Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead

organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and
sometimes exceeds 650 million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal,
petroleum and natural gas. Other more commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels include kerosene and
propane.

What is coal and how is it formed?

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called
coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later
exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of
other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Coalification is the formation of coal from plant material by the processes of diagenesis and metamorphism. Also known
as bituminization or carbonification. It all starts with a swamp on the edge of a sedimentary basin, such as a lagoon or a
lake. Tectonic activity raises sea levels, covering and killing vegetation. Plant debris accumulates and is buried under
layers of mud and sand in a process known as sedimentation. This protects the debris from the air and slows down the
decomposition process. The vegetation grows back, until the next flooding. The sedimentary basin gradually sinks under
the weight of the sediments, and the layers of dead plants are subjected to rising temperatures that gradually “cook” them,
leading to their transformation. The different stages of sedimentation turn cellulose, the main component of wood, from
peat to lignite (brown coal), then sub-bituminous coal, followed by bituminous coal and, finally, anthracite. Anthracite has
the highest carbon content.

The Different Types of Coal

There are several different types of coal. They are ranked according to their carbon and volatile
matter content.

-Anthracite is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to 3% volatile matter. It is an excellent fuel that is still used to heat
homes.
-Bituminous coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to 31 % volatile matters. It is used to make
coke, used in metallurgy.
-Sub-bituminous coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile matters. It is burned in industrial
boilers.
-Lignite is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53% volatile matters. It is a low-grade fuel with a high
moisture content that is used in industrial boilers.
-Peat consists of partially decomposed vegetation. Technically

speaking, it isn’t coal. It has a carbon content of less than 60% and is composed entirely of volatile
matter. A poor fuel that was once used throughout Europe in the form of dried briquettes for
heating; today it is used only in a few regions, such as Ireland.

What is petroleum (oil and gas) and how is it formed?

How Oil and Gas Deposits are formed

Deep in the Earth, oil and natural gas are formed from organic matter from dead plants and
animals. These hydrocarbons take millions of years to form under very specific pressure and
temperature conditions.
When a living organism dies, it is generally recycled in one of two ways:

- Predators, scavengers or bacteria eat them.

- Through exposure to ambient air or oxygen-rich water, it oxidizes. That means that
the hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus contained in the matter
combine with oxygen atoms present in the air. The organic matter breaks down into
water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrates, sulfates and phosphates that nourish
new plants.

How Oil and Gas Forms

• At a depth of 2,000 meters, when the temperature reaches 100°C, Kerogen starts to release
hydrocarbons:

• Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it turns into oil. This depth interval is known as the
oil window.

• When the source rock sinks further, to between 3,800 and 5,000 meters, production of
liquid hydrocarbons peaks. The liquids produced become increasingly lighter and
gradually turn into methane gas, the lightest hydrocarbon. This depth interval is
known as the gas window.
• There are no hydrocarbons below a depth of 8 to 10 kilometers; because a high
temperature destroys them.

• The proportion of liquids and gas generated in this way depends on the type of source
rock. If the organic debris is composed mostly of animal origin, it will produce more
oil than gas. If it is composed mainly of plant debris, the source rock will produce
mostly gas.

• With an estimated average sedimentation of 50 meters every million years, it takes 60

About Oil and Gas Traps

There are two main types of trap: Structural traps, which are formed by changes in
geological layers caused by the movement of tectonic plates. Reservoir rock is
sometimes deformed until it forms a completely sealed space. These anticlinal traps
are dome-shaped and the most common type of structural trap.

• Stratigraphic traps are made up of sedimentary layers that have not undergone tectonic
deformation. In this case, a cap rock completely seals off the reservoir rock. For
example, salt domes can act as cap rocks in this type of trap.

• The trap contains hydrocarbons, but also residual water. Because they are lighter than the
water, the hydrocarbons migrate above the water table.

• Hydrocarbon traps can contain:

- Oil, with significant quantities of dissolved gas.

- Gas, with light liquid hydrocarbons known as condensate.

- Both oil and gas. In this case, the gas, which is lighter than the oil,
accumulates in the upper part of the trap.

• If the reserves are developed, the gas dissolved in the crude oil will be turned into
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), used primarily as fuel. Condensate will be refined to
produce naphtha, used as a feedstock in the petrochemical industry, or kerosene, a
fuel used in aviation.

Conserving Hydrocarbons

• Once trapped, the hydrocarbons are still at risk of deterioration that could prevent the
formation of a commercial deposit.

• At depths of less than 1,000 meters, the accumulation can be infiltrated by meteoric water
 (precipitation). This water contains bacteria and oxygen that come into contact with
the gas and oil, triggering chemical reactions that separate them into water and
carbon dioxide.

Bacteria and oxygen start by attacking light and medium hydrocarbon molecules. After a period
of time, the initial oil is significantly degraded, leaving only viscous, solid hydrocarbons that
are more difficult to extract than non-degraded oil or gas.

• Below 1,000 meters, the temperature is in most cases higher than 50°C and the bacteria
that cause the degradation cannot survive. Although no longer threatened by bacteria
or oxygen, traps located deep underground can be affected by tectonic activity —
some traps have even been created this way. This can cause fractures and faults in
the rock, breaking the seal and letting the hydrocarbons leak out of the trap. More
violent tremors can even destroy the trap by substantially reducing
or destroying the seal.

Fossil Fuel Power Generation

Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions, extracting
thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal energy of the
steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary generator to convert the turbine's
mechanical energy into electrical energy.