̶ A small turbocharger will provide boost more quickly and at lower engine speeds.
̶ Most automotive turbochargers have a waste gate, which allows the use of a smaller
turbocharger to reduce lag.
̶ Some engines use two turbochargers of different sizes. The smaller one spins up to
speed very quickly, reducing lag, while the bigger one takes over at higher engine
speeds to provide more boost.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 121

 7
COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINE

Course Contents
7.1 Ignition Lag and the Factors
Affecting the Ignition Lag.
7.2 Flame Propagation and
Factors Affecting Flame
Propagation.
Abnormal combustion and
knocking in SI engines,
Factors Affecting Knocking,
Effects Of Knocking, Its
Control.
Combustion chambers for SI
Engines
Auto Ignition
Effect Of Detonation
Effect of engine operating
variables on the engine
knocking
7.9 Combustion chamber for SI
engine

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INTRODUCTION

̶ Combustion may be defined as a relatively rapid chemical combination of hydrogen

and carbon in fuel with oxygen in air resulting in liberation of energy in the form of
heat.
̶ Following conditions are necessary for combustion to take place
1. The presence of combustible mixture
2. Some means to initiate mixture
3. Stabilization and propagation of flame in Combustion Chamber
̶ In S I Engines, carburetor supplies a combustible mixture of petrol and air and spark
plug initiates combustion.

7.2. IGNITION LIMITS

̶ Ignition of charge is only possible within certain limits of fuel-air ratio. Ignition limits
correspond approximately to those mixture ratios, at lean and rich ends of scale,
where heat released by spark is no longer sufficient to initiate combustion in
neighboring unburnt mixture. For hydrocarbons fuel the stoichiometric fuel air ratios
1:15 and hence the fuel air ratio must be about 1:30 and 1:7.

Fig7.1 Ignition Limits For Hydrocarbon

THEORIES OF COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINE

̶ Combustion in SI engine may roughly divide into two general types: Normal
and Abnormal (knock free or Knocking).Theoretical diagram of pressure crank angle
diagram is shown. (a-b) is compression process, (b-c) is combustion process and (c-d)
is an expansion process. In an ideal cycle it can be seen from the diagram, the entire
pressure rise during combustion takes place at constant volume i.e., at TDC. However,
in actual cycle this does not happen.

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Fig. 7.2 theoretical p-Ɵ Diagram

RICHARD’S THEORY OF COMBUSTION.

̶ Sir Ricardo, known as father of engine research describes the combustion process
can be imagined as if it is developing in two stages:
1. Growth and development of a self-propagating nucleus flame. (Ignition lag)
2. Spread of flame through the combustion chamber

THREE STAGE OF COMBUSTION

According to Ricardo, There are three stages of combustion in SI Engine as shown
1. Ignition lag stage
2. Flame propagation stage
3. after burning stage

Fig. 7.3p-Ɵ Diagram

1. Ignition lag stage:

 Combustion In S I Engine

̶ There is a certain time interval between instant of spark and instant where there is a
noticeable rise in pressure due to combustion. This time lag is called IGNITION
LAG. Ignition lag is the time interval in the process of chemical reaction during which
molecules get heated up to self-ignition temperature , get ignited and produce a self-
propagating nucleus of flame.
̶ The ignition lag is generally expressed in terms of crank angle (1). The period of
ignition lag is shown by path ab. Ignition lag is very small and lies between 0.00015
to 0.0002 seconds. An ignition lag of 0.002 seconds corresponds to 35 deg crank
rotation when the engine is running at 3000 RPM. Angle of advance increase with the
speed.
̶ This is a chemical process depending upon the nature of fuel, temperature and
pressure, proportions of exhaust gas and rate of oxidation or burning.
2. Flame propagation stage:
̶ Once the flame is formed at “b”, it should be self-sustained and must be able to
propagate through the mixture. This is possible when the rate of heat generation by
Burning is greater than heat lost by flame to surrounding. After the point “b”, the
flame propagation is abnormally low at the beginning as heat lost is more than heat
generated.
̶ Therefore pressure rise is also slow as mass of mixture burned is small. Therefore it
is necessary to provide angle of advance 30 to 35 deg, if the peak pressure to be
attained 5-10 deg after TDC. The time required for crank to rotate through an angle q2
is known as combustion period during which propagation of flame takes place.

3. After burning:
̶ Combustion will not stop at point “c” but continue after attaining peak pressure and
this combustion is known as after burning. This generally happens when the rich
mixture is supplied to engine

FACTORS AFFCTING THE FLAME PROPAGATION

̶ Rate of flame propagation affects the combustion process in SI engines. Higher
combustion efficiency and fuel economy can be achieved by higher flame propagation
velocities. Unfortunately flame velocities for most of fuel range between10 to 30
m/second.
̶ The factors which affect the flame propagations are
1. Air fuel ratio
2. Compression ratio
3. Load on engine
4. Turbulence and engine speed
5. Other factors

̶ A: F ratio. The mixture strength influences the rate of combustion and amount of heat
generated. The maximum flame speed for all hydrocarbon fuels occurs at nearly 10%
rich mixture. Flame speed is reduced both for lean and as well as for very rich
mixture. Lean mixture releases less heat resulting lower flame temperature and lower
flame speed. Very rich mixture results incomplete combustion (C Coin stead of C0
and also results in production of less heat and flame speed remains low. The effects of
A: F ratio on p-v diagram and p-0 diagram are shown below:

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̶ Compression ratio: The higher compression ratio increases the pressure and
temperature of the mixture and also decreases the concentration of residual gases. All
these factors reduce the ignition lag and help to speed up the second phase of
combustion. The maximum pressure of the cycle as well as mean effective pressure of
the cycle with increase in compression ratio. Figure above shows the effect of
compression ratio on pressure (indirectly on the speed of combustion) with respect to
crank angle for same A: F ratio and same angle of advance. Higher compression ratio
increases the surface to volume ratio and thereby increases the part of the mixture
which after-burns in the third phase.
̶ Load on Engine. With increase in load, the cycle pressures increase and the flame
speed also increases. In S.I. engine, the power developed by an engine is controlled by
throttling. At lower load and higher throttle, the initial and final pressure of the
mixture after compression decrease and mixture is also diluted by the more residual
gases. This reduces the flame propagation and prolongs the ignition lag.
̶ This is the reason, the advance mechanism is also provided with change in load on the
engine. This difficulty can be partly overcome by providing rich mixture at part loads
but this definitely increases the chances of afterburning.
̶ The after burning is prolonged with richer mixture. In fact, poor combustion at part
loads and necessity of providing richer mixture are the main disadvantages of S, I.
engines which causes wastage of fuel and discharge of large amount of CO with
exhaust gases.

Fig. 7.4p-Ɵ Diagram

̶ Turbulence: Turbulence plays very important role in combustion of fuel as the

flame speed is directly proportional to the turbulence of the mixture. This is
because, the turbulence increases the mixing and heat transfer coefficient or heat
transfer rate between the burned and unburned mixture. The turbulence of the
mixture can be increased at the end of compression by suitable design of the
combustion chamber (geometry of cylinder head and piston crown).Insufficient
turbulence provides low flame velocity and incomplete combustion and reduces
the power output. But excessive turbulence is also not desirable as it increases

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the combustion rapidly and leads to detonation. Excessive turbulence causes to

cool the flame generated and flame propagation is reduced. Moderate turbulence
is always desirable as it accelerates the chemical reaction, reduces ignition lag,
increases flame propagation and even allows weak mixture to burn efficiently.
̶ Engine Speed: The turbulence of the mixture increases with an increase in engine
speed. For this reason the flame speed almost increases linearly with engine speed.
If the engine speed is doubled, flame to traverse the combustion chamber is
halved. Double the original speed and half the original time give the same number
of crank degrees for flame propagation. The crank angle required for the flame
propagation, which is main phase of combustion will remain almost constant at all
speeds. This is an important characteristic of all petrol engines.

̶ Engine Size: Engines of similar design generally run at the same piston speed.
This is achieved by using small engines having larger RPM and larger engines
having smaller RPM. Due to same piston speed, the inlet velocity, degree of
turbulence and flame speed are nearly same in similar engines regardless of the
size. However, in small engines the flame travel is small and in large engines
large. Therefore, if the engine size is doubled the time required for propagation of
flame through combustion space is also doubled. But with lower RPM of large
engines the time for flame propagation in terms of crank would be nearly same as
in small engines. In other words, the number of crank degrees required for flame
travel will be about the same irrespective of engine size provided the engines are
similar.

̶ Other Factors: Among the other factors, the factors which increase the flame
speed are supercharging of the engine, spark timing and residual gases left in the
engine at the end of exhaust stroke. The air humidity also affects the flame
velocity but its exact effect is not known. Anyhow, its effect is not large compared
with A: F ratio and turbulence.

PHENOMENON OF KNOCKING IN SI ENGINE

̶ Knocking is due to auto ignition of end portion of unburned charge in combustion
chamber. As the normal flame proceeds across the chamber, pressure and temperature
of unburned charge increase due to compression by burned portion of charge. This
unburned compressed charge may auto ignite under certain temperature condition and
release the energy at a very rapid rate compared to normal combustion process in
cylinder.
̶ This rapid release of energy during auto ignition causes a high pressure differential in
combustion chamber and a high pressure wave is released from auto ignition region.
The motion of high pressure compression waves inside the cylinder causes vibration
of engine parts and pinging noise and it is known as knocking or detonation.
̶ This pressure frequency or vibration frequency in SI engine can be up to 5000 Cycles
per second. Denotation is undesirable as it affects the engine performance and life, as
it abruptly increases sudden large amount of heat energy. It also put a limit on

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compression ratio at which engine can be operated which directly affects the engine
efficiency and output.

Fig. 7.4 Schematics Presentation of the Principle of Normal and Abnormal Combustion

AUTO IGINITION
̶ A mixture of fuel and air can react spontaneously and produce heat by chemical
reaction in the absence of flame to initiate the combustion or self-ignition. This type
of self-ignition in the absence of flame is known as Auto-Ignition.
̶ The temperature at which the self-ignition takes place is known as self-igniting
temperature. The pressure and temperature abruptly increase due to auto-ignition
because of sudden release of chemical energy.
̶ This auto-ignition leads to abnormal combustion known as detonation which is
undesirable because its bad effect on the engine performance and life as it abruptly
increases sudden large amount of heat energy. In addition to this knocking puts a limit
on the compression ratio at which an engine can be operated which directly affects the
engine efficiency and output. Auto-ignition of the mixture does not occur
instantaneously as soon as its temperature rises above the self-ignition temperature.
Auto-ignition occurs only when the mixture stays at a temperature equal to or higher
than the self-ignition temperature for a “finite time”.
̶ This time is known as delay period or reaction time for auto-ignition. This delay time
as a function of compression ratio is shown in adjacent figure. As the compression
ratio increases, the delay period decreases and this is because of increase in initial
(before combustion) pressure and temperature of the charge. The self-ignition

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temperature is a characteristic of fuel air mixture and it varies from fuel to fuel and
mixture strength to mixture - strength of the same fuel.

Fig. 7.5 Self-ignition characteristics of fuels

PRE -IGINITION
̶ Pre-ignition is the ignition of the homogeneous mixture of charge as it comes in
contact with hot surfaces, in the absence of spark .Auto ignition may overheat the
spark plug and exhaust valve and it remains so hot that its temperature is sufficient to
ignite the charge in next cycle during the compression stroke before spark occurs and
this causes the pre-ignition of the charge.
̶ Pre-ignition is initiated by some overheated projecting part such as the sparking plug
electrodes, exhaust valve head, metal corners in the combustion chamber, carbon
deposits or protruding cylinder head gasket rim etc.pre-ignition is also caused by
persistent detonating pressure shockwaves scoring away the stagnant gases which
normally protect the combustion chamber walls. The resulting increased heat flow
through the walls raises the surface temperature of any protruding poorly cooled part
of the chamber, and this therefore provides a focal point for pre-ignition.
̶ Effects of Pre-ignition
1. It increases the tendency of denotation in the engine.
2. It increases heat transfer to cylinder walls because high temperature gas remains in
contact with for a longer time.

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 3. Pre-ignition in a single cylinder will reduce the speed and power output.
4. Pre-ignition may cause seizer in the multi-cylinder engines, only if only cylinders
have pre-ignition.

EFFECT OF DETONATION
The harmful effects of detonation are as follows:
̶ Noise and Roughness.
o Knocking produces a loud pulsating noise and pressure Waves. These waves
which vibrates back and forth across the cylinder. The presence of vibratory
motion causes crankshaft vibrations and the engine runs rough.
̶ Mechanical Damage.
o (a)High pressure waves generated during knocking can increase rate of wear
of parts of combustion chamber. Sever erosion of piston crown (in a manner
similar to that of marine propeller blades by cavitations), cylinder head and
pitting of inlet and outlet valves may result in complete wreckage of the
engine.

o (b) Detonation is very dangerous in engines having high noise level. In small
engines the knocking noise is easily detected and the corrective measures can
be taken but in aero-engines it is difficult to detect knocking noise and hence
corrective measures cannot be taken. Hence severe detonation may persist for
a long time which may ultimately result in complete wreckage of the piston.
̶ Carbon deposits.
o Detonation results in increased carbon deposits.
̶ Increase in heat transfer.
o Knocking is accompanied by an increase in the rate of heat transfer to the
combustion chamber walls. The increase in heat transfer is due to two reasons.
The minor reason is that the maximum temperature in a detonating engine is
about 150°C higher than in a non-detonating engine, due to rapid completion
of combustion the major reason for increased heat transfer is the scouring
away of protective layer of inactive stagnant gas on the cylinder walls due to
pressure waves. The inactive layer of gas normally reduces the heat transfer by
protecting the combustion and piston crown from direct contact with flame.
̶ Decrease in power output and efficiency.
o Due to increase in the rate of heat transfer the power output as well as
efficiency of a detonating engine decreases.
̶ Pre-ignition
o The increase in the rate of heat transfer to the walls has yet another effect. It
may cause local overheating, especially of the sparking plug, which may reach
a temperature high enough to ignite the charge before the passage of spark,
thus causing pre-ignition. An engine detonating for a long period would most
probably lead to pre-ignition and this is the real danger of detonation

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 Fig. 7.6 normal and abnormal combustion

EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON THE ENGINE KNOCKING

The various engine variables affecting knocking can be classified as:
̶ Temperature factors
̶ Density factors
̶ Time factors

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̶ Composition factors
a) TEMPERATURE FACTORS.
Increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture increase the possibility of knock
in the SI engine we shall now discuss the effect of following engine parameters on the
temperature of the unburned mixture:
̶ RAISING THE COMPRESSION RATIO. Increasing the compression ratio
increases both the temperature and pressure (density of the unburned mixture).
Increase in temperature reduces the delay period of the end gas which in turn
increases the tendency to knock.
̶ SUPERCHARGING. It also increases both temperature and density, which
increase the knocking tendency of engine
̶ COOLANT TEMPERATURE Delay period decreases with increase of
coolant temperature , decreased delay period increase the tendency to knock
̶ TEMPERATURE OF THE CYLINDER AND COMBUSTION CHAMBER WALLS: The
temperature of the end gas depends on the design of combustion chamber.
Sparking plug and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in the combustion
chamber and uneven temperature leads to pre-ignition and hence the knocking.
b) DENSITY FACTORS.
Increasing the density of unburnt mixture will increase the possibility of knock in the
Engine. The engine parameters which affect the density are as follows:
̶ Increased compression ratio increase the density
̶ Increasing the load opens the throttle valve more and thus the density
̶ Supercharging increase the density of the mixture
̶ Increasing the inlet pressure increases the overall pressure during the cycle. The
high pressure end gas decreases the delay period which increase the tendency of
knocking.
̶ Advanced spark timing: quantity of fuel burnt per cycle before and after TDC
position depends on spark timing. The temperature of charge increases by
increasing the spark advance and it increases with rate of burning and does not
allow sufficient time to the end mixture to dissipate the heat and increase the
knocking tendency
c) TIME FACTORS.
o Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignition
conditions increase the possibility of knock in SI engines.
̶ Flame travel distance: If the distance of flame travel is more, then possibility of
knocking is also more. This problem can be solved by combustion chamber design,
spark plug location and engine size. Compact combustion chamber will have better
anti-knock characteristics, since the flame travel and combustion time will be shorter.
Further, if the combustion chamber is highly turbulent, the combustion rate is high
and consequently combustion time is further reduced; this further reduces the
tendency to knock.
̶ Location of sparkplug. A spark plug which is centrally located in the combustion
chamber has minimum tendency to knock as the flame travel is minimum. The flame
travel can be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.
̶ Location of exhaust valve. The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark plug
so that it is not in the end gas region; otherwise there will be tendency to knock.

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Engine size. Large engines have a greater knocking tendency because flame requires a
longer time to travel across the combustion chamber. In SI engine therefore, generally
limited to 100mm.
̶ Turbulence of mixture decreasing the turbulence of the mixture decreases the flame
speed and hence increases the tendency to knock. Turbulence depends on the design
of combustion chamber and one engine speed.

(D) COMPOSITION.
The properties of fuel and A/F ratio are primary means to control knock:
(a) Molecular Structure. The knocking tendency is markedly affected by the type of the fuel
used. Petroleum fuels usually consist of many hydro-carbons of different molecular structure.
The structure of the fuel molecule has enormous effect on knocking tendency. Increasing the
carbon-chain increases the knocking tendency and centralizing the carbon atoms decreases
the knocking tendency. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have less knocking tendency than saturated
hydrocarbons.
 Paraffin’s
̶ Increasing the length of carbon chain increases the knocking tendency.
̶ Centralizing the carbon atoms decreases the knocking tendency.
̶ Adding methyl group (CH to the side of the carbon chain in the centre position
decreases the knocking tendency.
 Olefins Introduction of one double bond has little effect on anti-knock quality but two
or three double bond results less knocking tendency except C and C
 Nathans and Aromatics
̶ Nathans have greater knocking tendency than corresponding aromatics.
̶ With increasing double-bonds, the knocking tendency is reduced.
̶ Lengthening the side chains increases the knocking tendency whereas branching
of the side chain decreases the knocking tendency.
(b) Fuel-air ratio.
̶ The most important effect of fuel-aft ratio is on the reaction time or ignition delay.
When the mixture is nearly 10% richer than stoichiometric (fuel-air ratio = 0.08)
ignition lag of the end gas is minimum and the velocity of flame propagation is
maximum. By making the mixture leaner or richer (than F/A 0.08) the tendency to
knock is decreased. A too rich mixture is especially effective in decreasing or
eliminating the knock due to longer delay and lower temperature of compression.
(c)Humidity of air.
̶ Increasing atmospheric humidity decreases the tendency to knock By decreasing the
reaction time of the fuel the trends of the most of the above factors on knocking
tendency of the engine is given

S I engines are generally not supercharged.” Justify this statement.

The factors which affect knocking in S.I. engines
̶ Compression ratio
̶ Mixture strength
̶ Fuel characteristics (Octane number, ON)
̶ Initial pressure.
In these engines the limit of supercharging is fixed mainly by knocking, because the
Knocking tendency of most fuels is increased by increasing the inlet pressure and
Temperature or both. At the same ON requirement, if the charge density is increased

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the compression ratio has to be decreased considering the knock limits. Thus the
power by the supercharged engine is increased but at reduced thermal efficiency.
Further, Supercharged S.I. engines are usually to run on rich mixture, for maximum
power. This Also results in a higher S F C. Therefore, S.I. engines are not generally
supercharged, except to compensate for loss of power at high altitudes.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER FOR SI ENGINE
̶ The design of combustion chamber has an important influence upon the engine
Performance and its knock properties. The design of combustion chamber involves
the shape of the combustion chamber, the location of the sparking plug and the
disposition of inlet and exhaust valves. Because of the importance of combustion
chamber design, it has been a subject of considerable amount of research and
development in the last fifty years. It has resulted in raising the compression ratio
from 4: 1 before the First World War period to 8: 1 to 11:1 in present times with
special combustion Chamber designs and suitable anti-knock fuels.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD COMBUSTION CHAMBER
The basic requirements of a good combustion chamber are to provide:
̶ High power output
̶ High thermal efficiency and low specific fuel consumption
̶ Smooth engine operation
̶ Reduced exhaust pollutants.
HIGHER POWER OUTPUT REQUIRES THE FOLLOWING:
̶ High compression ratio. The compression ratio is limited by the phenomenon of
detonation. Detonation depends on the design of combustion chamber and fuel
quality. Any change in design that improves the anti-knock characteristics of
combustion chamber permits the use of a higher compression ratio which should
result in higher output and efficiency.
̶ Small or no excess air.
̶ Complete utilization of the air – no dead pockets.
̶ An optimum degree of turbulence. Turbulence is induced by inlet flow configuration
or ‘squish’. Squish is the rapid ejection of gas trapped between the piston and some
flat or corresponding surface in the cylinder head. Turbulence induced by squish is
preferable to inlet turbulence since the volumetric efficiency is not affected.
̶ High Volumetric Efficiency. This is achieved by having large diameter valves with
ample clearance round the valve heads, proper valve timing and straight passage ways
by streamlining the combustion chamber so that the flow is with lesser pressure drop.
This means more charge per stroke and proportionate increase in the power output.
Large valves and straight passageways also increase the speed at which the maximum
power is obtained. This further increases the power by increasing the displacement per
minute.
(C) SMOOTH ENGINE OPERATION REQUIRES THE FOLLOWING:
̶ Moderate rate of pressure rise during combustion.
̶ Absence of detonation which in turn means:
̶ Compact combustion chamber, short distance of flame travel from the sparking plug
to the farthest point in the combustion space. Pockets in which stagnant gas may
collect should be avoided.
̶ Proper location of the spark plug and exhaust valve.

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̶ Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug points (to avoid pre ignition) and of exhaust
valve head which is the hottest region of the combustion chamber.
(D) Reduced exhaust pollutants
̶ Exhaust pollutants can be reduced by designing a combustion chamber that
produces a faster burning rate of fuel. A faster burning chamber with its shorter
burning time permits operation with substantially higher amounts of Exhaust Gas
Recirculation (EGR), which reduces the oxides of nitrogen (NOX) in the exhaust
gas without substantial increase in the hydrocarbon emissions.
̶ It can also burn very lean mixtures within the normal constraints of engine
smoothness and response. A faster burning chamber exhibits much less cyclic
variations, permitting the normal combustion at part load to have greater dilution
of the charge.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
A few representative types of combustion chambers of which there are many more Variations
are enumerated and discussed below:
1. T-head combustion chamber.
2. L-head combustion chamber.
3. I-head (or overhead valve) combustion chamber.
4. F-head combustion chamber.
It may be noted that these chambers are designed to obtain the objectives namely:
̶ A high combustion rate at the start.
̶ A high surface-to-volume ratio near the end of burning.
̶ A rather centrally located spark plug.
T Head Type Combustion chambers
This was first introduced by Ford Motor Corporation in 1908. This design has following
disadvantages.
̶ Requires two cam shafts (for actuating the in-let valve and exhaust valve
separately) by two cams mounted on the two cam shafts.
̶ Very prone to detonation. There was violent detonation even at a compression
ratio of 4. This is because the average octane number in 1908 was about 40 -50.

Fig. 7.7T-head type combustion chamber

L Head Type Combustion chambers

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It is a modification of the T-head type of combustion chamber. It provides the two values on
the same side of the cylinder, and the valves are operated through tappet by a single camshaft.
This was first introduced by Ford motor in 1910-30 and was quite popular for some time.
This design has an advantage both from manufacturing and maintenance point of view.

Advantages:
̶ Valve mechanism is simple and easy to lubricate.
̶ Detachable head easy to remove for cleaning and decarburizing without
Disturbing either the valve gear or main pipe work.
̶ Valves of larger sizes can be provided.

Disadvantages:
̶ Lack of turbulence as the air had to take two right angle turns to enter the cylinder
and in doing so much initial velocity is lost.
̶ Extremely prone to detonation due to large flame length and slow combustion due
to lack of turbulence.
̶ More surface-to-volume ratio and therefore more heat loss.
̶ Extremely sensitive to ignition timing due to slow combustion process
̶ Valve size restricted.
̶ Thermal failure in cylinder block also. In I-head engine the thermal failure is
confined to cylinder head only

Fig. 7.8 L-head type combustion chamber

RICARDO’S TURBULENT HEAD– SIDE VALVE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

̶ Ricardo developed this head in 1919. His main objective was to obtain fast flame
speed and reduce knock in L design. In Ricardo’s design the main body of combustion
chamber was concentrated over the valves, leaving slightly restricted passage
communicating with cylinder.

Advantages:
̶ Additional turbulence during compression strokes possible as gases are forced back
through the passage.

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̶ By varying throat area of passage designed degree of additional turbulence is possible.

̶ This design ensures a more homogeneous mixture by scoring away the layer of
stagnant gas clinging to chamber wall. Both the above factors increase the flame
speed and thus the performance.
̶ Deign make engine relatively insensitive to timing of spark due to fast combustion
̶ Higher engine speed is possible due to increased turbulence
̶ Ricardo’s design reduced the tendency to knock by shortening length of effective
flame travel by bringing that portion of head which lay over the further side of piston
into as close a contact as possible with piston crown.
̶ This design reduces length of flame travel by placing the spark plug in the centre of
effective combustion space.

Disadvantages:
̶ With compression ratio of 6, normal speed of burning increases and turbulent head
tends to become over turbulent and rate of pressure rise becomes too rapid leads to
rough running and high heat losses.
̶ To overcome the above problem, Ricardo decreased the areas of passage at the
expense of reducing the clearance volume and restricting the size of valves. This
reduced breathing capacity of engine; therefore these types of chambers are not
suitable for engine with high compression ratio. Over head valve or I head
combustion chamber.

Fig. 7.9Ricardo’s Turbulent Head combustion Chamber

Over head valve or I head combustion chamber
The disappearance of the side valve or L-head design was inevitable at high compression
ratio of 8: 1 because of the lack of space in the combustion chamber to accommodate the
valves. Diesel engines, with high compression ratios, invariably used overhead valve design.
Since 1950 or so mostly overhead valve combustion chambers are used. This type of
combustion chamber has both the inlet valve and the exhaust valve located in the cylinder
head. An overhead engine is superior to side valve engine at high compression ratios. The
overhead valve engine is superior to side valve or L head engine at high compression ratios,
for the following reasons:

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̶ Lower pumping losses and higher volumetric efficiency from better breathing of the
engine from larger valves or valve lifts and more direct passageways.
̶ Less distance for the flame to travel and therefore greater freedom from knock, or in
other words, lower octane requirements.
̶ Less force on the head bolts and therefore less possibility of leakage (of compression
gases or jacket water). The projected area of a side valve combustion chamber is
inevitably greater than that of an overhead valve chamber.
̶ Removal of the hot exhaust valve from the block to the head, thus confining heat
failures to the head. Absence of exhaust valve from block also results in more uniform
cooling of cylinder and piston.
̶ Lower surface-volume ratio and, therefore, less heat loss and less air pollution.
̶ Easier to cast and hence lower casting cost.

Fig. 7.10 I-Head combustion Chamber

Two important designs of overhead valve combustion chambers are used.

̶ Bath Tub Combustion Chamber.
̶ This is simple and mechanically convenient form. This consists of an oval shaped
chamber with both valves mounted vertically overhead and with the spark plug at the
side. The main drawback of this design is both valves are placed in a single row along
the cylinder block. This limits the breathing capacity of engine, unless the overall
length is increased. However, modern engine manufactures overcome this problem by
using unity ratio for stroke and bore size.
̶ Wedge Type Combustion Chamber. In this design slightly inclined valves are used.
This design also has given very satisfactory performance. A modern wedge type
design can be seen in for Plymouth V-8 engine. It has a stake of 99 mm and bore of
84mm with compression ratio 9:1

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F- Head combustion chamber

In such a combustion chamber one valve is in head and other in the block. This design is a
compromise between L-head and I-head combustion chambers. One of the most Head
engines (wedge type) is the one used by the Rover Company for several years. Another
successful design of this type of chamber is that used in Walleyes jeeps
Its advantages are:
̶ High volumetric efficiency
̶ Maximum compression ratio for fuel of given octane rating
̶ High thermal efficiency
̶ It can operate on leaner air-fuel ratios without misfiring.
The drawback
̶ This design is the complex mechanism for operation of valves and expensive
special shaped piston.

Fig. 7.11 F-Head combustion Chamber

Divided Combustion Chamber

̶ In this type of chambers usually with about 80 percent of the clearance volume in
the main chamber above the piston and about 20 percent of the volume as a
secondary chamber. Main chamber is connected to secondary chamber through a
small orifice Combustion is started in the small secondary chamber.
̶ As the gases in secondary chambers are consumed by combustion, pressure rises
and flaming gas expands back through orifice and act as torch ignition for main
chamber. Secondary chamber has high swirl and designed to handle rich mixture
̶ The rich mixture with very high swirl in secondary chamber will ignite readily
and burn very quickly. The flame gas expands through orifice and ignites the lean
mixture in the main chamber. The net result is an engine that has good ignition
and combustion and yet operates mostly lean to give good fuel economy.

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Fig. 7.12 divided combustion Chamber

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 140

 8
COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE

Course Contents
8.1 Stages of combustion
8.2 delay period /ignition lag and
the factors affecting it
8.3 detonation in C.I. engines
8.4 factors affecting detonation
8.5 controlling detonation
8.6 Combustion chambers for
C.I. engines.

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STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE

̶ In SI engine, uniform A: F mixture is supplied, but in CI engine A: F mixture is not
homogeneous and fuel remains in liquid particles, therefore quantity of air supplied is
50% to 70% more than stoichiometric mixture. The combustion in SI engine starts at
one point and generated flame at the point of ignition propagates through the mixture
for burning of the mixture, whereas in CI engine, the combustion takes place at
number of points simultaneously and number of flames generated are also many. To
burn the liquid fuel is more difficult as it is to be evaporated; it is to be elevated to
ignition temperature and then burn.

The combustion in CI engine is considered to be taking place in four phases:

̶ Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion

̶ Uncontrolled combustion
̶ Controlled combustion
̶ After burning

Fig. 8.1 Stage of Combustions

1. Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion

̶ The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the combustion
chamber. There is a definite period of inactivity between the time of injection
and the actual burning this period is known as the ignition delay period. In
Figure 2. the delay period is shown on pressure crank angle (or time) diagram
between points a and b. Point “a” represents the time of injection and point “b”
represents the time of combustion.
̶ The ignition delay period can be divided into two parts, the physical delay and

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the chemical delay. The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great
influence on both engine design and performance. It is of extreme importance
because of its effect on both the combustion rate and knocking and also its
influence on engine starting ability and the presence of smoke in the exhaust

Fig. 8.2 Pressure Time diagram illustrating Ignition delay

2. Period of Rapid Combustion
̶ The period of rapid combustion also called the uncontrolled combustion, is that
phase-in which the pressure rise is rapid. During the delay period, a
considerable amount of fuel is accumulated in combustion chamber, these
accumulated fuel droplets burns very rapidly causing a steep rise in pressure.
The period of rapid combustion is counted from end of delay period or the
beginning of the combustion to the point of maximum pressure on the indicator
diagram.
̶ The rate of heat-release is maximum during this period. This is also known as
uncontrolled combustion phase, because it is difficult to control the amount of
burning / injection during the process of burning.
̶ It may be noted that the pressure reached during the period of rapid combustion
will depend on the duration of the delay period (the longer the delay the more
rapid and higher is the pressure rise since more fuel would have been present in
the cylinder before the rate of burning comes under control).
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
̶ The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the controlled
combustion. The temperature and pressure in the second stage are so high that
fuel droplets injected burn almost as they enter and find the necessary oxygen
and any further pressure rise can be controlled by injection rate.

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̶ The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle

temperature.
4. Period of After-Burning
̶ Combustion does not stop with the completion of the injection process. The
unburnt and partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start
burning as soon as they come into contact with the oxygen.
̶ This process continues for a certain duration called the after-burning period.
This burning may continue in expansion stroke up to 70 to 80% of crank travel
from TDC.

delay period /ignition lag and the factors affecting it

Ignition delay can be divided into two parts:

̶ Physical Delay:
̶ The physical delay is the time between the beginning of injection and the attainment
of chemical reaction conditions. During this period, the fuel is atomized, vaporized,
mixed with air and raised to its self-ignition temperature. This physical delay
depends on the type of fuel, i.e., for light fuel the physical delay is small while for
heavy viscous fuels the physical delay is high. The physical delay is greatly reduced
by using high injection pressures and high turbulence to facilitate breakup of the jet
and improving evaporation.
̶ Chemical Delay:
̶ During the chemical delay reactions start slowly and then accelerate until
inflammation or ignition takes place. Generally, the chemical delay is larger than the
physical delay. However, it depends on the temperature of the surroundings and at
high temperatures, the chemical reactions are faster and the physical delay

Total delay period = Physical delay + Chemical delay

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Table 8.1 Combustion phenomenon in CI engine V/s combustion in SI engine

Sr COMUSTION IN SI ENGINE COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE
NO
Homogeneous mixture of petrol vapor and Air alone is compressed through large
air is compressed (CR 6:1to 11:1) at the end Compression ratio (12:1 to 22:1) and fuel
1
of compression stroke and is ignited at one is injected at high pressure of 110 to 200
place by spark plug. bar using fuel injector pump.
Single definite flame front progresses Fuel is not injected at once, but spread
through air fuel mixture and entire mixture over a period of time. Initial droplets meet
2
will be incombustible range air whose temperature is above self-
ignition temperature and ignite after
For effective combustion, turbulence is For effective combustion, swirl is required.
required. Turbulence which is required in SI Swirl which is required in CI engine
engine implies disordered air motion with implies orderly movements of whole body
no general direction off low to break up theof air with a particular direction of flow, to
3
surface of flame front and to distribute the bring a continuous supply of fresh air to
shreds of flame thought-out in externallyeach burning droplets and sweep away the
prepared homogeneous combustible products of combustion which otherwise
mixture. suffocate it.

In SI Engine ignition occurs at one point In the CI engine, the ignition occurs at
with allow rise in pressure many points simultaneously with
4
consequent rapid rise in pressure. There is
no definite flame front.
In SI engine physical delay is almost zero In CI engine physical delay controls
5 and chemical delay controls combustion Combustion.
In SI engine , A/F ratio remains close In CI engine, irrespective of load, at any
tostoichiometric value from no load to fullspeed, an approximately constant supply
load of air enters the cylinder. With change in
6
load, quantity of fuel Is changed to vary
A/F ratio. The overall A/F can Range from
18:1 to 80:1.

Delay period must be as long as possible. Delay period must be as short as possible.
7 High-octane fuel (low cetane) is required. High cetane (low octane) fuel is required

EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON DELAY PERIOD IN CI ENGINE

Many design and operating factors affect the delay period. The important ones are:
̶compression ratio
ngine speed

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̶output
injection timing q̶
uality of the fuel
intake temperature
̶intake pressure
1. Compression Ratio.
̶ The increase in the compression temperature of the air with increase in
compression ratio evaluated at the end of the compression stroke is shown in
Fig. It is also seen from the same figure that the minimum auto ignition
temperature of a fuel decreases due to increased density of the compressed air.
̶ This results in a closer contact between the molecules of fuel and oxygen
reducing the time of reaction. The increase in the compression temperature as
well as the decrease in the minimum auto ignition temperature decrease the
delay period. The maximum peak pressure during the combustion process is
only marginally affected by the compression ratio (because delay period is
shorter with higher compression ratio and hence the pressure rise is lower).

Then why we do not use very high compression ratio in CI?

̶ One of the practical disadvantages of using a very high compression ratio is that the
mechanical efficiency tends to decrease due to increase in weight of the reciprocating
parts. Therefore, engine designers always try to use a lower compression ratio which
helps in easy cold starting and light load running at high speeds.

2. Engine Speed:
̶ The delay period could be given either in terms of absolute time (in milliseconds) or
in terms of crank angle degrees With increase in engine speed, the loss of heat during
compression decreases, resulting in the rise of both the temperature and pressure of
the compressed air thus reducing the delay period in milliseconds.
̶ In degrees of crank travel the delay period increases as the engine operates at a higher
rpm. The fuel pump is geared to the engine, and hence the amount of fuel injected
during the delay period depends on crank degrees and not on absolute time.
̶ Hence, at high speeds, there will be more fuel present in the cylinder to take part in
the second stage of uncontrolled combustion resulting in high rate of pressure rise.

3 Outputs
̶ With an increase in engine output the air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperatures
increase and hence delay period decreases. The rate of pressure rise is unaffected but
the peak pressure reached may be high.

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4 Injection timing:
̶ The effect of injection advance on the pressure variation is shown in Fig. for three
injection advance timings of 90°, 18°, and 27° before TDC. The injected quantity of
fuel per cycle is constant.
̶ As the pressure and temperature at the beginning of injection are lower for higher
ignition advance, the delay period increases with increase in injection advance. The
optimum angle of injection advance depends on many factors but generally it is about
20°bTDC.

5. Quality of Fuel used:

̶ The physical and chemical properties of fuel play very important role in delay period.
The most important property of fuel which is responsible for chemical delay is its self
ignition temperature. Lower the self-ignition temperature, lower the delay period. The
cetane number (CN) of the fuel is another important parameter which is responsible
for the delay period.
̶ A fuel of higher cetane number gives lower delay period and provides smoother
engine operation. The effect of cetane number on the indicator diagram when
injection timing is same is shown in adjacent figure.
̶ The delay period for a fuel having CN = 50 is lowest and pressure rise is also smooth
and maximum pressure rise is least as most of the fuel burns during controlled
combustion. The other properties of fuel which affects the physical delay period are
volatility, latent heat, viscosity and surface tension. The viscosity and surface tension
are responsible for the better atomization whereas latent heat and viscosity are
responsible for the rapid evaporation of fuel.

6. Intake Temperature
̶ The delay period is reduced either with increased temperature. However, preheating
of charge for this purpose is not desirable because it reduces the density of charge and
volumetric efficiency and power output.

7. Intake pressure
̶ Increase in intake pressure or supercharging reduces the auto ignition temperature and
hence reduces the delay period. The peak pressure will be higher since the
compression pressure will increase with intake pressure

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The following table gives the summary of the factors which influence the delay period in CI
engine.

8.2 EFFECT OF VARIABLE ON DELAY PERIOD – SUMMARY

Sr Increase in variables Effect on Delay period Reason
No
1 Cetane Number of fuel Reduce Reduces the self-
ignition temperature
2 Injection pressure Reduce Reduces the physical delay due
to greater surface to volume
ratio
3 Injection timing advance Increase Reduces the pressure and
temperature when the injection
begins
4 Compression ratio Reduce Increases air temperature and
pressure and reduces auto
ignition temperature
5 Intake temperature Reduce Increase air temperature
6 Jacket water temperature Reduce Increase wall and hence air
temperature
7 Fuel temperature Reduce Increases chemical reaction due
to better vaporization
8 Intake pressure Reduce Increases the density and also
reduces the auto ignition
temperature
9 Speed Increase in terms of crankReduce loss of heat
angle but reduces in
Terms of milliseconds.

10 Load ( Fuel/air ratio) Decrease Increase the operating

temperature
11 Engine size Increase in terms of crankLarger engines operate at
angle but little effect inNormally slow speeds.
Terms of
milliseconds.
12 Type of combustion Lower for engines with Due to compactness of the
chamber pre-combustion chamber Chamber.

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 Combustion In CI Engine

PHENOMENON OF DIESEL KNOCK

̶ Knocking is violet gas vibration and audible sound produced by extreme pressure
differentials leading to the very rapid rise during the early part of uncontrolled second
phase of combustion
̶ In C.I. engines the injection process takes place over a definite interval of time.
Consequently, as the first few droplets injected are passing through the ignition lag
period, additional droplets are being injected into the chamber. If the ignition delay is
longer, the actual burning of the first few droplets is delayed and a greater quantity of
fuel droplets gets accumulated in the chamber.
̶ When the actual burning commences, the additional fuel can cause too rapid a rate of
pressure rise, as shown on pressure crank angle diagram above, resulting in Jamming
of forces against the piston (as if struck by a hammer) and rough engine operation. If
the ignition delay is quite long, so much fuel can accumulate that the rate of pressure
rise is almost instantaneous.
̶ Such, a situation produces extreme pressure differentials and violent gas vibration
known as knocking (diesel knock), and is evidenced by audible knock. The
phenomenon is similar to that in the SI engine. However, in SI Engine knocking
occurs near the end of combustion whereas in CI engine, knocking the occurs near the
beginning of combustion.

Delay period is directly related to Knocking in CI engine. An extensive delay period can be
due to following factors:

̶ A low compression ratio permitting only a marginal self-ignition temperature to

be
reached.
̶ A low combustion pressure due to worn out piston, rings and bad valves Low
cetane number of fuel
̶ Poorly atomized fuel spray preventing early combustion
̶ Coarse droplet formation due to malfunctioning of injector parts like spring Low
intake temperature and pressure of air

METHODS OF CONTROLING DIESEL KNOCK

We have discussed the factors which are responsible for the detonation in the previous
sections. If these factors are controlled, then the detonation can be avoided.

̶ Using a better fuel. Higher CN fuel has lower delay period and reduces knocking
tendency.

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̶ Controlling the Rate of Fuel Supply. By injecting less fuel in the beginning and
then more fuel amount in the combustion chamber detonation can be controlled to a
certain extent. Cam shape of suitable profile can be designed for this purpose.
̶ Knock reducing fuel injector: This type of injector avoid the sudden increase in
pressure inside the combustion chamber because of accumulated fuel. This can be
done by arranging the injector so that only small amount of fuel is injected first. This
can be achieved by using two or more injectors arranging in out of phase. By using
Ignition accelerators: C N number can be increased by adding chemical called dopes.
The two chemical dopes are used are ethyl-nitrate and amyle – nitrate in concentration
of 8.8 gm/Liter and 7.7 gm/Liter. But these two increase the NOx emissions
̶ Increasing Swirl: Knocking can be greatly reduced by increasing swirl (or reducing
turbulence). Swirl helps in knock free combustion.

Combustion chambers for C.I. engines.

Primary Considerations in the Design of Combustion Chambers for C.I Engines

̶ In C engines fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at about 15°C before
.D.C.during the compression stroke. For the best efficiency the combustion must
complete within 15° to 20° of crank rotation after T.D.C. in the working stroke. Thus
it is clear that injection and combustion both must complete in the short time. For best
combustion mixing should be completed in the short time.
̶ In S.I engine mixing takes place in carburetor; however in C.I engines this has to be
done in the combustion chamber. To achieve this requirement in a short period is an
extremely difficult job particularly in high speed Cl. engines.
̶ From combustion phenomenon of C.I. engines it is evident that fuel-air contact must
be limited during the delay period in order to limit, the rate of pressure rise in the
second stage of combustion. This result can be obtained by shortening the delay to
achieve high efficiency and power the combustion must be completed when piston is
nearer to T.D.C., it is necessary to have rapid mixing of fuel and air dun the third
stage of combustion.
̶ The design of combustion chamber for C.I. engines must also take consideration of
injection system and nozzles to be used.

The considerations can be summarized as follows:

1. High thermal efficiency.
2. Ability to use less expensive fuel (multi-fuel).
3. Ease of starting.
4. Ability to handle variations in speed.
5. Smoothness of operation i.e. avoidance of diesel knock and noise.
6. Low exhaust emission.
7. Nozzle design.

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8. High volumetric efficiency.

9. High brake Mean effective pressure.

Role of air swirls in Diesel engine

Most important function of CI engine combustion chamber is to provide proper mixing of

fuel and air in short possible time. For this purpose an organized air movement called air
swirl is to be produced to produce high relative velocity between the fuel droplets and air.

There are three basic methods of generating swirl in CI engine Combustion Chamber.

̶ By directing the flow of air during its entry to the cylinder known as Induction swirl.
This method is used in open combustion chamber.
̶ By forcing air through a tangential passage into a separate swirl chamber during the
compression stroke, known as Combustion swirl. This is used in swirl chamber.
̶ By use of initial pressure rise due to partial combustion to create swirl and turbulence,
known as combustion induced swirl. This method is used in pre combustion chamber
and air cell chambers.

INDUCTION SWIRL

Swirl refers to a rotational flow within the cylinder about its axes. In a four stroke engine
induction swirl can be obtained either by careful formation of air intake passages or masking
or shrouding a portion of circumference of inlet valve. The angle of mask is from 90° to 140°
of the circumference. In two stroke engine, induction swirl is created by suitable inlet port
forms. Induction swirl can be generated using following methods.

̶ Swirl is generated by constructing the intake system to give a tangential component to

intake flow as it enters the cylinder. This is done by shaping and contouring the intake
manifold,
̶ Swirl can be generated by masking one side of the inlet valve so that air is admitted
only around a part of the periphery of the valve and in the desired direction.
̶ Swirl can also be generated by casting a lip over one side of the inlet valve.

Swirl generated by induction is very weak. Thus single orifice injection cannot provide the
desired air fuel mixing. Therefore, with Induction swirl, it is advisable to use a multiple-
orifice injector.

Advantages of Induction swirl.

̶ Easier starting (due to low intensity of swirl).

̶ High excess air (low temperature), low turbulence (less heat loss), therefore
indicated thermal efficiency is high.

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̶ Production of swirl requires no additional work.

̶ Used with low speeds, therefore low quality of fuel can be used.

Disadvantages of induction swirl:

̶ Shrouded valves, smaller valves, low volumetric efficiency.

̶ Weak swirl, low air utilization (60%), lower M.E.P. and large size (costly) engine.
̶ Weak swirl, multi-orifice nozzle, high induction pressure; clogging of holes, high
maintenance.
̶ Swirl not proportional to speed; efficiency not maintained at variable speed
engine.
̶ Influence minimum quantity of fuel. Complication at high loads and idling.

Fig. 8.3 Induction Swirl Process

COMPRESSION SWIRL

Compression swirl is generated using swirl chamber. A swirl chamber is a divided chamber.
A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is divided
into two or more compartments. Pressure difference between these chambers is created by
restrictions or throats. Very strong swirl can be generated using compression swirl.

Advantage of compression swirl:

̶ Large valves, high volumetric efficiency.

̶ Single injector, pintle type (self-cleaning), less maintenance.
̶ Smooth engine operation.
̶ Greater air utilization due to strong swirl. Smaller (cheaper) engine.
̶ Swirl proportional to speed, suitable for variable speed operation.

Disadvantage of compression swirl:

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̶ Cold starting trouble due to high loss due to strong swirl, mechanical efficiency I
̶ Less excess air ; lower indicated efficiency; 5 to 8% more fuel consumption;
̶ decreased exhaust valve life
̶ Cylinder more expensive in construction.
̶ Work absorbed in producing swirl, mechanical efficiency lower.

COMBUSTION INDUCTION SWIRL

̶ This is created due to partial combustion, therefore known as combustion induced

swirl. This method is used only in pre-combustion chamber. In this method, upward
movement of piston during compression forces the air tangentially and fuel is injected
in pre-combustion, when the combustion of the accumulated fuel during delay periods
burns rapidly in pre-combustion chamber as A: F mixture is rich and forces the gases
at a very high velocity in the main combustion chamber. This creates a good swirl and
provides better combustion.

The requirement of air motion and swirl in a C.I engine combustion chamber is much more
stringent than in an S.I. engine.-Justify this statement?

̶ Air motions are required in both S.I. and C.I. engines. In S.I. engine, we call it
turbulence and in C.I. engine, we call it swirl. Turbulence which is required in S.I.
engines implies disordered air motion with no general direction of flow, to break up
the surface of flame front and to distribute flame throughout an externally prepared
combustible mixture. Air swirl which is required in C.I. engines is an orderly
movement of whole body of air with a particular direction of flow to bring a
continuous supply of fresh air to each burning droplet and sweep away the products of
combustion which otherwise would suffocate it.
̶ If there is no turbulence in S.I. engines, the time occupied by each explosion would be
so great as to make high speed internal combustion engines impracticable. Insufficient
turbulence lowers the efficiency due to incomplete combustion of fuel. In case of C.I.
engines, it is impossible to inject fuel droplets so that they distribute uniformly
throughout the combustion space, the fuel air mixture formed in combustion chamber
is essentially heterogeneous. Under these conditions, if the air within the cylinder
were motionless, only a small portion of fuel would find sufficient oxygen and even
burning of this fuel would be slow or even choked. So it is essential to impart swirl to
air so that a continuous supply of fresh air is brought to each burning droplet and the
products of combustion are swept away.

The induction swirl in a C.I. engine helps in increasing indicated thermal efficiency.
Justify this statement.
̶ Induction swirl is used in direct injection type engines, where the entire
combustion space is directly above the piston, and hence the surface-to-volume

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ratio of the combustion chamber is low. Further, the compressed air and the
combustion products do not have to pass through a neck narrow connecting
passage. Also, the mean combustion temperatures are lower, and there is less
turbulence. All these factors result in less heat losses, and thus the indicated
thermal efficiency is increased.

TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS- CI Engines

̶ The most important function of CI engine combustion chamber is to provide

proper mixing of fuel and air in short time. In order to achieve this, an organized
air movement called swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity between
the fuel droplets and the air.
̶ When the liquid fuel is injected into combustion chamber, the spray cone gets
disturbed due to air motion and turbulence inside. The onset of combustion will
cause an added turbulence that can be guide d by the shape of the combustion
chamber, makes it necessary to study the combustion design in detail.

C I engine combustion chambers are classified into two categories:

̶ OPEN INJECTION (DI) TYPE: This type of combustion chamber is also called
an Open combustion chamber. In this type the entire volume of combustion
chamber is located in the main cylinder and the fuel is injected into this volume.
̶ INDIRECT INJECTION (IDI) TYPE: in this type of combustion chambers, the
combustion space is divided into two parts, one part in the main cylinder and the
other part in the cylinder head. The fuel –injection is affected usually into the part
of chamber located in the cylinder head. These chambers are classified further into
:
a) Swirl chamber in which compression swirl is generated
b) Pre combustion chamber in which combustion swirl is induced
c) Air cell in which both compression and combustion swirl are induced.

DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS – OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

̶ An open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is

essentially a single cavity with little restriction from one part of the chamber to
the other and hence with no large difference in pressure between parts of the
chamber during the combustion process. There are many designs of open chamber
some of which are shown below :
̶ In four-stroke engines with open combustion chambers, induction swirl is
obtained either by careful formation of the air intake passages or by masking a
portion of the circumference of the inlet valve whereas in two-stroke engines it is
created by suitable form for the inlet ports.

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Fig. 8.4 Direct Injection Type Chamber

̶ These chambers mainly consist of space formed between a flat cylinder head and a
cavity in the piston crown in different shapes. The fuel is injected directly into
space. The injection nozzles used for this chamber are generally of multi whole
type working at a relatively high pressure (about 200 bars).

The main advantages of this type of chambers are:

̶ Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower surface area to volume
ratio and hence, better efficiency.
̶ No cold starting problems.
̶ Fine atomization because of multi hole nozzle.
̶ The drawbacks of these combustion chambers are:
̶ High fuel-injection pressure required and hence complex design of fuel injection
pump.
̶ Necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection system, particularly for
small engines.

̶ Shallow Depth Chamber: In shallow depth chamber the depth of the cavity provided in
the piston is quite small. This chamber is usually adopted for large engines running at low
speeds. Since the cavity diameter is very large, the squish is negligible.
̶ Hemispherical Chamber: This chamber also gives small squish. However, the depth to
diameter ratio for a cylindrical chamber can be varied to give any desired squish to give
better performance.
̶ Cylindrical Chamber: This design was attempted in recent diesel engines. This is a
modification of the cylindrical chamber in the form of a truncated cone with base angle of
30°. The swirl was produced by masking the valve for nearly 1800 of circumference.
Squish can also be varied by varying the depth.
̶ Toroidal Chamber: The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish along
with the air movement, similar to that of the familiar smoke ring, within the Toroidal
chamber. Due to powerful squish the mask needed on inlet valve is small and there is
better utilization of oxygen. The cone angle of spray for this type of chamber is 150° to
160°.

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 Combustion In CI Engine

IN DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS

A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is divided
into two or more distinct compartments connected by restricted passages. This creates
considerable pressure differences between them during the combustion process.

Ricardo’s Swirl Chamber:

̶ Swirl chamber consists of a spherical shaped chamber separated from the engine
cylinder and located in the cylinder head. Into this chamber, about 50% of the air is
transferred during the compression stroke.
̶ A throat connects the chamber to the cylinder which enters the chamber in a
tangential direction so that the air coming into this chamber is given a strong rotary
movement inside the swirl chamber and after combustion, the products rush back into
the cylinder through same throat at much higher velocity.
̶ This causes considerable heat loss to walls of the passage which can be reduced by
employing a heat insulated passage. This type of combustion chamber finds its
application where fuel quality is difficult to control, where reliability under adverse
conditions is more important than fuel economy.
̶ The use of single hole of larger diameter for the fuel spray nozzle is often important
consideration for the choice of swirl chamber engine.

Fig. 8.5 Ricardo’s Swirl Chamber

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 Combustion In CI Engine

PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

̶ Typical pre-combustion chamber consists of an anti chamber connected to the main
chamber through a number of small holes (compared to a relatively large passage in
the swirl chamber). The pre-combustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and
its volume accounts for about 40% of the total combustion, space. During the
compression stroke the piston forces the air into the pre-combustion chamber.
̶ The fuels injected into the pre-chamber and the combustion is initiated. The resulting
pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and their combustion
products to rush out into the main cylinder at high velocity through the small holes.
Thus it creates both strong secondary turbulence and distributes the flaming fuel
droplets throughout the air in the main combustion chamber where bulk of
combustion takes place.
̶ About 80% of energy is released in main combustion chamber. The rate of pressure
rise and the maximum pressure is lower compared to those in open type chamber. The
initial shock if combustion is limited to pre-combustion chamber only. The pre-
combustion chamber has multi fuel capability without any modification in the
injection system because the temperature of pre-chamber.
̶ The variation in the optimum injection timing for petrol and diesel operations is only
2 deg. for this chamber compared to 8 to 10 deg in other chamber design.

Advantages:

̶ Due to short or practically no delay period for the fuel entering the main
combustion space, tendency to knock is minimum, and as such running is smooth.
̶ The combustion in the third stage is rapid.
̶ The fuel injection system design need not be critical. Because the mixing of fuel
and air takes place in pre-chamber.

Disadvantages:

̶ The velocity of burning mixture is too high during the passage from pre-
chambers, so the heat loss is very high. This causes reduction in the thermal
efficiency, which can be offset by increasing the compression ratio.
̶ Cold starting will be difficult as the air loses heat to chamber walls during
compression.

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 Combustion In CI Engine

Fig. 8.6 Pre-combustion Chamber

Energy cell:
̶ The ‘energy cell’ is more complex than the pre-combustion chamber. As the piston
moves up on the compression stroke, some of the air is forced into the major and
minor chambers of the energy cell. When the fuel is injected through the pintle type
nozzle, part of the fuel passes across the main combustion chamber and enters the
minor cell, where it is mixed with the entering air.
̶ Combustion first commences in the main combustion chamber where the
temperatures higher, but the rate of burning is slower in this location, due to
insufficient mixing of the fuel and air. The burning in the minor cell is slower at the
start, but due to better mixing, progresses at a more rapid rate. The pressure built up in
the minor cell , therefore , force the burning gases out into the main chamber, thereby
creating added turbulence and producing better combustion in the this chamber. In
mean time, pressure is built up in the major cell which then prolongs the action of the
jet stream entering the main chamber, thus continuing to induce turbulence in the
main chamber.

Fig.8.6 Energy cell

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 163

 Combustion In CI Engine

M COMBUSTION CHAMBER
̶ After twenty years of research in 1954, Dr. Meaner of M.A.N., Germany developed M
process engine which ran without typical diesel combustion noise and hence it was
named ‘whisper engine’.
̶ The ‘M-combustion chamber’ is a special type of open combustion chamber, having
combustion chamber in the piston cavity. It differs in principle from other open
chamber designs in that the fuel spray impinges on and spreads over the surface of a
spherical cavity in the piston.
̶ Earlier it had usually been assumed that fuel spray impingement was undesirable,
though in most diesel engines some impingement always takes place at full load. The
fuel is injected tangentially from a multi-hole nozzle on the surface of the chamber in
the direction of the air swirl. Injected fuel forms a film, about 0.15 mm thick, on the
surface of the chamber.
̶ The combustion is initiated by the auto-ignition of small portion of fuel which is air-
borne at the very beginning. The amount of this airborne fuel is controlled by
selecting a proper distance between the nozzle tip and the combustion chamber wall.
Subsequently the fuel vapors rise from the hot wall and are mixed with the swirling
air in successive layers and combustion takes place in a near homogeneous air-fuel
mixture at the desired rate. The rate of energy release is thus almost equal to the rate
of evaporation of fuel.
̶ Thus, even though the engine works on diesel cycle, once the ignition takes place, the
combustion characteristics are similar to those of OTTO cycle combustion.

The advantages of ‘M-chamber

̶ Low rates of pressure rise, low peak pressure.
̶ Low smoke level.
̶ Ability to operate on a wide range of liquid fuels (multi-fuel capability).
̶ No combustion noise is reported even for 80-octane petrol.
The disadvantages of M-chamber are:
̶ Since fuel vaporization depends upon the surface temperature of the combustion
chamber, cold starting requires certain aids.
̶ Some white smoke, diesel odor, and high hydrocarbon emission may occur at
starting and idling conditions.
̶ Volumetric efficiency is low.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 164

 Combustion In CI Engine

8.3 THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES COMPARISON BETWEEN OPEN CHAMBER

AND DIVIDED CHAMBER.
Sr No. Aspects Open Combustion Chamber Divided combustion
(DIRECT INJECTION) chamber
(INDIRECT INJE.)
1. Fuel Used Can consume fuels of good
Ignition quality. i.e., of Can consume fuels of
shorter ignition delay or poor ignition quality i.e.
higher Cetane of longer ignition delay
or lower Cetane Number
Number
2. Type of It is able to use single
injection nozzles Requires multiple hole hole injection nozzles and
used injection nozzles for proper moderate injection
mixing of fuel and air and pressures It can also
also higher injection tolerate greater degree
pressures of nozzle fouling
3. Sensitivity to
fuel Sensitive Insensitive
4. Mixing of fuel Ability to use higher fuel
and air Mixing of fuel and air is not ratio without smoke due
coefficient and thus high fuel to proper mixing and
air ratios are not feasible consequent high air
without smoke utilization factor
5. Cylinder More expensive cylinder
construction Simple Construction
6. Starting Difficult to cold start
Easy cold starting because of greater heat
loss through throat
7. Thermal Thermal efficiency is
efficienc Open combustion chambers lower duet throttling in
throat areas leading to
y are thermally more efficient pressure losses and heat
losses.

8.6.7.4 COLD STARTING OF CI ENGINES

̶ Easy starting from cold is a very important requirement of a CI engine. To ensure
easy cold starting, frequently compression ratios higher than necessary are used. Even
so, cold starting may become difficult in extreme cold climate like Himalayan region,
̶ when the cylinder liner is heavily worn, and
̶ When the valves are leaky.
̶ It is, therefore, sometimes necessary to provide some electrical aid for cold starting.
Open chamber direct injection engines are easiest to cold start. The reasons for easy
starting of open chamber direct injection engines are as follows
̶ They have smallest surface to volume (S/V) ratio. Because of this the loss of heat is
minimum.

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 Combustion In CI Engine

̶ They have lowest intensity of air swirl. Low intensity of swirl allows stagnant gas
film to remain on cylinder walls, which reduces heat transfer.
Many methods have been used in the past to achieve easy cold starting. Few of them are
described below:
̶ Injection of a small quantity of lubricating oil or fuel oil. This ad hoc method
helps by temporarily raising the compression ratio and sealing the piston rings and
valves.
̶ Provision of cartridges. These may be self-igniting or requiring lighting before
insertion into the combustion chamber.
̶ Starting as petrol engines. The engine is provided with a sparking plug and
carburetor. At starting, compression ratio is reduced by providing an auxiliary
chamber and the engine is started as a petrol engine.
̶ Preheating the engine cylinder by warm water.
̶ Modifying valve timings for starting.
Modern starting aids of high speed engines. Basically three types of starting aids are used on
modern high speed diesel engines:
̶ Electric glow plugs in. the combustion chamber.
̶ Manifold heaters which ignite a small feed of fuel.
̶ The injection into the intake, of controlled amounts of low- ignition temperature
liquids, usually ethyl-ether with addition of other fuels.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 166

 9
ENGINE COOLING AND LUBRICATION

Course Contents
Significance
Reasons for Cooling
Effect of Over-cooling
Types of Cooling System
Air cooling system
Cooling fins in air cooled
system
Liquid cooling systems –
Types
Direct or non-return system
Thermo-syphon system
Pump-cooling or forced cooling
Forced circulation cooling
system
Evaporative cooling
system
Parts of cooling systems –
Radiator
Materials for radiator
Wax Thermostat
Cooling fan
Use of Anti-freezers

Requirements of anti-
freezers
Lubricating Oil as
Coolant

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Significance:

̶ In a spark ignition engine, cooling must be satisfactory to avoid pre-ignition and

knock. In a compression ignition engine, since a normal combustion is aided,
cooling must be sufficient to allow the parts to operate properly. In short, cooling is
a matter of equalization of internal temperature to prevent local overheating as well
as to remove sufficient heat energy to maintain a practical overall working
temperature.

Reasons for Cooling

̶ To promote a high volumetric efficiency.
̶ To ensure proper combustion, and
̶ To ensure mechanical operation & reliability.

Effect of Over-cooling
̶ The thermal efficiency is decreased due to more loss of heat carried by the coolant.
̶ The vaporization of the fuel is less resulting in lower combustion efficiency.
̶ Low temperature increases the viscosity of lubricant causing more loss due to
friction.

Types of Cooling System

̶ Air cooling (or direct cooling) system.
̶ Liquid cooling (or indirect cooling) system.
̶ Remark: Aviation engines, motor cycle engines and scooter engines are air-
cooled; while the stationery and automobile engines are liquid cooled.

Air cooling system

̶ Air cooled engines depend on airflow across their external surfaces of the engine
cylinders to remove the necessary heat. The amount of heat dissipated depends
upon:
̶ The area of cooling surface in contact with the air.
̶ Mass flow rate of air.
̶ Temperature difference between cylinder and air and
̶ Conductivity of metal.

Cooling fins in air cooled system

̶ The area of cooling surface is increased by forming thin fins, either integrally by
machining them on the outer walls of the engine cylinder and cylinder head or by
attaching separate fins to them.

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Fig. 9.1 fin air cooling system

Advantages
̶ The absence of radiator, cooling jackets, coolant and pumps make the engine lighter.
̶ The engine can be operated in cold climate where liquid may freeze.
̶ In places where water is scarce, air-cooled engine is an advantage.
̶ Handling of liquid coolant requires piping and pumping auxiliaries.
̶ Air cooled engines have no coolant leakage or freezing problems.

Disadvantages
̶ Relatively large amount of power issued to drive the cooling fan.
̶ Engines give low power output.
̶ Cooling fins under certain conditions may vibrate and amplify the noise level.
̶ Cooling is not uniform.
̶ Engines are subjected to high working temperature.

Liquid cooling systems – Types

1) Direct or non-return system
2) Thermo syphon system
3) Forced circulation cooling system
4) Evaporative cooling system

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Direct or non-return system

̶ The heat released from the combustion of air-fuel mixture is transferred in all
directions to the walls of the combustion chambers, cylinders and pistons by direct
radiation, by convection

Fig. 9.2 Direct cooling system

̶ Current of gas rubbing against a stationary gas film, and then by conduction through
this stagnant boundary layer of gas and an oil film to the metal wall.

Thermo-syphon system
̶ In this system, a fan rotated by the crankshaft draws cold air from outside through the
radiator. The radiator is connected to the engine block by means of two pipes. The hot
water passes through some thin pipes built in the radiator, where it gets cooled. Thus,
the fluid circulates through the system in the form of convective currents.

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Fig.9.3 Schematic diagram of Thermosyphon system

Forced circulation cooling system

̶ This system is used in a large number of vehicles like cars, buses, trucks and other
heavy vehicles. Here, circulation of water takes place with convection currents helped
by a pump.
̶ The water or coolant is circulated through jackets around the parts of the engine to be
cooled, and is kept in motion by a centrifugal pump, driven from the engine. A
thermostat is used to control the water temperature required for cooing.

Fig.9.4 Schematic diagram of a Forced circulation system

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Pump-cooling or forced cooling

̶ Pump is introduced between radiator and engine block.
̶ Rotated by crankshaft by means of a belt.
̶ Water is circulated with force => heat is removed quickly.

Limitation
̶ Cooling is independent of temp. =>Engine is overcooled (range of temp. =75-900C).
̶ Can be overcome by using thermostat.

Fig.9.5 Pump Cooling System

Evaporative cooling system

̶ In this system, the engine will be cooled because of the evaporation of the water in
the cylinder jackets into steams.
̶ The advantage is being taken from the high latent heat of vaporization of water by
allowing it to evaporate in the cylinder jackets. This system is used for cooling of
many types of industrial engines.

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Fig.9.6 Schematic diagram of an evaporative cooling system

Parts of cooling systems – Radiator

̶ Rejects the coolant heat to the surrounding air

̶ Disperses the heated coolant into fine streams so that small quantities of coolant are
brought in contact with large metal surface areas, which intern are cooled by air
stream
̶ Two types of radiators
1) Down-flow type
2) Cross-flow type
̶ Availability of space dictates the choice of radiator, both are equally efficient.
̶ Various designs of radiator cores are used for cooling the water.

Fig.9.7 Honeycomb block type core and Film type of radiator core

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Fig.9.8 Tube and fin type core and Tube and corrugated type core
Materials for radiator
̶ Good corrosion resistance.
̶ Good thermal conductivity.
̶ Must possess the required strength
̶ Must be easily formable.
̶ Yellow brasses, copper are used (soldered easily => easy repair).
̶ Aluminum is used where weight is critical.

Wax Thermostat
̶ Can operate reliably within the specified temperature range.
̶ Heat is transmitted to wax, which has high coefficient of thermal expansion.
̶ Upon being heated, wax expands and the rubber plug presses the plunger forcing it
to move vertically upwards.

Fig.9.9 Wax Thermostat

Cooling fan

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

̶ Maintain an adequate air flow across the radiator matrix.

̶ Serves the purpose when natural draft is not sufficient to cool e.g., at low speed but
heavy load, when vehicle ascends uphill etc.
̶ Driven by a belt run by crankshaft.

Fig. 9.10 cooling fan

Limitations
̶ Rising level of noise.
̶ Increasing power consumption with engine speed.
̶ Tendency to overcool.
Cooling Fan:
Advantages
̶ Because of even cooling of cylinder barrel and head (due to jacketing) makes it
possible to reduce the cylinder head and valve seat temperatures.
̶ The volumetric efficiency of water cooled engines is higher than that of air- cooled
engines.
̶ Compact design of engines with appreciably smaller frontal area is possible.
̶ In case of water cooled engines, installation is not necessarily at the front of the
mobile vehicles, aircraft etc. as the cooling system can be conveniently located.

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Disadvantages
̶ The system requires more maintenance.
̶ The engine performance becomes sensitive to climatic conditions.
̶ The power absorbed by the pump is considerable and affects the power output of the
engine.
̶ In the event of failure of the cooling system serious damage may be caused to the
engine.
Use of Anti-freezers
̶ During winter or when the engine is kept out of operation in cold places, the cooling
water in the cylinder jackets, radiator tanks and leading pipes will freeze, expand
and lead to their fracture.
̶ To prevent damage to the engine and radiator during winter weather, suitable
liquids or compound substances which go into solution are added to the water to
lower the freezing temperature of the coolant.
̶ Ethylene glycol is the most widely used automotive cooling-system antifreeze,
although methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and propylene glycol are also used.

Requirements of anti- freezers

̶ They should thoroughly mix with water.
̶ They should not corrode the surfaces with which they are in contact.
̶ Their boiling point should be high so that the loss due to evaporation is minimum.
̶ They should not deposit any foreign matter in the jackets, hose, pipes or radiator.
̶ It should be chemically stable, a good conductor of heat, and a poor conductor of
electricity.

TABLE 9.1 PROPERTIES OF ANTIFREEZE SOLUTIONS

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 Engine Cooling And Lubrication

Lubricating Oil as Coolant

̶ The lubricating oil used in an engine also helps to cool the engine. The hotter parts
like piston face and back surface of piston crown is subjected to oil flow, usually
done by spraying the oil by pressurized systems or by splash in non-pressurized
system. Other components like camshaft and connecting rods are also cooled by oil
circulation through oil passages.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 177

 10
TESTING OF IC ENGINE

Course Contents
Introduction
Important performance parameters of
i.c.engines
Measurement of performance
parameters in a laboratory
Measurement of indicated power
Measurement of b.p
Hydraulic dynamometer
Measurement of i.p of multi-cylinder
Engine (morse test)
Measurement of air-consumption
Measurement of fuel consumption
Measurement of heat carried away by
Cooling water
Measurement of heat carried away by
Exhaust gases
Heat balance sheet
Indicated specific fuel consumption:
Brake specific fuel consumption:
Mechanical efficiency
Volumetric efficiency

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 178

 TESTING OF IC ENGINE

Introduction

̶ The basic task in the design and development of I.C.Engines is to reduce the cost of
production and improve the efficiency and power output. In order to achieve the
above task, the engineer has to compare the engine developed by him with other
engines in terms of its output and efficiency.
̶ Hence he has to test the engine and make measurements of relevant parameters that
reflect the performance of the engine. In general the nature and number of tests to be
carried out depend on a large number of factors. In this chapter only certain basic as
well as important measurements and tests are described.

Important Performance Parameters of I.C.Engines

The important performance parameters of I.C. engines are as follows:

a. Friction Power
b. Indicated Power
c. Brake Power
d. Specific Fuel Consumption
e. Air – Fuel ratio
f. Thermal Efficiency
g. Mechanical Efficiency
h. Volumetric Efficiency
i. Exhaust gas emissions
j. Noise

Measurement of Performance Parameters in a Laboratory

Measurement of Friction Power

̶ Friction power includes the frictional lossesand the pumping losses. During suction and
exhaust strokes the piston must move against a gaseous pressure and power required to do
this is called the “pumping losses”.
̶ The friction loss is made up of the energy loss due to friction between the piston and cylinder
walls, piston rings and cylinder walls, and between the crank shaft and camshaft and their
bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as water
pump, ignition unit etc.

 Following methods are used in the laboratory to measure friction power:

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 TESTING OF IC ENGINE

a. Willan’s line method;

b. From the measurement of indicated power and brake power;
c. Motoring test;
d. Retardation test;
e. Morse Test.

Willan’s Line Method

̶ This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. In this method a graph
of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power (horizontal axis) is drawn and
it is extrapolated on the negative axis of brake power (see Fig. 1).The intercept of the
negative axis is taken as the friction power of the engine at that speed.

Fig.10.1 Willan’s line method

̶ As shown in the figure, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel
consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and
this permits extrapolation. Further when the engine does not develop power,
i.e. brake power = 0, it consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel
would have been spent in overcoming the friction.
̶ Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal axis will be the work
representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and as a whole is termed
as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of measuring friction power will
hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable mainly for compression
ignition engines.
̶ The main drawback of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data
between 5 and 40 % load towards the zero line of the fuel input. The directional
margin of error is rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear.

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 TESTING OF IC ENGINE

From the Measurement of Indicated Power and Brake Power

̶ This is an ideal method by which friction power is obtained by computing the

difference between the indicated power and brake power. The indicated power is
obtained from an indicator diagram and brake power is obtained by a brake
dynamometer. This method requires elaborate equipment to obtain accurate indicator
diagrams at high speeds.

Morse Test

̶ This method can be used only for multi – cylinder IC engines. The Morse test
consists of obtaining indicated power of the engine without any elaborate equipment.
The test consists of making, in turn, each cylinder of the engine inoperative and
noting the reduction in brake power developed.
̶ In a petrol engine (gasoline engine), each cylinder is rendered inoperative by
“shorting” the spark plug of the cylinder to be made inoperative.
̶ In a Diesel engine, a particular cylinder is made inoperative by cutting off the supply
of fuel. It is assumed that pumping and friction are the same when the cylinder is
inoperative as well as during firing.
̶ In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the brake power is
measured. Next, one cylinder is cut off by short circuiting the spark plug if it is a
petrol engine or by cutting of the fuel supply if it is a diesel engine. Since one of the
cylinders is cut off from producing power, the speed of the engine will change. The
engine speed is brought to its original value by reducing the load on the engine. This
will ensure that the frictional power is the same.

o If there are k cylinders

o Then Total indicated power
o When all the cylinde rs are working = ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + ............ + ipk=∑

o We can write ∑ = Bt + t (1)

F
̶ Where ip is the indicated power produced by j the cylinder, k is the number of
cylinders, BT is the total brake power when all the cylinders are producing power
and Ft is the total frictional power for the entire engine.

̶ If the first cylinder is cut – off, then it will not produce any power, but it will have
frictional losses.

o Then we can write ∑ = B1 Ft (2)

–

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 TESTING OF IC ENGINE

o Where,

B1 = total brake power when cylinder 1 is cut - off and

Ft = Total frictional power.

o Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) we have the indicated power of the cut off cylinder.

Thus ip1 = Bt – B1 (3)

o Similarly we can find the indicated power of all the cylinders, viz., ip2, ip3, …….., ipk.
Then the total indicated po we r is calculate d as

(Ip) total = ∑ (4)

o The frictional power of the engine is therefore given by

Ft = (ip) total – Bt (5)

The procedure is illustrated by some examples worked out at the end of the chapter.

MEASUREMENT OF INDICATED POWER

̶ The power developed in the cylinder is known as Indicated Horse Power and is
designated as IP.
̶ The IP of an engine at a particular running condition is obtained from the indicator
diagram. The indicator diagram is the p-v diagram for one cycle at that load drawn
with the help of indicator fitted on the engine. The construction and use of
mechanical indicator for obtaining p-v diagram is already explained.
̶ A typical p-v diagram taken by a mechanical indicator is shown in Figure 2.
̶ The areas, the positive loop and negative loop, are measured with the help of a
planimeter and let these be Ap and An cm2 respectively, the net positive area is (Ap –
An). Let the actual length of the diagram as measured be L cm, then the average
height of the net positive area is given by
h =(Ap-An)/L in centimeter

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 TESTING OF IC ENGINE

Fig.10.2 p-v diagram taken by mechanical indicator

̶ The height multiplied by spring-strength (or spring number) gives the indicated mean
effective pressure of the cycle.

Imep= (Ap-An)*S/L (6)

̶ Where S is spring scale and it is defined as a force per unit area required to compress the
spring through a height of one centimeter (N/m2/cm).
̶ Generally the area of negative loop Anis negligible compared with the positive loop and
it cannot be easily measured especially when it is taken with the spring used for taking
positive loop. Special light springs are used to obtain the negative loop. When two
different springs are used for taking the p-v diagram of positive and negative loop, then
the net indicated mean effective pressure is given by

Pm=Ap*Sp/L-An*Sn/L (7)

Where,
Sp = spring strength used for taking p-v diagram of positive loop, (N/m2 per cm)
Sn = spring strength used for taking p-v diagram of negative loop, (N/m2 per cm)
Ap= Area in Cm2 of positive loop taken with spring of strength Sp
An = Area in Cm2 of positive loop taken with spring of strength Sn

̶ Sometimes spring strength is also noted as spring constant. The IP developed by the
engine is given by

IP=PmLAn/L (8)

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 TESTING OF IC ENGINE

Where ‘n’ is the number of working strokes per second.

The explanation of this expression is already given in the last chapter.

MEASUREMENT OF B.P

̶ Part of the power developed in the engine cylinder is used to overcome the internal
friction. The net power available at the shaft is known as brake power and it is denoted
by B.P. The arrangement used for measuring the BP of the engine is described below:

(a) Prony Brake:

̶ The arrangement of the braking system is shown in Figure 3. It consists of brake shoes
made of wood and these are clamped on to the rim of the brake wheel by means of the
bolts. The pressure on the rim is adjusted with the help of nut and springs as shown in
Fig 2.
̶ A load bar extends from top of the brake and a load carrier is attached to the end of the
load bar. Weight kept on this load carrier is balanced by the torque reaction in the
shoes. The load arm is kept horizontal to keep the arm length constant.

Fig.10.3 prony brake dynamometer

̶ The energy supplied by engine to the brake is eventually dissipated as heat. Therefore,
most of the brakes are provided with a means of supply of cooling water to the inside
rim of the brake drum.
̶ The BP of the engine is given by

B.P (brake power) = watts = K (9)

w

Where,
T = (W.L) (N-m)

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 TESTING OF IC ENGINE

W = Weight on load carrier, (N)

L = Distance from the center of shaft to the point of load-meter in meters.

̶ The prony brake is inexpensive, simple in operation and easy to construct. It is,
therefore, used extensively for testing of low speed engines. At high speeds, grabbing
and chattering of the band occur and lead to difficulty in maintaining constant load. The
main disadvantage of the prony brake is its constant torque at any one band pressure and
therefore its inability to compensate for varying conditions.

Hydraulic Dynamometer.

̶ The BP of an engine coupled to the dyn amo meter is given by

B.P (brake power) = = WN ( )

,
Kw
̶ The working of a prony brake dynamometer is shown in figure .

Fig.10.4 Hydraulic dynamometer

̶ In the hydraulic dynamometer, as the arm length (R) is fixed, the factor [2 R/(60x1000)]
is constant and its value is generally given on the name plate of the dynamometer by the
manufacturer and is known as ake or dynamometer
br constant. Then the BP measured byte
dynamometer is given b
B.P = y (10)

Where,
W = Weight measured on the dynamometer, N
K = Dynamometer constant (60*1000/2*pi*R)
N = RPM of the engine.

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̶ The arm length ‘R’ is selected in such a way that K is a whole number. These
dynamometers are directly coupled with the engine shaft.

Electric Dynamometer:

̶ The electric generator can also be used for measured BP of the engine. The output of the
generator must be measured by electrical instruments and corrected for generator
efficiency. Since the efficiency of the generator depends upon load, speed and
temperature, this device is rather inconvenient to use in the laboratory for obtaining
precise measurement.
̶ To overcome these difficulties, the generator stator may be supported in ball bearing
trunnions and the reaction force exerted on the stator of the generator may be measured
by a suitable balance. The tendency to rotate or the reaction of the stator will be equal
and opposite of the torque exerted on the armature, which is driven by the engine which
is shown in Figure.

Fig.10.5 Electrical dynamometer

̶ The electric dynamometer can also use as a motor to start and drive, the engine at
various speeds. There are other types of dynamometers like eddy current dynamometer,
fan brake and transmission dynamometers used for measurement of large power output.

Eddy current Type Dynamometer

̶ The ‘eddy-current’ dynamometer is an effect, a magnetic brake in which a toothed steel
rotor turns between the poles of an electromagnet attached to a trunioned stator. The
resistance to rotation is controlled by varying the current through the coils and hence, the
strength of the magnetic field. The flux tends to follow the smaller air gaps at the ends of
the rotor teeth and eddy currents are set up within the metal of the pole pieces, resulting
in heating the stator. The heat energy is removed by circulating water

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through a water jacket formed in the stator. Figure shows the “Heenan eddy-current
dynamometer”.

Fig.10.6 Eddy Current dynamometer

̶ The power output of eddy-current dynamometer is given by the equation where C is

eddy-current dynamometer constant.

̶ The advantages of eddy-current dynamometer are listed below:

1. High absorbing power per unit weight of dynamometer.

2. Level of field excitation is below 1% of the total power handled by the
dynamometer.
3. The torque development is smooth as eddy current developed smooth.
4. Relatively higher torque is provided under low speed conditions.
5. There is no limit to the size of dynamometer.

Swinging Field Dynamometer

̶ The arrangement of swinging field dynamometer and corresponding diagram of electric
connections are shown in Figure.
̶ A swinging field DC dynamometer is basically a DC shunt motor. It is supported on
trunnion bearings to measure the reaction torque that the outer casing and field coils tend
to rotate with the magnetic drag. Therefore, it is named as “Swinging field”. The Torque
is measured with an arm and weighting equipment in the usual manner.
̶ The choice of dynamometer depends on the use for which the machine is purchased. An
electric dynamometer is preferred as it can operate as motor used for pumping or

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generator for testing the engine. Also, engine friction power can also be measured by
operating the dynamometer in the motoring mode.

Fig.10.7 Swinging Field dynamometer

̶ An eddy-current or hydraulic dynamometer may be used because of low initial coast and
an ability to operate at high speeds. The armature of the electric dynamometer is large
and heavy compared with eddy-current dynamometer and requires strong coupling
between dynamometer and engine.

MEASUREMENT OF I.P OF MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINE (MORSE TEST)

̶ This method is used in multi-cylinder engines to measure I.P without the use of
indicator. The BP of the engine is measured by cutting off each cylinder in turn. If
the engine consists of 4-cylinders, then the BP of the engine should be measured four
times cutting each cylinder turn by turn. This is applicable to petrol as well as for
diesel engines. The cylinder of a petrol engine is made inoperative by “shorting” the
spark plug whereas in case of diesel engine, fuel supply is cut-off to the required
cylinder.

̶ If there are ‘n’ cylinders in an engine and all are working, then

(B.P)n= (I.P)n – (F.P)n (11)

̶ Where F.P is the frictional power per cylinder.

̶ If one cylinder is inoperative then the power developed by that cylinder (IP) is lost and
the speed of the engine will fall as the load on the engine remains the same. The engine
speed can be resorted to its original value by reducing the load on the engine

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by keeping throttle position same. This is necessary to maintain the FP constant,

because it is assumed that the FP is independent of load and depends only on speed of
the engine.

̶ When cylinder “1” is cut off; then

(B.P)n – 1 = (I.P)n – 1 –(F.P)n (12)

̶ By subtracting Eq. (23.7) from Eq.(23.6), we obtain the IP of the cylinder which is not
firing i.e., (B.P)n – (B.P)n-1 = (IP)n – (IP)n-1 = I.P1
̶ Similarly IP of all other cylinders can be measured one by one then the sum of IPs of all
cylinders will be the total IP of the engine.
̶ This method of obtaining IP of the multi-cylinder engine is known as ‘Morse Test’.

MEASUREMENT OF AIR-CONSUMPTION

̶ The method is commonly used in the laboratory for measuring the consumption of air is
known as ‘Orifice Chamber Method’. The arrangement of the system is shown in Figure
8.
̶ It consists of an air-tight chamber fitted with a sharp-edged orifice of known coefficient
of discharge. The orifice is located away from the suction connection to the engine.
̶ Due to the suction of engine, there is pressure depression in the chamber which causes
the flow through orifice for obtaining a steady flow, the volume of chamber should be
sufficiently large compared with the swept volume of the cylinder; generally 500 to 600
times the swept volume. A rubber diaphragm is provided to further reduce the pressure
pulsations.
̶ It is assumed that the intermittent suction of the engine will not affect the air pressure in
the air box as the volume of the box is sufficiently large, and pressure in the box
remains constant.
̶ The pressure different causing the flow through the orifice is measured with the help of
a water monometer. The pressure difference should be limited to 10cm of water to
make the compressibility effect negligible. Let

Ao= Area orifice in m2.;hw= Head of water in cm causing the flow.

Cd = Coefficient of discharge for orifice. ; d = Diameter of orifice in
cm. ra= Density of air in kg/m3 under atmospheric conditions.
̶ Head in terms of meters of air is given by

m of air.

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̶ The velocity of air passing throu gh the o rifice is n

give by
= 2 = 10ℎ /
2

̶ The volume of passing th rough th e orifice is given by

air
2 = 14.01. . c .m /sec
= u
̶ The volumetric efficiency of the engine = volu e of air taken in as measure
Actual m

14.01 ℎ
= ,
4 . 60
̶ Displacement volume
̶ Where N is RPM of the engine and n is number of cylinders. D &L are diameter
and stroke of each cylinder.

Mass of air pa ssing through t he orifice is b

given y

= . = 14.01 × . ℎ . = 11.003 × 10 . ℎ
4 × 100
̶ Where dis in cm; hwis in cm of water a nd Pa is in kg/m3
̶ The density of atmospheric air is gi en b
v y
× 10
=
87 ×
̶ Where Pa is the atmospheric pressure in2bar a nd is the atmospheric temperature in
K. Ta
̶ Substitu ting t he value of a r in q. (13)
E
× ×
= 0.066 ∙ ℎ = 1.23 ∙ ∙ K /min
×
∙ g
̶ Where dis in cm, hwis in cm of water, Pa is in bar and Ta is in K.
̶ The measurement of air consumption by the orifice chamber method is used for:
(a) The determination of the actual A : F ratio of the engine at running condition.
(b) The weight of exhaust gases produced, and
(c) The volumetric efficiency of the engine at the running condition.
̶ The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel used can also be calculated by using the
following formula if the volumetric analysis of the exhaust gases is known.

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 TESTING OF IC E NGINE Internal Combustion Engine

×
=
( )

Where N = Percentage of nitrogen by volume in exhaust gases.

C1 = Percentage of carbon dioxide by volume in exhaust gases.
C2 = Percentage of carbon mon oxide by volu e in exha ust gases.
C = Percentage of carbon in fu el byei m
If C2 = 0 then; w ght.

× )
= 3
3(

MEASUREMENT OF FUEL CONSUMPTION

̶ Two glass vessels of 100cc and 200cc capacity are connected in between the engine and
main fuel tank through two, three-way cocks. When one is supplying the fuel to the
engine, the other is being filled. The time for the consumption of 100 or 200cc fuel is
measured with the help of stop watch.
̶ A small glass tube is attached to the main fuel tank as shown in figure. When fuel rate is
tube measured, the valve is closed so that fuel is consumed from the burette. The time
for known value of fuel consumption can be measured and fuel consumption rate can be
calculated.
̶ Fuel consumption

.
= ×
ℎ 1000 ×

MEASUREMENT OF HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY COOLING WATER

̶ The heat carried away by cooling water is generally measured by measuring the water
flow rate through the cooling jacket and the rise in temperatures of the water during the
flow through the engine.
̶ The inlet and out let temperatures of the water are measured by the thermometers
inserting in the pockets provided at inlet to and outlet from the engine. The quantity of
water flowing is measured by collecting the water in a bucket for a specified period or
directly with the help of flow meter in case of large engine. The heat carried away by
cooling water is given by

Where, Qw= Cpmw(Two – Twi) kJ/min.

Mw = mass of water/min.
Twi= Inlet temperature of water, C
Two = Out let temperature of water, C
Cp= Specific heat of water

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MEASUREMENT OF HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY EXHAUST GASES

The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel used can be calculated by using the equation if the
exhaust analysis is made

×
=
33( + )
And heat carried away by the exhaust gas per k g of fuel supplied can be calculated as
Qg = (ma +1) Cpg (Tge – Ta) kJ/kg of
fuel Where,
(ma + 1) = mass of exhaust gases formed per kg of fuel supplied to engine
Cpg = Specific heat of exhaust gases
Tge = Temperature of exhaust gases coming out from the engine C.
Ta = Ambient temperature C or engine room temperature.
̶ The temperature of the exhaust gases is measured with the help of suitable thermometer
or thermocouple.
̶ Another method used for measuring the heat carried away by exhaust gases is to
measure the fuel supplied per minute and also to measure the air supplied per minute
with the help of air box method. The addition of fuel and air mass will be equal to the
mass of exhaust gases.
̶ And exhaust gas calorimeter is commonly used in the laboratory for the measurement
of heat carried by exhaust gases.

9.10.1 Exhaust Gas Calorimeter

̶ The exhaust gas calorimeter is a simple heat exchanger in which, part of the heat of
the exhaust gases is transferred to the circulating water. This calorimeter helps to
determine the mass of exhaust gases coming out of the engine. The exhaust gases from
the engine exhaust are passed through the exhaust gas calorimeter by closing the valve
B and opening the valve A. The hot gases are cooled by the water flow rate is adjusted
with the help of valve of ‘C’ to give a measurable temperature rise to water circulated.
̶ If it is assumed that the calorimeter is well insulated, there is no heat loss except by
heat transfer from the exhaust gases to the circulating water, then Heat lost by exhaust
gases = Heat gained by circulating water.

Therefore, mg ,Cpg (Tgi– Tgo) = mw. Cpw(Two – Twi)

Where, Tgi= The temperature of the exhaust gases entering the calorimeter, C
Tgo= The temperature of the exhaust gases leaving the calorimeter, C
Twi= The temperature of water entering the calorimeter, C
Two = The temperature of water leaving the calorimeter, C
mw= Mass of water circulated through the exhaust gas calorimeter, generally measured.
mg= Mass of exhaust gases (unknown)

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Cpg = specific heat of exhaust gases.

Cpw= Specific heat of water.

̶ The arrangement of the exhaust gas calorimeter is shown in fig.

Fig.10.8 Exhaust Gas Calorimeter

(17)

̶ As all the quantities on the RHS are known the gas flow rate can be determined.
̶ Then the heat carried away by the exhaust gases is given by

Qg = mg Cpg. (Tge – Ta)

Where, Tge = Temperature of exhaust gases just leaving the engine exhaust
valve, C
Ta = Ambient temperature, C

̶ Usually valve connections are provided as shown in figure so that the exhaust gases are
exhausted to the atmosphere during normal operation by closing the valve A and
opening the valve B. Only when the apparatus is to be used, the valve A is opened and
valve B is closed so that the gases pass through the calorimeter.
̶ The heat carried by the gases is also given by

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̶ Qg = Heat carried by water passing through exhaust gas calorimeter + Heat in exhaust
gases above atmospheric temperature after leaving the exhaust gas calorimeter.
= mw Cpw(Two – Twi) + mg Cpg (Tgo– Ta)

̶ If sufficient water is circulated to reduce the value of Tgo to very near to Ta, then the
second term on the RHs is small and,
Qg = mw Cpw(Two – Twi)

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

̶ A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilized in various ways in
the system. Necessary information concerning the performance of the engine is
obtained from the heat balance.
̶ The heat balance is generally done on second basis or minute basis or hour basis.
̶ The heat supplied to the engine is only in the form of fuel-heat and that is given by
Qs = mf X CV
̶ Where mf is the mass of fuel supplied per minute or per sec. and CV is the lower
calorific value of the fuel.
̶ The various ways in which heat is used up in the system is given by
(a) Heat equivalent of BP = kW = kJ/sec. = 0 kJ/min.
(b) Heat carried away by cooling water

= CpwX mw (Two – Twi) kJ/min.

̶ Where mw is the mass of cooling water in kg/min or kg/sec circulated through the
cooling jacket and (Two – Twi) is the rise in temperature of the water passing through the
cooling jacket of the engine and Cpwis the specific heat of water in kJ/kg-K.

(c) Heat carried away by exhaust gases

= mg Cpg (Tge – Ta) (kJ/min.) or (kJ/sec)

̶ Where mg is the mass of exhaust gases in kg/min. or kg/sec and it is calculated by using
one of the methods already explained.
Tg= Temperature of burnt gases coming out of the engine.
Ta = Ambient Temperature.
Cpg = Sp. Heat of exhaust gases in (kJ/kg-K)

(d) A part of heat is lost by convection and radiation as well as due to the leakage of gases.
Part of the power developed inside the engine is also used to run the accessories as
lubricating pump, cam shaft and water circulating pump. These cannot be measured
precisely and so this is known as unaccounted ‘losses’. This unaccounted heat energy is
calculated by the different between heat supplied Qs and the sum of (a) + (b) (c).

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 194

 ̶ The results of the above calculations are tabulated in a table and this table is known as
“Heat Balance Sheet”. It is generally practice to represent the heat distribution as
percentage of heat supplied. This is also tabulated in the same heat balance sheet.

̶ A sample tabulation which is known as a heat balance sheet for particular load
condition is shown below:

NOTE: The heat in frictional FP (IP – BP) should not be included separately in heat balance
sheet because the heat of FP (frictional heat) will be dissipated in the cooling water, exhaust
gases and radiation and convection. Since each of these heat quantities are separately
measured and heat in FP is a hidden part of these quantities; the separate inclusion would
mean that it has been included twice.

The arrangement either for measuring the air or measuring the mass of exhaust gas is
sufficient to find the heat carried away by exhaust gases. In some cases, both arrangements
are used for cross-checking. Heat carried away by exhaust gases is calculated with the help of
volumetric analysis of the exhaust gases provided the fraction of carbon in the fuel used is
known.

Indicated Specific Fuel Consum ption:

This is defined as the mass of fuel consu mption per hou r in ord er to produce an
indicated power of one kilo watt.
̇
Thus, indicated specific fuel consumption= = kg/kWh

Brake Specific fuel consumption: -

This defined as the mass of fuel consumed per hour, in order to deve lop a brake power
̇
of one kilowatt. Thus, brake specific fuel consumption= = kg/k h
W
Thermal Efficiency:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering,MRCET 195

There are two definitions of thermal efficiency as applied to IC engines. One is based on
indicated power and the other on brake power. The one based on indicated power is called as
‘indicated thermal efficiency”, and the one based on brake power is known as “brake thermal
efficiency”.

Indicated thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of indicated power to the energy
avai able due to combustion of the f uel.
l

Thu
s
=(
/ ) ( / )

Or =
×

Similarly brake thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of ake power to energy available
due to combustion of the fuel. br
Or =
×
Mechanical Efficiency:

Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical losses in an engine. The mechanical
losses include (i) frictional losses, (ii) power absorbed by engine auxiliaries like fuel pump,
lubricating oil pump, water circulating pump, magneto and distributor, electric generator for
battery charging, radiator fan etc., and (iii) work require dot charge the cylinder with fresh
charge and work for discharging the exhaust gase s d uring theexhaust stroke. It is defined as the
ratio of brake power to indicated power. Thus
=

Volumetric efficiency:

Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn into the cylinder during a
given period of time to the theoretical mas ich s uld ho
s wh have been drawn in during the same
interval of time based on the tota l piston d i placement, and the pre ssure and
temperature of the surrounding atmosphere . s
=

Where n is the number of intake strokes per minute and Vs is the stroke volume of the piston

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