HIGHER LEVEL

SAMPLE
New for 2019

Mathematics
Applications and Interpretation
for the IB Diploma
TIM GARRY
IBRAHIM WAZIR
JIM NAKAMOTO
KEVIN FREDERICK
STEPHEN LUMB
 Contents
1 1 Number and algebra basics

2 Functions

3 Sequences and series

4 Geometry and trigonometry 1

5 Geometry and trigonometry 2

6 Complex numbers

7 Matrices

8 Vectors

9 Modelling real-life phenomena

10 Descriptive statistics

11 Probability of events

12 Graph theory

13 Intro to differential calculus

14 Further differential calculas

15 Probabilty distributions

16 Integral calculus

17 Inferential statistics

18 Statistical analysis

19 Bivariate analysis HL

20 Further integral calculus

21 The mathematical exploration - Internal assessment

22 Theory of knowledge
Matrix algebra
7
 7 Matrix algebra

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be familiar with...
• a matrix, its order, and elements; identity and zero matrices
• the algebra of matrices: equality, addition, subtraction, and multiplication
by a scalar
• multiplying matrices manually and using technology
• calculating the determinant of a 2 3 2 and a 3 3 3 square matrix
• the inverse of a 2 3 2 matrix and using technology to find the inverse of
n 3 n matrices
• the conditions for the existence of the inverse of a matrix
• the solution of systems of linear equations using inverse matrices
(a maximum of three equations in three unknowns)
• eigenvectors and eigenvalues and how to find them for 2 3 2 matrices
• characteristic polynomials for 2 3 2 matrices
• diagonalizing 2 3 2 matrices and applying to powers of such matrices
• geometric transformations of points in two dimensions using matrices:
reflections, horizontal and vertical dilations, translations, and rotations
• applications of transformations to fractals.

Matrices have been, and remain, significant mathematical tools. Uses of

matrices span several areas, from simply solving systems of simultaneous linear
equations to describing atomic structure, designing computer game graphics,
analysing relationships, coding, and operations research. If you have ever used
a spreadsheet program, or have ever created a table, then you have used a
matrix. Matrices make the presentation of data understandable and help make
calculations easy to perform. For example, your teacher’s grade book may look
something like this.
Student Quiz 1 Quiz 2 Test 1 Test 2 Homework Grade
Tim 70 80 86 82 95 A
Maher 89 56 80 60 55 C
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

If we want to know Tim’s grade on Test 2, we simply follow along the row ‘Tim’
to the column ‘Test 2’ and find that he achieved a mark of 82. Take a look at the
matrix below about the number of cameras sold at shops in four cities.
Venice Rome Budapest Prague
Digital compact 153  98  74  56
Digital standard 211 120  57  29
DSLR  82  31  12   5
Other 308 242 183 107

If we want to know how many digital standard cameras were sold in the
Budapest shop, we follow along the row ‘Digital standard’ to the column
‘Budapest’ and find that 57 digital standard cameras were sold.
2
 7.1 Matrix definitions and operations

What is a matrix?
A matrix is a rectangular array of elements. The elements can be symbolic
expressions or numbers.
Matrix A is denoted by

⎜ ⎟
⎛ ​a​ 11​​ ​a​ 12​​ … ​a​ 1n​​ ⎞←⎫
​a​ 21​​ ​a​ 22​​ … ​a​ 2n​​ ←⎪
​A 5 ​ ​    
     ​  ​  ​  ​  ​  ​  ​ ​ ​​​  ​  ⎬ 
​ ​  ​m
  rows
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮⎪
⎝​a​ m1​​ ​a​ m2​​ … ​am ​  n​​⎠←⎭
​​↑​     

  ↑​    ↑​ 
   … ​   ​  ​
 
n columns
Row i of A has n elements and is (​​​a​ i1​​​  ​a​ i2​​​  …​  ​a​ in​​​)​​

⎜⎟
⎛ ​a​ 1j​​ ⎞
​a​ 2j​​
Column j of A has m elements and is ​​ ​    ​​ ​  ​​ 
⋮
⎝​a​ mj⎠​​

The number of rows and columns of the matrix defines its size (order). So, a
matrix that has m rows and n columns is said to have an m 3 n (m by n) order.
A matrix A with m 3 n order is sometimes denoted as [A]m 3 n or [A]mn to
show that A is a matrix with m rows and n columns. (Sometimes [aij] is used to
represent a matrix.) The camera sales matrix has a 4 3 4 order. When m 5 n,
the matrix is said to be a square matrix with order n, so the camera sales matrix
is a square matrix of order 4.
Every entry in a matrix is called an entry or element of the matrix and is
denoted by aij, where i is the row number and j is the column number of that
element. The ordered pair (i, j) is also called the address of the element. So, in
the grade book matrix example, the entry (2, 4) is 60, the student Maher’s grade
on Test 2, while (2, 4) in the camera sales matrix example is 29, the number of
digital standard cameras sold in the Prague shop.

3
 7 Matrix algebra

Vectors
A vector is a matrix that has only one row or one column. There are two types
of vector: row vectors and column vectors.
Row vector
If a matrix has one row, it is called a row vector.
B 5 (b1  b2 … bm) is a row vector with dimension m.
B 5 (1  2) c ould represent the position of a point in a plane and is an example
of a row vector of dimension 2.
Column vector
If a matrix has one column, it is called a column vector.

⎜⎟
⎛​c​ 1​​⎞
​c​ 2​​
​C 5 ​ ​   ​  ​ ​​ is a column vector with dimension n.
⋮
⎝​cn​  ⎠​​

(2)
1
​C 5 ​ ​ ​​  ​​again could represent the position of a point in a plane and is an
example of a column vector of dimension 2.
Vectors can be represented by row or column matrices.

Submatrix
If some row(s) and/or column(s) of a matrix A are deleted, the remaining
matrix is called a submatrix of A.
For example, if we are interested in the sales of only the three main types of
camera and only in Italian cities, we can represent them with the following

⎜ ⎟
submatrix of the original matrix
⎛153 98 74 56 ⎞
⎛153 98 ⎞
⎜ ​  ​  ​ 
​​ 211 120 ⎟  
211 120 57 29
​ ​​    ​​
 ​​  ​   
  
   ​  ​  ​  ​  ​  ​  ​​​ ​​ 
⎝ 82 31 ⎠
82 31 12 5
⎝ 308 242 183 107⎠
Submatrix
Original matrix

Zero matrix
A matrix for which all entries are equal to zero, (aij 5 0 for all i and j)

0)​​ ​(​ ​  ) ( ) (0)
0 0 0 0 0 0
Some zero matrix examples: (​​​0​   ​ ​ ​ ​ ​  ​   ​ ​​​ ​ ​ ​  ​ ​​
0 0 0 0 0

Diagonal
In a square matrix, the entries a11, a22, …, ann are called the diagonal elements
of the matrix. Sometimes the diagonal of the matrix is also called the principal
or main diagonal of the matrix.

4
 ⎜ ⎟
What is the diagonal in our camera sales matrix? Here a11 5 153, a22 5 120, ⎛153 0 0 0 ⎞
a33 5 12, and a44 5 107 0 120 0 0
0 0 12 0
Triangular matrix
⎝ 0 0 0 107⎠
You can use a matrix to show distances between different cities.
Graz Salzburg Innsbruck Linz
Vienna 191 298 478 185
Graz 282 461 220
Salzburg 188 135
Innsbruck 320

⎜ ⎟
Table 7.1 Distance (in km) between four Austrian cities.

The data in Table 7.1 can be represented by a triangular matrix. It is an upper ⎛191 298 478 185⎞
triangular matrix, in this case. 0 282 461 220
In a triangular matrix, the entries on one side of its diagonal are all zero. 0 0 188 135
⎝ 0 0 0 320⎠
A triangular matrix is a square matrix with order n for which aij 5 0 when i . j
(upper triangular) or alternatively when i , j (lower triangular).

Another way of representing the distance data is given by the following matrix.
Vienna Graz Salzburg Innsbruck Linz

⎜ ⎟
Vienna 0 191 298 478 185
Graz 191 0 282 461 220
Salzburg 298 282 0 188 135 ⎛ 0 191 298 478 185⎞
Innsbruck 478 461 188 0 320 191 0 282 461 220
Linz 185 220 135 320 0 298 282 0 188 135
Again, the data in the table can be represented by a matrix called a symmetric matrix. 478 461 188 0 320
In such matrices, aij5 aji for all i and j. All symmetric matrices are square. ⎝185 220 135 320 0 ⎠

Matrix operations
Equal matrices
Two matrices A and B are equal if the size of A and B is the same (number of
rows and columns are the same for A and B) and aij 5 bij for all i and j.

(5 7) (x 2 2 4 7)
2 3 2 x
For example, and are equal only if x 5 3 and x 2 2 4 5 5

which can only be true if x 5 3

Adding and subtracting matrices

We can add two matrices A and B only if they are the same size. If C is the
sum of the two matrices, then C 5 A 1 B where cij 5 aij 1 bij, so we add
corresponding terms, one by one.
For example

(5 7) (a b) (5 1 a 7 1 b)
2 3 x y 21x 31y
1 5

5
 7 Matrix algebra

We carry out subtraction in a similar way

(5 7 0) (a b 2) (5 2 a 7 2 b 2 2)
2 3 1 x y 8 22x 32y 27
2 5

The operations of addition and subtraction of matrices obey all rules of

algebraic addition and subtraction.

Multiplying a matrix by a scalar

A scalar is any object that is not a matrix. You multiply each term of the matrix
by the scalar.

It is often convenient
A is an m 3 n matrix, and c is a scalar. The scalar product of c and A is another
to rewrite the scalar matrix B 5 cA, such that every entry bij of B is a multiple of its corresponding
multiple cA by factoring entry in A. So, for every entry in B, we have bij 5 c 3 aij
c out of every entry in the
matrix.
For instance, in the Matrix multiplication
1
matrix below, the scalar __ At first glance, the following definition may seem unusual. You will see later,
2
has been factored out of however, that this definition of the product of two matrices has many practical
the matrix.
applications.

⎜ ⎟
⎛__1 3⎞
2__
2 (5 1)
2 2 1 1 23
5 __ A 5 [aij] is an m 3 n matrix and B 5 [bij] is an n 3 p matrix. The product AB is an m 3 p
5 1
⎝2 ⎠
__ __
2 matrix AB 5 [cij] where
n
c ij 5 ∑a ik b kj 5 ai1 b 1j 1 a i2 b 2j 1 … 1 a in b nj
k51

for each i 5 1, 2, …, m and j 5 1, 2, …, n

For the product of two matrices to be defined, the number of columns in the first matrix must be
the same as the number of rows in the second matrix.
A B 5 AB
m3n n3p m3p
↑ ⌊ equal ⌋ ↑
⌊ order of AB ⌋

This definition means that each entry with an address ij in the product AB is
obtained by multiplying the entries in the ith row of A by the corresponding

⎜⎟
entries in the jth column of B and then adding the results:
⎛b1j⎞

b2j
cij 5 (ai1 ai2 … ain) 5 ai1 b1j 1 ai2 b2j 1 … 1 ain bnj
⋮
⎝bnj⎠

Example 7.1

⎛ 3 5⎞
⎜ ⎟
22 1
(2 7)
3 25 2
Find C 5 AB when A 5 and B 5 5 8 24 0
⎝29 5 3⎠
1
10

6
 Solution
A is a 2 3 3 matrix, B is a 3 3 4 matrix, so the product will be a 2 3 4
matrix. Every entry in the product is the result of multiplying the entries in
the rows of A and columns of B. For example
⎛b12⎞
⎜ ⎟
22

( 10)
3
c12 5 ∑ a1k bk2 5 (a11 a12 a13) b22 5 (3 25 2) 8
⎝b32⎠
k51

5 3 3 (2 2) 2 5 3 8 1 2 3 10 5 226
and
⎛b13⎞
⎜ ⎟
1

( )
3
c23 5 ∑ a2k bk3 5 (a21 a22 a23) b23 5 (2 1 7) 2 4
⎝b33⎠
k51
5
5 2 3 1 1 1 3 (24) 1 7 3 5 5 33
Repeat the operation for each entry in the solution matrix to get:

(252 31)
234 226 33 21
C 5 AB 5
74 33 [A][B]
We can also use our GDC to find the product. [[-34 -26 33 21…
[-52 -74 33 31…

Here are some examples of matrix multiplication. Multiplying a 2 3 3 matrix

by a 3 3 2 matrix results in a 2 3 2 product matrix.
⎛22 4⎞
( 22 1 2)
5 0
1 21
3
5 ⎜
( 11 213)
21 14
⎟
⎝ 3 22⎠
233 332 232
When matrices are the same size, the product is the same size.

(1 7)(0 1) (127)
4 25 1 0 4 25
5

⎜ ⎟
232 232 232
⎛ 1 3 3⎞
2__ 2__ __
⎛ 5 3⎞ ⎛1 0⎞
7 7 7

⎜22 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
0 0
10 9 16
1 2 2___ 2__ ___ 5 0 1 0
7 7 7
⎝ 2 1 3⎠ ⎝0 0 1⎠
4 5 5
⎝ 2__ ⎠
__ __
7 7 7
333 333 333

(0 1)
1 0 The identity matrix
When a matrix of order 2 is multiplied by the matrix , the product is the
of order n is a diagonal

(0 1)
1 0 matrix where aii 5 1
original matrix. The matrix is called the identity matrix of order 2.

7
 7 Matrix algebra

⎜ ⎟
⎛1 0 0 0⎞
⎛1 0⎞
⎜  ⎟ 
0
0 1 0 0
Two further identity matrices are ​​ 0​  ​  1​  ​ ​​ and ​​ ​  ​ 
0  ​  ​   ​ ​​ 
⎝0 1⎠
0 0 1 0
⎝0 1⎠
0
0 0
Sometimes, the identity matrix is denoted simply by I, or by In, where n is
the order. So, the identity matrix with three rows and columns is I3, and the
identity matrix with four rows and columns is I4.

Example 7.2
⎛2⎞
Let A 5 (​​ ​2​  ⎜⎟
21​  3)​​​ and B 5 ​​ 5​  ​​  ​​ 
⎝4⎠
Work out
(a) AB (b) BA

Solution
⎛2⎞
(a) ​
(​2​  21​  ⎜⎟
3)​​​ 5​  ​​  ​ 5 2 3 2 1 (21) 3 5 1 3 3 4 5 11
⎝4⎠

⎜  ⎟ 
⎛2⎞ ⎛2 3 2 2 3 3⎞⎛4 6⎞
⎜ ⎟
2 3 (21)
⎜⎟
22
(b)   ​ 5​  ​​  ​​( ​2​  21​  3)​​ 5 ​​  5​  
3 2​ ​  5 3 (21)​ ​  5 3 3​​ ​​ 5 ​ 10
​   ​  ​  25​  15 
​ 
​ ​ 
⎝4⎠ ⎝4 3 2 4 3 (21) 4 3 3⎠ ⎝ 8 24 12 ⎠

Note that the order of multiplication affects the product. Matrix multiplication,
in general, is not commutative. It is usually not true that AB 5 BA

(5 ) ( ) ( 2)(21 ) ( 25)
3 6 2 2 3 3 6 22 3 20 39
Let ​A 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​ and ​B 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​, then ​AB 5 ​ ​ ​  ​ ​​ ​ ​ 
   ​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​
2 1 5 5 5 28

( 1 5)(5 ) (  16 )
22 3 3 6 9 26
but ​BA 5 ​ ​ ​   
​ ​​ ​ ​   ​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​  ​ ​ ⇒ AB ≠ BA​
 ​ 
2 28

However, there are some special cases where matrix multiplication is

commutative. For example

(5 ) ( ) ( 2)(5 ) ( 32)
3 6 2 6 3 6 2 6 36 24
​A 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​ and ​B 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​, then ​AB 5 ​ ​ ​  ​ ​​ ​ ​ 
   ​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​  ​ ​​ and
2 5 1 5 1 20

(5 1)(5 2) (20 32)

2 6 3 6 36 24
​BA 5 ​ ​ ​  ​ ​​ ​ ​ 
   ​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​ ⇒ AB 5 BA​

8
Multiplying by an identity matrix is also commutative.

⎜​​ d​   ​  ⎟ ⎜  ⎟  ⎜ ⎟
⎛a b c⎞ ⎛1 0 0⎞ ⎛a b c⎞
e​  f​    0 ​ ​  1​  0 
  ​  ​  ​​ ​ 5 ​ d
​   ​  e​  f​ 
  ​​ 
⎝g h i ⎠ ⎝0 0 1⎠ ⎝g h i⎠

⎜​​ 0​   ​  ⎟  ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎛1 0 0⎞ ⎛ a b c⎞ ⎛a b c⎞
 ​​ ​    ​ d
1​  0  ​   ​  e​  f​ 
  ​ 5 ​ d
​   ​  e​  f​ 
  ​​ 
⎝0 0 1⎠ ⎝ g h i⎠ ⎝g h i⎠

Example 7.3
Use the information given in the table to set up a matrix to find the camera
sales in each city.

Venice Rome Budapest Prague

Digital compact 153  98  74  56
Digital standard 211 120  57  29
DSLR  82  31  12   5
Other 308 242 183 107

The average selling price for each type of camera is as follows:

Digital compact €1200; Digital standard €1100; DSLR €900; Other €600

Solution
We set up a matrix multiplication in which the individual camera sales are
multiplied by the corresponding price. Since the rows represent the sales of
the different types of camera, create a row matrix of the different prices and

⎜ ⎟
perform the multiplication.
⎛153 98 74 56 ⎞
211 120 57 29
(​​ ​1200​  1100​  900​  600)​​​  ​  
  
  ​  ​  ​  ​  ​  ​  ​​​ ​ 
82 31 12 5
⎝308 242 183 107⎠
5 (​​674 300​  422 700​  272 100​  167 800)​​​
So, the sales from each city are
Venice Rome Budapest Prague 
Sales 674 300 422 700 272 100 167 800

Remember that we are multiplying a 1 3 4 matrix with a 4 3 4 matrix and

hence we get a 1 3 4 matrix.

9
 7 Matrix algebra

Exercise 7.1
 1. Consider the matrices

(y 2 1 3) ( 4 y 2 2)
22 x x 1 1 23
​A 5 ​ ​  ​  ​  ​ 
​ B 5 ​ ​ ​  ​   
​ ​ ​​

⎛ 1 2⎞
(2
1
C 5 ​​ ​ ​ 
2x
​  ​ 
0)
21
​ ​​ ​D 5 ​ ​ 2x​  ​  3 
​ ​​  ⎜ ⎟
⎝21 0⎠
3

(a) Evaluate
(i)  A 1 B   (ii) 3A 2 B   (iii)  A 1 C
(b) Find x and y such that A 5 B
(c) Find x and y such that A 1 B is a diagonal matrix.
(d) Find AB and BA
(e) Find x and y such that C 5 D

 2. Solve for the variables:

(4 2)( y) (212)
3 0 x 6
​ ​​    ​  ​ ​ ​ 5 ​ ​
(a) ​​ ​ ​     ​ ​​

(3 )
2 p 4
( ) ( 28)
18
(b) ​​ ​ ​    
​ ​​ ​ ​​  ​ 5 ​ ​  ​ ​ ​​
q 5

(5 ) (c d) ( 24)
3 26 a b 0 2
(c) ​​ ​ ​   ​ ​ 1 ​ ​ ​  ​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​ 
   ​ ​​
7 6

Frankfurt  3. The diagram shows the major highways connecting some European
Stuttgart Munich cities: Vienna (V), Munich (M), Frankfurt (F), Stuttgart (S), Zurich (Z),
Paris Milan (L), and Paris (P).
Vienna
Zurich
The partially completed matrix below shows the number of direct routes
between these cities.
Milan

⎜ ⎟
(a) Use the diagram to copy and complete the matrix.
​​ ​  V​  M​   F​   S​  Z​  L​   P​
V ⎛0 1 0 0 1 2 0⎞
M ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
F ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​  S​   ​ ​ ​  ​ ​ ​  ​ ​ ​  ​ ​​  ​ ​​  ​ ​ ​  ​ ​​ ​​ 
​ ​  ​  ​ ​  
  
Z ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
L ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
P ⎝​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​⎠
(b) Multiply the matrix from part (a) by itself and interpret what it
signifies.

10
 4. Consider the matrices
⎛2 1⎞ ⎛m 22⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
5
​A 5 ​ ​0  ​  23​  2 
​ ​     B
  5 ​ ​  3m​  ​  ​  21​ 
 
​ 
⎝7 0 21⎠ ⎝2 3⎠

⎜ ⎟
⎛x21 5 y ⎞
0  
​  ​  ​ 
C 5 ​ ​     2x​  ​  ​  y 1​ 1​​ ​​ 
⎝2x 1 y x 2 3y 2y 2 x⎠

(a) Find A 1 C
(b) Find AB
(c) Find BA
(d) Solve for x and y if A 5 C
(e) Find B 1 C
⎛21 ​m​​  2​⎞ ⎛ 7 12⎞
(f) Solve for m if 3B 1 2​​ 25
​  ​  2​  ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 
​​ 5 ​​  ​  17​  ​  ​  1  ​ ​​ 
​ ​  ⎟ 
⎝ 1 21⎠ ⎝2m 1 2 7 ⎠

 5. Find a, b, and c so that the following equation is true.

(c 1 2 ) ( ) ( 8 c 1 9)
a21 b 3 21 25 5
​2​ ​ ​  ​ ​ 1 ​ ​ ​ 
 ​   ​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​  ​ ​ ​​
3 0 5

 6. Find x and y so that the following equation is true.

(25 ) ( ) ( 1)
2 23 x 2 11 1 2 x 1 0
​​ ​ ​  ​ ​​ ​   
  ​  ​  ​​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​
7 25 x 1 2y 0

 7. Find m and n so that the following equation is true.

( 5 ) ( 5 n 2 5)
​m​​  2​ 2 1 m12 3 n11
​​ ​ ​  ​   
​ ​ 5 ​ ​ ​ 
 ​  
​ ​​
22

 8. There are two shops in your area. Your shopping list consists of 2 kg
of tomatoes, 500 g of meat, and 3 litres of milk. Prices differ between
the different shops, and it is difficult to switch between shops to make
certain you are paying the least amount of money. A better strategy is to
check where you pay less on average. The prices of the different items are
given in the table. Which shop should you go to?

Product Price in shop A Price in shop B

Tomatoes €1.66/kg €1.58/kg
Meat €2.55/100 g €2.6/100 g
Milk €0.90/litre €0.95/litre

11
 7 Matrix algebra

 9. Consider the matrices

(25 1) (1 4) ( 2 7)
2 0 3 21 23 5
​A 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​    B 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​    C 5 ​ ​ ​   
​ ​​

(a) Find A 1 (B 1 C) and (A 1 B) 1 C

(b) Make a conjecture about the addition of 2 3 2 matrices observed in
part (a) and prove it.
(c) Find A(BC) and (AB)C
(d) Make a conjecture about the multiplication of 2 3 2 matrices
observed in part (c) and prove it.

10. A company sells air conditioning units, electric heaters and humidifiers.
Row matrix A represents the number of units sold of each appliance last
year, and matrix B represents the profit margin for each unit. Find AB
and describe what this product represents.
⎛€120⎞
​A 5 ​(2​ 35​  562​  117)​​   B 5 ​ ​ €95  ​​ ​ ​​  ⎜ ⎟
⎝ €56 ⎠

11. Find r and s such that ​rA 1 B 5 A​is true, where

(5 ) ( s 2 8 213)
2 3 212 217
​A 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​   B 5 ​ ​  ​  ​  ​ 
​​
7

(0 1)
1 1
12. Let ​A 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​

(a) Find
(i)  A2 (ii)  A3 (iii)  A4 (iv)  An

(0 3)
3 3
Let ​B 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​

(b) Find
(i)  B2 (ii)  B3 (iii)  B4 (iv)  Bn

13. Solve for x and y such that AB 5 BA when

(4 1) (y 3)
2 3 x 2
​A 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​ and ​B 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​

14. Solve for x and y such that AB 5 BA when

(22 1) (y 1)
3 x 5 2
​A 5 ​ ​ ​   ​ ​​ and ​B 5 ​ ​ ​   
​ ​​

12
 15. Solve for x such that AB 5 BA when
⎛1 2 3⎞ ⎛ 28 x 1 3 12⎞
⎜
​A 5 ​ ​ x​  2​  23  ⎟ ⎜
​ ​​ and ​B 5 ​   23
​     ⎟
​  x 2 6​  ​  218​ ​​ 
⎝1 0 4⎠ ⎝    2 22 8⎠

16. Solve for x and y such that AB 5 BA when

⎜ ⎟
⎛y y 1 2⎞ ⎛ 28 x 1 3 12⎞
⎜ ⎟
2
​ 5 ​ ​    
A x  
​  2​  ​  2 3 ​
​ ​ ​​ and ​B 5 ​   23
​    
​  x 2 6​  ​  218​ ​​ 
⎝1 y 2 1 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2 22 8⎠

7.2 Applications to systems

There is a wide range of applications of matrices in solving systems of equations.

Recall from algebra that the equation of a straight line can take the form

ax 1 by 5 c where a, b, and c are constants, and x and y are variables.

We say this is a linear equation in two variables. Similarly, the equation of a

plane in three-dimensional space has the form

ax 1 by 1 cz 5 d where a, b, c, and d are constants, and x, y, and z are

variables.

We say that this is a linear equation in three variables.

A solution of a linear equation in n variables (in this case 2 or 3) is an ordered

set of real numbers (x0, y0, z0) so that the equation in question is satisfied when
these values are substituted for the corresponding variables. For example, the
equation

x 1 2y 5 4 is satisfied when x 5 2 and y 5 1

Some other solutions are: x 5 24 and y 5 4

x 5 0 and y 5 2
x 5 22 and y 5 3

The set of all solutions of a linear equation is its solution set, and when this
set is found, the equation is said to have been solved. To describe the entire
solution set we often use a parametric representation, as illustrated in the
following examples.

13
 7 Matrix algebra

Example 7.4
Solve the linear equation x 1 2y 5 4

Solution
To find the solution set of an equation in two variables, we solve for one
variable in terms of the other. For instance, if we solve for x, we obtain
x 5 4 2 2y
In this form, y is free, as it can take on any real value, while x is not free,
since its value depends on that of y. To represent this solution set in general
terms, we introduce a third variable, for example t, called a parameter, and
by letting y 5 t we represent the solution set as
x 5 4 2 2t, y 5 t, t is any real number
Particular solutions can then be obtained by assigning values to the
parameter t. For instance, t 5 1 yields the solution x 5 2 and y 5 1,
and t 5 3 yields the solution x 5 22 and y 5 3

Note that the solution set of a linear equation can be represented parametrically
in several ways. For instance, in Example 7.4, if we solve for y in terms of x, the
parametric representation would take the form:
1
x 5 m, y 5 2 2 __
​​   ​​ m, m is a real number
2
Also, by choosing m 5 2, one particular solution is (x, y) 5 (2, 1), and when
m 5 22, another particular solution is (22, 3).

Example 7.5
Solve the linear equation 3x 1 2y 2 z 5 3

Solution
Choosing x and y as the free variables, we solve for z.
z 5 3x 1 2y 2 3
Letting x 5 p and y 5 q, we obtain the parametric representation:
x 5 p, y 5 q, z 5 3p 1 2q 2 3, where p and q are any real numbers
A particular solution is (x, y, z) 5 (1, 1, 2)

Parametric representation is very important when we study vectors and lines

later on in the book.

14
 Systems of linear equations
A system of k equations in n variables is a set of k linear equations in the same
n variables. For example
​2x 1 3y 5 3
x 2 y 5 4​
is a system of two linear equations in two variables, while
​x 2 2y 1 3z 5 9
x 2 3y 5 4​
is a system with two equations and three variables, and
​x 2 2y 1 3z 5 9
x 2 3y 5 4
2x 2 5y 1 5z 5 17​
is a system with three equations and three variables.

A solution of a system of equations is an ordered set of numbers x0, y0, …

which satisfy every equation in the system. For example (3, 21) is a solution of
​2x 1 3y 5 3
x 2 y 5 4​
Both equations in the system are satisfied when x 5 3 and y 5 21 are
substituted into the equations. However, (0, 1) is not a solution of the system; it
satisfies the first equation, but it does not satisfy the second.

In this chapter, we will use matrix methods to solve systems of equations.

Taking our example above, we can write the system of equations in matrix form:

{x 2 y 5 4 (1 ) ( ) ( 4)
2x 1 3y 5 3 2 3 x 3
​ ​ ​⇒ ​​ ​ ​ 
 ​​​   ​ ​​​ ​  ​ ​ ​​ 5 ​ ​ ​​  ​
21 y
The representation of the system of equations this way enables us to use matrix
operations in solving systems of equations. This matrix equation can be written as

(1 ) ( ) ( 4)
2 3 x 3
​​ ​ ​   ​ ​​   ​  ​ ​ ​5 ​ ​ ​​  ​ ⇒ AX 5 C​
21 y
where A is the coefficient matrix, X is the variable matrix, and C is the constant
matrix. However, to solve this equation, the inverse of a matrix has to be defined
as the solution of the system in the form
​X 5 ​A​​  21​  C​
where A21 is the inverse of the matrix A.

15
 7 Matrix algebra

Matrix inverse
To solve the equation 2x 5 6 for x, we need to multiply both sides of the
1
equation by __:
2
1 1 1 1
__ 3 2x 5 __ 3 6 ⇒ x 5 3 This is so, because __ 3 2 5 2 3 __ 5 1
2 2 2 2
1
__
A square matrix B is the
is the multiplicative inverse of 2. The inverse of a matrix is defined in a
2
inverse of a square matrix similar manner and plays a similar role in solving a matrix equation, such as
A if AB 5 BA 5 I where
I is the identity matrix. AX 5 C
The notation A21 is used to denote the inverse of a matrix A. Thus, B 5 A21
Note that only square
matrices can have
multiplicative inverses. Example 7.6

(4 3) (24 7)
7 5 3 25
Are the matrices A 5 and B 5 multiplicative inverses?

Solution

(4 3)(24 7) (12 2 12 220 1 21) (0 1)

7 5 3 25 21 2 20 235 1 35 1 0
AB 5 5 5

(24 7)(4 3) (228 1 28 220 1 21) (0 1)

3 25 7 5 21 2 20 15 2 15 1 0
BA 5 5 5
[A]-1
[[3 -5]
[-4 7 ]] So A and B are multiplicative inverses.
[A]-1[A]
[[1 0]
[0 1]] We can also find the inverse using a GDC.

We will now find the general form for the inverse of a matrix.

(c d) (g h )
a b e f
Let A 5 and assume A 21 5 and then solve the following

matrix equation for e, f, g, and h in terms of a, b, c, and d.

( c d)(g h ) (0 1) (ce 1 dg cf 1 dh ) (0 1)
a b e f 1 0 ae 1 bg af 1 bh 1 0
5 ⇒ 5

Now we can set up two systems to solve for the required variables:

(ce 1 dg cf 1 dh ) (0 1)
ae 1 bg af 1 bh 1 0
5

ce 1 dg 5 0 } bce 1 bdg 5 0 }
ae 1 bg 5 1 dae 1 dbg 5 d d 2c
⇒ ⇒ e 5 _______ , g 5 _______
ad 2 bc ad 2 bc

cf 1 dh 5 1 } bcf 1 bdh 5 b }
af 1 bh 5 0 daf 1 dbh 5 0 2b a
⇒ ⇒ f 5 _______ , h 5 _______
ad 2 bc ad 2 bc

16
 ⎜ ⎟
⎛_______
d 2b ⎞
_______

( c d)
a b ad 2 bc ad 2 bc
In a matrix A 5 , if ad 2 bc ≠ 0, then its inverse A 5
21
2c
_______ a
_______
⎝ ad 2 bc ad 2 bc⎠
or A 21 5 _______(
a)
1 d 2b
ad 2 bc 2c

Example 7.7

(3 5)
4 7
Find the inverse of A 5

Solution
Here a 5 4, b 5 7, c 5 3, and d 5 5, so ad 2 bc 5 21 [A]
[[4 7]
[3 5]]
Thus A 21 5 _______( ) ( ) ( 3 24)
1 d 2b 1 5 27 25 7 [A]-1
5 ___ 5 [[-5 7]
ad 2 bc 2c a 21 23 4 [3 -4]]

The number ad 2 bc is called the determinant of the 2 3 2 matrix

A5(
c d)
a b

The notation we will use for this number is det A or |A|, so we write this as: When the determinant is
zero (ad 2 bc 5 0),
det A 5 |A| 5 ad 2 bc the matrix does not have
an inverse. A matrix that
The determinant plays an important role in determining whether or not a does not have an inverse
matrix has an inverse. is called a singular
matrix; a matrix that
does have an inverse is
called a non-singular
Example 7.8 matrix.

Solve the system of equations using matrices.

2x 1 3y 5 3
x2y54

Solution
In matrix form, the system can be written as

(1 ) ( ) (4)
2 3 x 3
5
21 y

Write the equation in the form X 5 A 21 C

(y) 5 (1 21) (4)

x 2 3 21
3

17
 7 Matrix algebra

Find A21, then substitute into the equation and simplify

⇒ ​​(​  )​ ​ ​ ​5 2 ​​ __  ​​​​ ​ ​ 

5 (21 2)(4)
x 1 21 23 3
​ ​​​​ ​ ​​  ​​
 
y

⇒ ​​(​  )​ ​ ​ ​5 2 ​​ __  ​​​​ ​

5 ( 5) (21)
[A]-1[C] x 1 215 3
[[3 ] y
​ ​​ 5 ​​ ​  ​ ​​
[-1]]

In general, a system of equations can be written in matrix form as AX 5 B

There is a solution to the system when A is non-singular, which is ​X 5 A

​ ​​  21​  B​

If B 5 0, the system is homogeneous. A homogeneous system will always have

a solution, called the trivial solution, X 5 0 when A is non-singular. When A is
singular then the system has an infinite number of solutions.

We use a similar procedure to solve systems of equations in three variables.

However, we will use a GDC to find the inverse of a 3 3 3 matrix . As in the
case of a 2 3 2 matrix, the existence of an inverse for a 3 3 3 matrix depends
on the value of its determinant.

There are two methods of calculating the determinant of a 3 3 3 matrix A:

[A] Method 1

⎜ ⎟
[[5 1 -4]
[2 -3 -5] ⎛a b c⎞
[7 2 -6]]
det([A]) ​A 5 ​  ​  d​  e​   ​    ​ ⇒ det A 5 a​(ei 2 fh)​ 2 b​(di 2 fg)​ 1 c​(dh 2 eg)​​
f​ 
17
⎝g h i⎠

⎛5 24⎞
⎜ ⎟
1
For example, if ​A 5 ​ 2​  ​  2 3​  25 ​ ​​ 
⎝7 2 26⎠

then ​det  A 5 5​(18 1 10)​ 2 1​(212 1 35)​ 2 4​(4 1 21)​ 5 17​

Method 2
Use a special set up as follows:

1 1 1 ​ ​
a b c a b
d​  ​  e​  ​  f​  ​  d​  ​  e​ ​​ 5 aei 1 bfg 1 cdh 2 gec 2 hfa 2 idb​
det A 5 ​​  
  
  
g h i g h
2 2 2 ​ ​

This is done by copying the first two columns and adding them to the end of
the matrix, multiplying down the main diagonals and adding the products,
and then multiplying up the second diagonals and subtracting them from the
previous product as shown. For example:
18
 1 1 1 ​ ​
5 1 24 5 1
​​  
2  
  
​  ​  2 3​  ​  25​  ​  2​  ​  23
 ​ ​​​
7 2 26 7 2
2 2 2 ​ ​

5 5 ⋅ (​23)(​​ 26)​ 1 1 ⋅ (​25)​ ⋅ 7 1 (​24)​ ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 2 7​(23)(​​ 24)​

2 2​(25)​ ⋅ 5 2 (​26)​ ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
5 90 2 35 2 16 2 84 1 50 1 12 5 152 2 135 5 17
This arrangement is a re-ordering of the calculations involved in the first method.

Example 7.9
Solve the system of equations
5x 1   y 2 4z 5 5
2x 2 3y 2 5z 5 2
7x 1 2y 2 6z 5 5

Solution
We write this system in matrix form

⎛5 24⎞ x ⎛5⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎟
1

( ) ⎝5⎠
​ ​2  ​  2 3​  ​ ​ ​  ​y ​​  ​5 ​ ​ 2​​  ​ 
25 
⎝7 2 26⎠ z

Since det A 5 17 ≠ 0, we can find the solution in the same way we did for
the 2 3 2 matrix:

⎛5 24⎞ x ⎛5⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎟
1

( ) ⎝5⎠
​ 2​  ​  2 3​  25  y
​ ​ ​  ​  ​​  ​5 ​ 2​  ​​  ​ 
⎝7 2 ⎠
26 z

⎛5 24⎞ 21⎛5⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎟
x 1 [A]-1[C]

(z) ⎝
​ ​y ​​  ​5 ​​​ ​ 2​  23​  25 
​ ​​​   ​​​ ​ 2​​  ​  [[3 ]
[-2]
7 2 26⎠ ⎝5⎠ [2 ]]

To check our work, using a GDC, we can store the answer matrix as D and [A][D]
then substitute the values into the system [[5]
[2]
⎛5 24⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 15 2 2 2 8 ⎞ ⎛5⎞ [5]]
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜  ⎟  ⎜  ⎟ 
1
​ 2​  ​  23​  25  ​   ​ ​ 5 ​ ​  6 1 6 2 10 
​ ​ ​  22 ​​ ​ 5 ​ 2​  ​​  ​ 
⎝7 2 26⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 21 2 4 2 12⎠ ⎝5⎠

19
Mathematics
Applications and Interpretation
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