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Principles of Islamic Architecture

Article · November 2014

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Published in The [Oxford] Encyclopedia of Philosophy/Science/Technology in Islam, 2013

Islamic architecture is usually defined as the architecture of Muslims, that is, architecture
produced by Muslims. This definition lacks accuracy, however, as not everything that
Muslims build is Islamic. Palmer (2008, p. 145) provides a clearer definition: “Islamic
architecture is broadly defined as any construction based on the religious principles of
Islam. Both religious and secular buildings reflect design principles of Islamic culture.”
The defining elements are the Islamic characteristics of the architecture, rather than
whether the architect was a Muslim or whether the building was constructed in a Muslim
or a non-Muslim land.
The general conception of the character of Islamic architecture includes the
presence of elements such as domes, horseshoe and round arches, tunnel vaults, and richly
decorated arabesque and calligraphy, with the absence of any human and animal
representation. Islamic architecture is inspired principally by Islam and aims to provide a
suitable and comfortable environment in which Muslims can carry out their duties as
prescribed by the Qurʾān. The Qurʾān, for example, declares that houses should be made
resting places: “It is Allah Who made your habitations homes of rest and quiet for you“
(16:80). Houses, therefore, should provide comfort, calmness, and healthy living, and
should fulfill the needs of occupants. This also requires good ventilation, lighting, and
spaciousness. Another verse of the Qurʾān directs Muslims to orient their homes toward
the qiblah (Kaʿbah in Mecca). Regarding hygiene, Muslims are directed to position toilets
away from the direction of the qiblah, according to a ḥadīth (saying) of Prophet
Muḥammad (pbuh).
Islam established a particular lifestyle that is conditioned by specific beliefs,
values, and rules. Muslims are asked to be the entrusted servants of God on earth. In order
to fulfil this mission, they must obey and respect these values and beliefs. The role of
architecture is therefore to provide functional living space and facilities that support this
mission. Historically, architecture responded precisely to this lifestyle with the view of
nurturing it. The rule that “there must be neither harm nor the imposition of harm” inhibits
the self-inflicting of harm as well as causing harm to neighbours. For example, the right to
sunlight, air, and privacy is protected at all times. Building higher than the neighbour is
not allowed without permission: “and do not build higher than him (neighbour) to deny
him the breeze, unless with his permission” says an authentic ḥadīth. Courtyard walls and
windows should be made higher than a camel rider passing by to prevent him from
looking into the house. Islam also calls for cleanliness at home as well as in streets and
public spaces: “While a man walks along a path, finds a thorny twig lying on the way and
puts it aside, Allah would appreciate it and forgive him” explains another ḥadīth (Muslim,
Book 34, Ḥadīth 5049).
In addition to the guidelines found in the text of the Qurʾān and the sayings of
Prophet Muḥammad, other rules affecting architecture and the built environment were also
deduced from Islamic jurisprudence. In this respect, a considerable juridical literature on
building was produced. Among the many relevant manuscripts are al-Jidar (The Wall) of
Issa ibn Dinar (d. 827 CE), Kitab al-Qadhaʾ fil bunian (The Judicial Book of Buildings) of
ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Hakam (d. 884 CE), Nafy al-Dharar aan al-Afniya wa al-Turuk

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wa al_judur (The Denial of Damage on Courtyards, Streets, and Walls) of Ibn al-Imam
Issa ibn Mussa al-Titly (d. 996 CE), and Kitab al Iʾalan biahkam albanyan (The Book of
Advertisement of Judicial Provisions of Buildings) of Ibn al-Rami (d. 1334 CE). Some of
these writers were builders, such as Ibn al-Rami, who was also an assistant to the judge of
Tunis.
The Characteristics of Islamic Architecture.
In formal terms, and as form follows function, Islamic architecture developed a number of
key features representing the identity of Islamic culture. The visualization, aesthetics, and
design all were integrated to serve cultural purposes and to materialize the Islamic creed.
According to Frazer, it is “. . . the expression of a religion and its view of the world rather
than that of a particular people or political or economic system.” (Millon and Frazer, 1964,
p. 33). Islamic beliefs have always shaped the ways that Muslims built, not by outlining a
set of rules on how to build, but rather through the many instructions relating to values of
privacy, territoriality, rights of neighbours, hospitality to guests, cleanliness, and so on.
Such instructions had a direct impact on the way that Muslims have treated and configured
their space. A practical example can be illustrated by the Islamic house, which employs a
series of codes of conduct relating to privacy, defence, and sociability. In mosque
architecture, the form, aesthetic, and visualization of both the interior and exterior
transmitted behavioural codes aimed at glorifying and emphasizing the presence of the
deity and meeting the spiritual needs of Muslims, increasing their contemplation and
meditation. Islamic civilization was behind the rise of a large number of building types with
distinctive forms and functional properties, for example, the mosque, house, caravanserai,
mausoleum, hospital, school, kiosk, and bath (ḥammām).
Islamic architecture is renowned for its emphasis on the interior aspect of
buildings, rather than the exterior. The exterior of the building is usually left simple and
modest, without sophisticated decorative work, making most buildings look alike, a
pattern that is repeated in most Islamic cities. Residential buildings in particular adhere to
this feature. The interior, on the contrary, is embellished with magnificent decorations,
furniture, and ornaments. The most important decorative work is centred on functional
rooms, halls, and courtyards. The latter represents a common feature in all architectural
forms, including the mosque, house, palace, funduq (or caravanserai), and mausoleum.
The cells of the building open into it for light and ventilation.
There are two reasons for this important feature. The first is to provide the high
degree of privacy necessary for the Muslim family, a feature that has inspired the
description of Islamic architecture as “the architecture of the veil” (Edwards et al., 2006).
The second aspect has a social dimension relating to social cohesion and unity. The rights
of neighbours are respected by abstaining from external embellishment and keeping
facades modest and simple. Exterior modesty reduces social tensions, as the buildings of
the rich and the poor will look the same. In the interior, the private space, family and
personal tastes are expressed in a variety of styles and colors.
Although the hidden character of Islamic architecture is its predominant feature,
there are exceptions with richly decorated exteriors, seen mostly in buildings of religious
or public nature. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (691–692), one of the earliest
buildings, contains exterior walls richly decorated with marble and mosaics similar to the
interior. The building was built to crown the sacred rock, which is associated with the
event of the Night Journey, or the ascension of Prophet Muḥammad to the Heavens. The
location of the building in the heartland of Christianity and Judaism was another impetus

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for such rich external embellishment. The building was meant to express the victory of
Islam in this land and to communicate its message.
Commemorative buildings also usually have richly decorated exteriors.
Mausoleums, tombs, and some memorial mosques, because of the nature of their function,
needed a high degree of visibility and consequently required the use of extensive
decoration. An example of this is Taj Mahal (1631–1648), a mausoleum built by Shāh
Jahān (1592–1666) for his beloved wife Mumtāz Maḥal, who died in 1631. The octagonal
building was built on a square platform and was adorned with beautifully executed
calligraphy and geometric and floral forms, which covered most of the white marble
exterior and interior surfaces. This elaborate work aimed to express not only the love of
the bereaved emperor for his wife, but also the peacefulness of the grave and the hope of
paradise. The Taj Mahal is considered one the seven wonders of the modern world and
was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1983.
An important characteristic of Islamic architecture is its sustainability. The
courtyard and terrace are among the first elements to provide good lighting, ventilation,
and cooling. The courtyard occupies the central space to which the interior of the building
opens. Two notable features of the courtyard house should be noted (Edwards et al., 2006).
The first is that the buildings and walls enclose the entire compound. The second is that
external walls have no windows or openings, apart from the entrance gate, thus securing
greater privacy and reducing the heat of the sun.
The terrace is located on the flat masonry rooftop of Islamic houses. In addition to
their domestic and social functions, these spaces provided excellent ecological adaptation.
The landscaping and the planting of these areas are additional sources of ecological
integration in which the natural environment is brought to the building environment. The
fountain in the courtyard and the pool in the terrace (in modern houses) function as
cooling systems in most Islamic buildings, especially mosques and houses.
Islamic architecture is also renowned for its rich ornamentation, which has been
admired and appreciated by many Western scholars, including Edward Freeman, who
commented: “Its charm consists in the excessive richness and gorgeousness of its
buildings, and in the romantic associations with which we invest the Moorish conquerors
of Spain and the heroes of the Thousand and One Nights, which make their structures
seem rather like fairy palaces than the creations of men like ourselves” (1849, pp. 270–
271). The lavish decoration is based on non-figurative representations, namely the use of
calligraphy and arabesque. Calligraphy in this case is an art of stylized and elaborated
handwriting of the Arabic language. Artists first attempted to represent the sacred word of
the Qurʾān using complex scripts and forms. As the popularity of calligraphy gained
momentum, it spread to other works: “Writing not only became an integral part of the
decoration of a building, at times of an object, but also indicated its purpose. Calligraphy
spread to works other than the Quran and was considered the greatest art” (Ettinghausen,
Grabar, and Madina, 2001, pp. 6–7). The arabesque consists of abstract geometrical forms
developed as an alternative to the use of prohibited forms of living beings. According to
Dobree, arabesque
“strives, not to concentrate the attention upon any definite object, to liven and
quicken the appreciative faculties, but to diffuse them. It is centrifugal, and leads to
a kind of abstraction, a kind of self- hypnotism even, so that the devotee kneeling
towards Mecca can bemuse himself in the maze of regular patterning that confronts
him, and free his mind from all connection with bodily and earthly things.”
(Dobree, 1920, p, 34

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 The final feature is related to unity and diversity. As discussed above, the Islamic
faith has shaped Islamic architecture, especially on artistic and technical levels, giving it a
particular identity and uniformity that have made it distinctive throughout the ages.
However, as Islam spread across the three continents of Asia, Africa, and Europe, it
synthesized some traditions, trends, and styles from the Islamized cultures and
civilizations. These borrowings, despite their pagan origins, were accepted and were
sometimes adapted to suit the Islamic creed. Artistic traditions such as Berber, African,
Persian, Indian, Chinese, Slavic, Turkic, and others can be easily traced in the regional
varieties of Islamic architecture. The regional diversity of mosque architecture provides an
example of such variation. A clear distinction, for example, is found between the North
African (Berber) mosque, with its hypostyle plan, shebka decorated square minaret, and
pointed horseshoe arches, and the Persian aywan plan mosque, with slender circular
minarets, Persian arches, pīshtāq entrances, and blue tiled surfaces. These regional
varieties were integrated within the larger framework of Islamic civilization, as the diverse
artistic and technical elements were sheltered under the umbrella of Islam, creating a
“diversity within the unity,” as Muslim scholars prefer to call it: “Islamic architecture thus
promotes unity in diversity, that is, the unity of message and purpose, and the diversity of
styles, methods and solutions. Certainly, this renders Islamic architecture so relevant and
dynamic, and so consistent and adaptable” (Spahic, 2008, p. 8).

Bibliography
Dobree, B. “Arabic Art in Egypt.” The Burlington Magazine 36 (1920): 31–35.

Edwards, Brian, Magda Sibley, Mohamad Hakim, and Peter Land. Courtyard Housing:
Past, Present, Future. Abingdon, U.K.: Taylor and Francis, 2006.

Ettinghausen, Richard, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins Madina. Islamic Art and
Architecture 850–1250. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.

Freeman, Edward A. A History of Architecture. London: Joseph Masters, 1849.

Millon, Henry A., Alfred Frazer. Key Monuments of the History of Architecture. New
York: Prentice-Hall, 1964.

Palmer, Allison Lee. The A to Z Architecture: Islamic Architecture. : Lanham, Md.:

Spahic, Omer. “Towards Understanding Islamic Architecture.” Islamic Studies 47, no. 4
(Winter 2008): 483–510.

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