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MST 210 Bridging

Mathematical modelling bridge course

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akshay pranav

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

97 views

MST 210 Bridging

Mathematical modelling bridge course

Uploaded by

akshay pranav

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Mathematics, Computing and Technology/Science

MST210 Mathematical methods, models and modelling

Bridging material

Contents
Introduction 2
1 Solving linear differential equations 4
1.1 Linear differential equations 4
1.2 The integrating factor method 5

2 Modelling forces 11
2.1 Particles 11
2.2 Weight 12
2.3 Normal reaction 13
2.4 Tension 14
2.5 Friction 17
3 Two or more particles 22
3.1 Newton’s third law 22
3.2 Pulleys 23
3.3 Slipping 27
4 Describing motion 29
4.1 The motion of a particle 29
4.2 One-dimensional motion 35
5 A theory of motion 40

6 Predicting motion 44
7 Friction 50
Solutions to exercises 53

Index 71

Introduction
This material is designed to help students to bridge the gap between Exploring
mathematics (MS221) and Mathematical methods, models and modelling
(MST210). It assumes that you have studied MS221 and that you now want to
progress to MST210.
The contents of this bridging material are the topics relevant to MST210 that are
covered in Essential mathematics 2 (MST125) but not covered in MS221. When
choosing the topics for this bridging material, we have tried to be inclusive so that
studying this bridging material should adequately prepare you for MST210.
However, you may find that you are already fluent and confident in some of the
topics, and hence feel that you don’t need to revise those in great detail. It may
be worth trying a few of the exercises in each section, just to check that you are
comfortable with the topics covered.
If you haven’t already, do attempt the diagnostic quiz for MST210
to check your readiness to study the module. The quiz is available here:
https://mcs-notes2.open.ac.uk/WebResources/Maths.nsf/A/19mf/$FILE/MST210%20diagnostic%20quiz.pdf
If you do the quiz now, it may help you to determine which sections of this
bridging material to focus on. You could have another go at the quiz after
completing your work on the bridging materials, in order to confirm your
understanding.
Section 1 describes another method for solving differential equations analytically
called the integrating factor method. This method is complementary to the
separation of variables method studied in MS221 in the sense that it allows you to
solve equations that cannot be solved using separation of variables.
Sections 2–7 of this bridging material provide an introduction to Newtonian
mechanics, which is one of the three distinct areas.
Quantum mechanics deals with the motion of very small objects (such as
atoms, which have diameters of about 10−10 metres).
Relativistic mechanics deals with the motion of very fast objects (such as the
electrons in a television tube, which travel at speeds of about 108 metres per
second).
Newtonian mechanics is concerned with the more familiar everyday
world of objects which are larger than atoms, and which move at speeds less
than a few million metres per second.
Here only Newtonian mechanics is considered, but this still leaves a vast range of
phenomena to discuss. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) was the great English
mathematician whose name is given to this subject. His Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica of 1687 (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,
known as Principia for short) incorporates one of the most celebrated examples of
mathematical modelling. It was in Principia that Newton laid down the
foundations of Newtonian mechanics. This great book, which showed for the first
time how earthly and heavenly movements obey the same laws, is cast in the form
of a set of propositions all deriving from three axioms, or laws of motion. It is

these, here translated into modern English from the original Latin, that still
provide the basis for Newtonian mechanics.
Law I Every body continues in a state of rest, or moves with constant velocity in
a straight line, unless a force is applied to it.
Law II The rate of change of velocity of a body is proportional to the resultant
force applied to the body, and is made in the direction of the resultant force.
Law III To every action (i.e. force) by one body on another there is always
opposed an equal reaction (i.e. force) — i.e. the actions of two bodies upon
each other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
These laws did not spring fully formed from Newton’s imagination. Earlier
investigators, notably the Italian mathematician and scientist Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642) and the French polymath René Descartes (1596–1650), had
formulated some similar results. But it was Newton who perceived that these
three laws were sufficient for the foundations of mechanics.
It is perhaps surprising that these seminal laws of mathematical modelling were
written entirely in prose, with no hint of a mathematical symbol. Symbolic forms
were developed during the eighteenth century. Newton himself followed through
the complicated chains of reasoning arising from the laws with far less recourse to
symbolism, or indeed to calculus, than later mathematicians have found necessary.
In this course, the laws themselves will be explained and the arguments based on
them simplified by using vector notation.
Sections 3–7 gradually introduce this notation and use it to model both situations
where objects remain at rest (known as statics) and situations where objects move
(known as dynamics).

1 Solving linear differential equations

This section presents a method of analytic solution for first-order differential
equations. The details of this integrating factor method appear in Subsection 1.2.
It applies only to a particular form of equation known as a linear differential
equation. The definition and some properties of this type of equation are
introduced in Subsection 1.1.

1.1 Linear differential equations

This subsection introduces the concept of linearity as applied to differential
equations. Here the concept is introduced in the context of first-order differential
equations, but you should be aware that the idea generalizes to higher-order
differential equations and is important from a theoretical point of view.

A first-order differential equation for y = y(x) is linear if it can be expressed

in the form
dy
+ g(x)y = h(x), (1) This differential equation can be
dx written in the general form
where g(x) and h(x) are given functions. dy
= f (x, y)
dx
A linear first-order differential equation is said to be homogeneous if that we have been using by
h(x) = 0 for all x, and inhomogeneous or non- putting
homogeneous otherwise. f (x, y) = −g(x)y + h(x).

For example, the differential equation

dy
− x2 y = x3
dx
is linear, with g(x) = −x2 and h(x) = x3 , whereas the equation
dy
= xy 2
dx
is not, due to the presence of the non-linear term y 2 .

Exercise 1
Decide whether or not each of the following first-order differential equations is
linear.
dy dy dz
(a) + x3 y = x5 (b) = x sin x (c) = −3z 1/2
dx dx dt
dy dy
(d) ẏ + y 2 = t (e) x + y = y2 (f) (1 + x2 ) + 2xy = 3x2
dx dx

An important theorem guarantees that an initial-value problem based on a linear

first-order differential equation has a unique solution.

Theorem 1
If the functions g(x) and h(x) are continuous throughout an interval (a, b) This includes the possibility that
and x0 belongs to this interval, then the initial-value problem either a = −∞ or b = ∞, so the
interval might be all of the real
dy line.
+ g(x)y = h(x), y(x0 ) = y0 ,
dx
has a unique solution throughout the interval.

This is a very powerful result, since it means that once you have found a solution
in a particular interval, that solution will be the only one.
There is a particularly useful technique for solving linear differential equations, to
which we turn next.

1.2 The integrating factor method

As you have seen, the method of separation of variables relies upon an application
of the rule for integration by substitution, which is equivalent to the Composite
Rule (or Chain Rule) for derivatives. It is natural to enquire whether there might
similarly be a method for solving first-order differential equations that derives
from the rule for integration by parts or, equivalently, from the Product Rule for
derivatives. There is indeed such a method, and it is the subject of this subsection.
To introduce the topic, consider the differential equation
dy
(1 + x2 ) + 2xy = 3x2 . (2) As you saw in Exercise 1(f), this
dx differential equation is linear;
Note first that 2x (the coefficient of y) is the derivative of 1 + x2 (the coefficient of but it is not soluble by direct
dy/dx). It follows from the Product Rule that integration or by separation of
variables.
d dy
(1 + x2 )y = (1 + x2 )

+ 2xy.
dx dx
The right-hand side of this equation is the same as the left-hand side of
Equation (2), so we can rewrite the latter as
d
(1 + x2 )y = 3x2 .

(3)
dx
Now the left-hand side here is just the derivative of (1 + x2 )y, so we can apply
direct integration to Equation (3) to obtain
Z
(1 + x )y = 3x2 dx = x3 + C,
2

where C is an arbitrary constant. Division by 1 + x2 then gives the general

solution of Equation (2) explicitly, as
x3 + C
y= .
1 + x2

This solution was arrived at by noting that the left-hand side of Equation (2) is of
the form
dy dp
p + y, (4)
dx dx

where p = 1 + x2 , and that this form can be re-expressed, using the Product Rule,
as
d
(py).
dx
Linear differential equations need not come in this convenient form. For example,
the left-hand side of the equation
3x2

dy 2x
+ y = (5)
dx 1 + x2 1 + x2
is not of the form (4). However, Equation (2) can be obtained from Equation (5)
on multiplying through by p = 1 + x2 . For this reason,
p = 1 + x2 may be called an integrating factor for Equation (5): it is the factor by
which Equation (5) needs to be multiplied in order that the resulting differential
equation has a left-hand side of the form (4), enabling direct integration to be
performed.
This leaves the question of how such an integrating factor can be found, starting
from Equation (5). The answer comes from writing down the two properties that
such a function p = p(x) must satisfy, as follows.
• Multiplying Equation (5) by p gives, on the left-hand side,

dy 2x
p +p y.
dx 1 + x2
• The left-hand side must be of the form
dy dp
p + y. (4)
dx dx
Comparison of these two expressions shows that p must itself be a particular
solution of the differential equation

dp 2x
= p. (6)
dx 1 + x2
This is a homogeneous linear first-order differential equation, and we can solve it
by separation of variables. Dividing the equation by p (for p 6= 0) and integrating
gives
Z Z
dp 2x
= dx.
p 1 + x2
Performing the left-hand integral gives
Z
2x
ln |p| = dx,
1 + x2
so
Z
2x
|p| = exp dx . (7)
1 + x2

Now, performing the integral on the right,

|p| = exp ln(|1 + x2 |) + A

Note that 1 + x2 > 0, so
|1 + x2 | = 1 + x2 .
= exp(A)|1 + x2 |
= D(1 + x2 ),
where D (= exp(A)) is a positive but otherwise arbitrary constant. Hence The case D = 0 corresponds to
the solution p = 0 of
p = ±D(1 + x2 ), Equation (6), but this solution is
not of interest.

which, by redefining D, can be written as

p = D(1 + x2 ),
where D is now a non-zero but otherwise arbitrary constant.
Thus an integrating factor for Equation (5) is p(x) = D(1 + x2 ). Multiplying
through the equation by this factor yields
dy
D(1 + x2 ) + 2Dxy = 3Dx2 ,
dx
and now you can see that (since D 6= 0) the arbitrary constant D can be chosen
without affecting the applicability of the form (4). Therefore we choose the
integrating factor to have the simplest possible form — in this case we obtain
p(x) = 1 + x2 .
As you have seen, this leads to the solution of Equation (5) by direct integration,
and the formula for this integrating factor is given by Equation (7) as
Z
2x
p = exp dx . (8)
1 + x2
This approach generalizes to any linear first-order differential equation, provided
that the integrals involved can be evaluated. For an equation written in the form
dy
+ g(x)y = h(x), (1)
dx
the function g(x) takes the place of 2x/(1 + x2 ) in Equation (5). To find an
integrating factor p = p(x) for Equation (1), the argument proceeds as above, with
2x/(1 + x2 ) replaced by g(x) at each step. This leads to the generalized form of
Equation (8), namely
Z
p = exp g(x) dx , (9) Remember that calculation of
the integrating factor does not
which defines the integrating factor for Equation (1). require the inclusion of a
constant of integration.
When Equation (1) is multiplied through by the integrating factor, the resulting
differential equation is
dy
p(x) + p(x)g(x)y = p(x)h(x), (10)
dx
the left-hand side of which, by the definition of p, is of the form (4); so The definition of p ensures that
Equation (10) can be re-expressed, using the Product Rule, as the left-hand side of
Equation (10) is of the form (4)
d since
(p(x)y) = p(x)h(x). (11) Z
dx dp d
= exp g(x) dx
Direct integration can then be used on Equation (11) to try to find the general dx dx Z
solution. = exp g(x) dx g(x)
This integrating factor method is summarized below. = p(x)g(x).

Procedure 1.1 Integrating factor method

This method applies to differential equations of the form
dy
+ g(x)y = h(x). (1)
dx
(a) Determine the integrating factor
Z
p = exp g(x) dx . (9) The constant of integration is
not needed here.
(b) Multiply Equation (1) by p(x) to recast the differential equation as You can, if you wish, check that
you have found p correctly by
dy checking that
p(x) + p(x)g(x)y = p(x)h(x).
dx dy
p(x) + p(x)g(x)y
(c) Rewrite the differential equation as dx
d
d = (p(x)y) ,
(p(x)y) = p(x)h(x). dx
dx i.e. by checking that
(d) Integrate this last equation, to obtain dp/dx = p(x)g(x).
Z
p(x)y = p(x)h(x) dx.
It is a good idea to check, by
(e) Divide through by p(x), to obtain the general solution in explicit form. substitution into the original
equation, that the function
obtained is indeed a solution.
As with the separation of variables method, it may not be possible to perform the
necessary final integration. However, in the remainder of this subsection we give
examples and exercises for which this method can be used.

Example 1
Use the integrating factor method to find the general solution of each of the The first example cannot be
following differential equations. solved by separation of variables,
whereas the latter two can. You
dy 2xy dy y−1 dy 2y might like to compare the effort
(a) =x− 2 (b) = (x > 0) (c) =
dx x +1 dx x dx 1 + x2 involved using both methods of
Solution solution.

(a) On rearranging the differential equation as

dy 2xy
+ = x,
dx x2 + 1
we see that it is in the form of Equation (1) with
2x
g(x) = and h(x) = x.
x2 + 1
The integrating factor (from Equation (9)) is therefore
Z
2x
p = exp dx
x2 + 1
= exp(ln |x2 + 1|)
= exp(ln(x2 + 1)) (since 1 + x2 > 0)
= x2 + 1. Checking, we see that
dp
Multiplying both sides of the differential equation by this factor yields = 2x = g(x)p(x).
dx
dy
(x2 + 1) + 2xy = x(x2 + 1),
dx

and the differential equation thus becomes

d
(x2 + 1)y = x(x2 + 1).

dx
Integrating both sides gives
Z
(x + 1)y = x(x2 + 1) dx
2

Z
= (x3 + x) dx

= 41 x4 + 21 x2 + C,
where C is an arbitrary constant. Finally, to obtain an explicit solution we
divide by x2 + 1 to obtain
x4 + 2x2 + 4C
y= .
4(x2 + 1)
(b) On rearranging the differential equation as
dy 1 1
− y=− ,
dx x x
we see that it is in the form of Equation (1) with g(x) = h(x) = −1/x. The
integrating factor (from Equation (9)) is therefore
Z
1
p = exp − dx
x
= exp(− ln x) (since x > 0) Recall that a ln x = ln(xa ) and

1 hence, in particular,
= exp ln − ln x = ln(x−1 ) = ln(1/x).
x
1
= . Checking, we see that
x
dp 1
Multiplying through the equation by p(x) = 1/x gives = − 2 = g(x)p(x).
dx x
1 dy 1 1
− 2y = − 2,
x dx x x
and the differential equation becomes

d 1 1
y = − 2.
dx x x
Integration then gives
Z
y 1
= − 2 dx
x x
1
= + C,
x
where C is an arbitrary constant. The general solution is therefore
y = 1 + Cx,
where C is an arbitrary constant.
(c) In order to put the given differential equation into the form (1), we need to
bring the term in y to the left-hand side to obtain
dy 2
− y = 0. (12)
dx 1 + x2

Hence, in this case, we have g(x) = −2/(1 + x2 ) and h(x) = 0. The The equation is homogeneous.
integrating factor is
Z
2
p = exp − dx = exp(−2 arctan x) = e−2 arctan x . Checking, we see that
1 + x2
dp −2e−2 arctan x
Multiplying through by the integrating factor gives =
dx 1 + x2
dy
−2 arctan x 2y −2 arctan x −2 arctan x 2
e − e = 0. =e −
dx 1 + x2 1 + x2
Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as = p(x)g(x).

d −2 arctan x
e y = 0.
dx
It follows, on integrating, that
e−2 arctan x y = C, or, equivalently, y = Ce2 arctan x ,
where C is an arbitrary constant. This is the general solution.

Exercise 2
Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations.
dy dy
(a) − y = ex sin x (b) =y+x
dx dx

Exercise 3
Use the integrating factor method to solve each of the following initial-value The differential equation in
problems. part (a) can also be solved using
separation of variables.
(a) u0 = xu, u(0) = 2.
(b) tẏ + 2y = t2 , y(1) = 1.

Exercise 4
Which method would you use to try to solve each of the following linear first-order
differential equations?
dy dy
(a) + x3 y = x5 (b) = x sin x
dx dx
dv dy
(c) + 5v = 0 (d) (1 + x2 ) + 2xy = 1 + x2
du dx

Exercise 5
Solve each of the following initial-value problems.
(a) ẏ + y = t + 1, y(1) = 0.
(b) e3t ẏ =1− e3t y, y(0) = 3.

Exercise 6
Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations.
dy
(a) x − 3y = x (x > 0)
dx
dv
(b) + 4v = 3 cos 2t
dt
(Hint: If a and b are non-zero constants, then
eat
Z
eat cos bt dt = 2 (a cos bt + b sin bt) + C,
a + b2
where C is an arbitrary constant.)

2 Modelling forces
This section shows how four common types of force can be modelled: the force of
gravity, the force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it, the tension
force due to a string, and the friction force between two surfaces. These forces and
the situations in which they occur are modelled and analysed in
Subsections 2.2–2.5. First, however, we look at one way of modelling the objects
on which forces act.

2.1 Particles
When we create a mathematical model, the aim is to simplify the real situation
being modelled so that only the essential features are included. This enables us to
analyse the situation mathematically. In mechanics, the most important things to
model are the forces acting on objects, and throughout this unit and the other
mechanics units you will see how to do this. However, we also need to model the
objects on which the forces act.
Sometimes, such as when the length, breadth, depth, orientation or internal
structure of an object is important, the object needs to be modelled as a solid
body, which possesses both mass and size. An example is provided by a ladder The modelling of solid bodies is
leaning against a wall, where the length of the ladder is important. At other discussed in Section ??.
times, when the size and structure of the object are not important, the object may
be modelled as a particle, which possesses mass but no size. An example is
provided by a pallet of bricks hanging on the end of a cable from a crane, where
the pallet of bricks can be modelled as a particle if we are interested only in the
forces acting on the cable.

A particle is a material object whose size and internal structure may be

neglected. It has mass but no size, and so occupies a single point in space.
A particle is often represented in diagrams by a black dot •.

Observation has shown that each force acting on an object can be modelled as
acting at a particular point on the object, this point being referred to as the
point of action of the force. In situations where a particle model is appropriate,
all the forces acting on the object are modelled as acting through the point in

space occupied by the particle. It is conventional to show these forces in diagrams,

known as force diagrams, by vector arrows whose tails coincide with the particle
and whose directions correspond to the directions in which the forces act, as
Figure 1 illustrates.
F4 F1
Note that in force diagrams
arrows are usually drawn with
F2
F3 arbitrary lengths. This contrasts
with the usual convention for
Figure 1 vectors where length indicates
magnitude.
When several forces are acting on a particle, observation has shown that the
overall effect of these forces can be represented by a single vector given by the
sum of the vectors representing the individual forces. In this unit, we deal with
objects that do not move, i.e. objects in equilibrium. For a particle in
equilibrium, the forces acting on it must balance each other (or else it would
move), so we have the following important condition.

Equilibrium condition for particles This condition was first stated

by Isaac Newton as part of his
A particle subjected to forces F1 , F2 , . . . , Fn is in equilibrium if the forces first law of motion.
sum to the zero vector, i.e.
We often say that the sum of the
n
X forces is zero, with the
Fi = 0. implication that this means the
i=1 zero vector.

2.2 Weight
When you hold a shoe, your fingers experience a force. The shoe, like all objects,
has a force associated with it, and if you do not provide opposition to this force in
holding the shoe, the shoe will fall to the ground. But what is the source of the
force exerted by the shoe?
This force is due to the attraction of the shoe to the Earth. The force of attraction
of objects to the Earth is called the force of gravity or the gravitational force.
The gravitational force acting on a particular object is not constant, but depends
on the position of the object relative to the Earth: there is a small variation of
this force with height above ground (or depth below ground), and there is an even
smaller variation with latitude and longitude. When applied to a particular
object, this force is called the weight of the object. In this course, we shall
assume that the weight of a particular object is constant near the Earth’s surface.
In everyday speech, the words mass and weight are interchangeable.
Mathematically, however, they are different. The mass of an object is the amount
of matter in the object and is independent of the object’s position in the universe;
it is a scalar quantity, measured in kilograms (kg) in the SI system. The weight
of an object is the gravitational force on the object, and is dependent on where
the object is situated; it is a vector quantity, whose magnitude is measured in
newtons (N) in the SI system and whose direction is downwards towards the
centre of the Earth.
Mass and weight are, however, related in that an object of mass m has weight of
magnitude mg, where g is a constant known as the acceleration due to gravity.
Near the Earth’s surface, g has the value of approximately 9.81 m s−2 , and we
shall assume this value for g throughout this course. If the Cartesian unit vector k
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 12
2 Modelling forces

points vertically upwards from the surface of the Earth, then the weight W of an
object of mass m is −mgk (where we need the negative sign because the force of
gravity acts vertically downwards, i.e. the weight acts vertically downwards).

Weight
An object of mass m has weight W of magnitude |W| = mg, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity, with direction towards the centre of the Earth. If m
the object is modelled as a particle, the force of gravity on the object can be
illustrated by the force diagram in Figure 2. W

Figure 2

Exercise 7
What is the weight of a particle of mass 3 kg in a coordinate system where the
k-direction is vertically downwards?

When modelling forces acting on objects, it is often convenient to define Cartesian

unit vectors and to express the force vectors in component form, i.e. to resolve the
vectors into their components. These Cartesian unit vectors define the directions
of the axes in a Cartesian coordinate system, so we often refer to the process of
defining Cartesian unit vectors as choosing axes.

Exercise 8
i
Later in this unit we shall find it convenient to use axes which are not horizontal π
15 kg 6
and vertical. Express the weight W of a particle of mass 15 kg in terms of the
Cartesian unit vectors i and j, where i and j both lie in a vertical plane and are j
oriented as shown in Figure 3. W

Figure 3

In the previous exercise, nice angles (i.e. multiples of π6 (30◦)) were chosen in order
to help you evaluate the cosines involved without having to use a calculator.
Another convenient angle is π4 (45◦). The cosines of all these angles are given in
the Handbook. Sometimes, as in the above exercise, obtuse angles are used;
cosines of such angles can be derived from the addition formulae, which are also
given in the Handbook. For example,
cos 2π π π π π π π 1
3 = cos( 2 + 6 ) = cos 2 cos 6 − sin 2 sin 6 = − 2 .

2.3 Normal reaction

Consider an empty coffee mug resting on a table. Let us model the mug as a
particle. We know that one force, the mug’s weight, is acting on the mug. But,
since the mug is at rest (i.e. not moving), the equilibrium condition for particles
tells us that some other force(s) must be acting on the mug (so that all the forces
acting on the mug sum to zero). The only possible source for another force on the
mug is the table. So, in order for the mug to remain at rest, the equilibrium
condition tells us that the table must exert a force on the mug, which must be
equal in magnitude to the weight of the mug and opposite in direction. The force
exerted by the table on the mug, and indeed exerted by any surface on an object
in contact with it, is called the normal reaction force or simply the normal
reaction.

The situation is illustrated in Figure 4, which shows not only the mug and table,
but the corresponding force diagram (plus the Cartesian unit vector k pointing
vertically upwards). The normal reaction force is denoted by N and the weight of
the mug by W. Using the equilibrium condition for particles, we have
N
W + N = 0.
k m
If the mug has mass m, then W = −mgk, and hence
N = −W = mgk W
is a force acting vertically upwards with the same magnitude as the weight of the
mug.
The normal reaction force is remarkable in that it adjusts itself to the magnitude Figure 4
required. For example, if the coffee mug is replaced by a full pot of coffee, then
the normal reaction increases (unless the weight of the coffee pot is too much for
the table, in which case the table collapses and the pot is no longer at rest).
Contrast this with the weight of an object, which is fixed and constant, regardless
of what is happening to the object. Our basic modelling assumption is that the
magnitude of the normal reaction force is potentially unlimited.
There is a normal reaction force whenever one object (e.g. a mug) presses on
another (e.g. a table). Observation has shown that this force acts normally (i.e. at This explains the name normal
a right angle) to the common tangent at the point of contact between the objects. reaction force.
It therefore need not act vertically upwards.
N
For example, if the table on which the mug is resting is on an uneven floor, so
that the table top makes an angle θ with the horizontal, then the normal reaction
force makes an angle θ with the vertical, as shown in Figure 5. (In such a case θ
there must be other forces acting on the mug if it is to remain in equilibrium.
These other forces are discussed later.) θ

Figure 5
2.4 Tension
Consider a lamp hanging from a ceiling on an electric cable. Let us model the
lamp as a particle. As in the case of the mug and the table in the previous
subsection, we know that there is a weight associated with the lamp, and that
since the lamp is at rest, by the equilibrium condition some other force(s) must be
acting on it. The only possible source for another force is the cable, so the cable
must exert a force on the lamp. The force exerted by the cable on the lamp is
called the tension force.
Tension forces occur whenever objects are tautly joined, e.g. by cables, ropes,
strings or threads. These cables and ropes can be modelled in different ways. For
example, if we want to model the ceiling lamp and are interested only in the force
in the cable, then we can model the cable as a model string, defined as an object
possessing length, but no area, volume or mass, and which does not stretch (i.e. it
is inextensible). On the other hand, if we are interested in how much the cable
stretches under the weight of the lamp, then we can model the cable as a model
spring, which has properties similar to those of a model string (i.e. it has no area,
volume or mass), but allows extension. In this unit we consider only strings.
The ceiling lamp example is illustrated in Figure 6. The tension force due to the
model string is denoted by T, and the weight of the lamp by W. In a manner
similar to the case of normal reaction forces, the equilibrium condition for
particles gives
W + T = 0.

If the lamp has mass m, then W = −mgk, and hence

T
T = −W = mgk
k m
is a force acting vertically upwards (along the length of the model string) with
the same magnitude as the weight of the lamp.
W
We assume that the tension force due to a model string acts along the length of
the string and away from the point of its attachment to an object. As in the case
of a normal reaction, the magnitude of this force (often referred to as the tension Figure 6
in the string — a scalar quantity) depends on the requirements necessary to
maintain equilibrium, so it is potentially unlimited. (In reality, a string can exert
only a certain tension force before it breaks, but a model string supports an
unlimited tension force.)

A model string is an object with a fixed finite length, and no area, volume
or mass, that exerts a force at the point of attachment.
The tension force due to a string is directed along the length of the
string away from the point of attachment.

As in the case of normal reaction forces, the tension force due to a string need not
be vertically upwards, as the following example illustrates. π
3

Example 2
4 kg
A hanging flower basket of mass 4 kg is suspended by one cord from a porch and
tied by another cord to the wall, as shown in Figure 7. Model the basket as a j
particle and the cords as model strings. What are the magnitudes of the tension i
forces due to the cords?
Solution Figure 7
We choose axes as shown in Figure 7. Note that we need choose only two axes
because all the forces act in the same vertical plane. Denoting the tension forces
by T1 and T2 , and the weight of the basket by W, we have the force diagram
shown in Figure 8.
T1
π
3
π
6
π
T2 3

Figure 8
In the diagram, the angle between the vector T1 and the unit vector j is
calculated by imagining the right-angled triangle shown, and using the fact that
the angles of a triangle sum to π radians. The angle between the vectors T1 and i
is calculated using the fact that the angle between the unit vectors i and j is a
right angle (so the required angle is π2 − π6 = π3 ).
The equilibrium condition for particles tells us that
T1 + T2 + W = 0. (13)

To progress further, we need to express the three forces in terms of the unit
vectors i and j. Starting with the weight W, we have In later examples and solutions,
this process of resolving vectors
W = (W . i) i + (W . j) j will not be done explicitly for
= |W| cos π2 i + |W| cos π j forces aligned with the axes.
The components will be written
= −|W| j. down by inspection of the
Similarly, the tension force T1 can be expressed as diagram.

T1 = (T1 . i) i + (T1 . j) j
= |T1 | cos π3 i + |T1 | cos π6 j
√
3
= 12 |T1 | i + 2 |T1 | j.
Finally, the tension force T2 can be written as
T2 = (T2 . i) i + (T2 . j) j
= |T2 | cos π i + |T2 | cos π2 j
= −|T2 | i.
Using the components of the three forces in Equation (13) gives two scalar
equations for the i- and j-components, respectively:
1
2 |T1 | − |T2 | + 0 = 0, (14)
√
3
2 |T1 | + 0 − |W| = 0. (15)
But |W| = 4g, so Equation (15) gives
√ √
|T1 | = 2|W|/ 3 = 8g/ 3 ' 45.31.

Substituting this into Equation (14) gives

√
|T2 | = 4g/ 3 ' 22.66.
So the model predicts that the tension force due to the cord from the porch has
magnitude about 45.3 N and that the tension force due to the cord from the wall
has magnitude about 22.7 N.

The procedure that was used in Example 2 can be used to solve many problems in
statics, and may be summarized as follows.

Procedure 1.2 Solving statics problems

Given a statics problem, perform some or all of the following steps.
(a) Draw a sketch of the physical situation, and annotate it with any JDraw pictureI
relevant information.
(b) Choose axes, and mark them on your sketch. JChoose axesI
(c) Draw a force diagram or diagrams. JDraw force diagramI
(d) Use the equilibrium condition and any other appropriate law(s) to obtain JApply law(s)I
equation(s).
(e) Solve the equation(s). JSolve equation(s)I
(f) Interpret the solution in terms of the original problem. JInterpret solutionI

In this unit, the steps in this procedure will often be identified (using the marginal
abbreviations above) in the solutions to examples and exercises. The procedure is

intended to be a guide rather than a rigid set of rules. For example, if it is not
obvious which set of axes to choose, then draw the force diagram first, and the
best choice may become more apparent. Try using the procedure in the following
exercise.

Exercise 9
During December, a large plastic Christmas tree of mass 10 kg is suspended by its
apex using two ropes attached to buildings either side of the high street of
Trappendorf. The ropes make angles of π6 and π4 with the horizontal. Model the
Christmas tree as a particle and the ropes as model strings. What are the
magnitudes of the tension forces due to the two ropes?

2.5 Friction
Consider a book resting on a horizontal surface. There are two forces acting on the
book: the weight downwards and the normal reaction upwards. Suppose that you sideways
push
push the book gently sideways (see Figure 9). If you do not push hard enough, the
book will not move; it will remain in equilibrium. We know that the vertical
forces, i.e. the weight and the normal reaction, balance each other (i.e. they are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction), so they cannot be preventing the
book from moving sideways. Therefore there must be another force present. This Figure 9
force is known as the friction force. It is considered to act parallel to the
surface, i.e. at right angles to the normal reaction, and in a direction that opposes
any (possible) motion along that surface. Modelling the book as a particle, and N
denoting the pushing force by P, the friction force by F, the weight by W and the F P
normal reaction by N, the force diagram for this example is shown in Figure 10.
Friction forces are caused by the roughness of even seemingly very smooth W
surfaces — a roughness that serves to inhibit the smooth movement of one surface
over another. So friction forces are present only where there is movement or the Figure 10
possibility of movement. There is no friction force present when an object is
resting on a horizontal surface, where the only two forces acting on the object are
its weight and the normal reaction. But when an object is being pushed or pulled,
or is resting on a sloping surface, then a friction force is present (see Figure 11).

N N
F

W W

no friction friction force

force present

Figure 11
Unlike the normal reaction, which is potentially unlimited in magnitude, there is a
limit to the magnitude of the friction force; if this limit is reached, then slipping
occurs. The limiting value of the magnitude of the friction force depends almost
entirely on the materials of the two surfaces and on the magnitude of the normal
reaction force between them. It does not usually depend on the area of contact
between the two surfaces, or on the angle at which the two surfaces are inclined to
the horizontal. Experiments show that the limiting value of the magnitude of the
friction force F (which just prevents slipping for two given surfaces) is
approximately proportional to the magnitude of the normal reaction force N
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 17
2 Modelling forces

between the two surfaces. So, on the verge of slipping, we have |F| = µ|N|, where
µ is the coefficient of static friction, which depends on the materials of the two Table 1
surfaces. Some approximate values of µ for different materials are given in Table 1. Approximate coefficients of
static friction
Example 3 Surface µ
A steel fork of mass 0.05 kg rests on a horizontal wooden table. Model the fork as Steel on steel (dry) 0.58
a particle. What is the maximum sideways force that can be applied before the Steel on steel (oiled) 0.1
Plastic on plastic 0.8
fork starts to move? Rubber on tarmac 1.3
Solution Steel on wood 0.4
Wood on wood 0.35
The situation is illustrated in Figure 12. Since all the forces act in a vertical
plane, we can choose axes as shown. The force diagram is also shown in the figure,
where F is the friction force, P is the sideways force, W is the weight, and N is
the normal reaction.

N
sideways j
force 0.05 kg F P
µ = 0.4 i

Figure 12
The equilibrium condition for particles gives JApply law(s)I
F + N + P + W = 0. (16)
When the fork is on the point of moving (slipping), we have
|F| = µ|N|,
where µ = 0.4 is the coefficient of static friction of steel on wood.
To be able to use Equation (16), we need to express the forces in terms of the unit JSolve equation(s)I
vectors i and j. Looking at Figure 12, the forces can be written in component
form as
F = −|F| i, N = |N| j, P = |P| i, W = −|W| j.
Resolving Equation (16) in the i-direction gives
−|F| + 0 + |P| + 0 = 0,
so (as expected)
|F| = |P|.
Resolving (16) in the j-direction gives
|N| = |W|.
Therefore, when the fork is on the point of moving,
|P| = |F| = µ|N| = µ|W| = 0.4 × 0.05g = 0.02g ' 0.196.
So the model predicts that a sideways force of magnitude about 0.196 N can be JInterpret solutionI
applied without moving the fork.

Here is a summary of how we go about modelling problems that involve static

friction, i.e. problems involving friction but no motion.

Modelling static friction

Consider two surfaces in contact.
(a) The friction force F acts in a direction perpendicular to the normal
reaction N between the surfaces and opposite to any possible motion
along the common tangent to the surfaces.
(b) |F| ≤ µ|N|, where µ is a constant called the coefficient of static friction |F| cannot exceed its limiting
for the two surfaces involved. value µ|N|. Slipping occurs if a
friction force of magnitude
(c) |F| = µ|N| when the object is on the verge of slipping. This equality is greater than µ|N| would be
sometimes referred to as describing a situation of limiting friction. needed to prevent it.
(d) If one of the surfaces is designated as being smooth, it may be assumed
that there is no friction present when this surface is in contact with
another, regardless of the roughness of the other surface.

Let us now apply these ideas to some examples, in which we shall also apply the
steps of Procedure 1.2. In most of the situations that we investigate, we shall be
concerned with limiting friction.

Exercise 10
A wood block of mass 5 kg rests on a horizontal plank of wood. Model the block
as a particle. What horizontal force is required to start it moving?

Exercise 11
A steel block of mass 0.5 kg rests on a horizontal dry steel surface and is pulled by
a horizontal force of 2 N. Model the block as a particle. Does the block move?
What is the magnitude of the friction force?

Exercise 12
A shallow box made of a uniform material and without a lid can be placed on a
horizontal table in two possible ways (as shown in Figure 13):
• (a) with its base in contact with the table surface;
• (b) with its open top in contact with the table surface.
Which of these two positions requires the smaller sideways force to start the box
slipping? (a) (b)

Figure 13

Inclined planes
Consider now an object resting on a sloping plane surface, often referred to as an
inclined plane, such as the one shown in Figure 14. Provided that the angle of
inclination is not large, the object can remain at rest and does not slide down the
slope. The forces acting on the object are its weight, the normal reaction and N
friction. The weight W acts vertically downwards. The normal reaction N acts F
normally to the surface between the object and the slope. The friction force F is
perpendicular to the normal reaction and hence parallel to the slope, and it acts
up the slope to counteract the natural tendency of the object to move down the W
slope.
Figure 14

Example 4
A crate of empty bottles of total mass 30 kg is to be hauled by a rope up a ramp
from the cellar of a pub. The rope is parallel to the ramp, and the ramp makes an
angle of π6 radians with the horizontal. The coefficient of static friction between
the plastic crate and the wooden ramp is 0.2.
What is the tension force due to the rope when the crate is on the point of moving
upwards?
Solution
The situation is illustrated in Figure 15. JDraw pictureI

j
µ = 0.2 30
kg
π
6
i

Figure 15
All the forces act in a vertical plane, so we need only two axes. We could choose i JChoose axesI
to be horizontal and j vertical as before, but it makes calculations easier if we
choose i to be parallel to the slope and j perpendicular to it, as shown in
Figure 15. This is because, when we come to resolve the forces in the i- and
j-directions, three of the four forces (all except W) will then act along one or
other of the axes, making resolving them much simpler.
Modelling the crate as a particle and the rope as a model string, the force diagram JDraw force diagramI
is as shown in Figure 16, where W is the weight, N the normal reaction, F the
friction force, and T the tension force.
T N j

π F
π
3 i
6
π
6
W

Figure 16
The equilibrium condition for particles gives JApply law(s)I
T + N + F + W = 0. (17)
When the crate is on the point of moving, we have
|F| = µ|N|,
where µ = 0.2 is the coefficient of static friction.
As before, the first step in solving the equations involves resolving the force JSolve equation(s)I
vectors into components. In this case, three of the force vectors are aligned with
the axes and can be written down immediately:
F = |F| i, N = |N| j, T = −|T| i.
Now find the weight of the crate in component form:
W = (W . i) i + (W . j) j Note that
= |W| cos π3 i + |W| cos( π2 + π3 ) j cos( π2 + π3 )
√ = cos√ π2 cos π3 − sin π2 sin π3
3
= 12 |W| i − 2 |W| j. = − 23 .

Now Equation (17) can easily be resolved in the i-direction, giving

−|T| + 0 + |F| + 12 |W| = 0,
so
|T| = |F| + 12 |W|. (18)
Similarly, resolving Equation (17) in the j-direction gives
√
3
0 + |N| + 0 − 2 |W| = 0,
so
√
3
|N| = 2 |W|. (19)
At the point of moving, |F| = 0.2|N| and Equations (18) and (19) give
√
3
|T| = 0.2|N| + 21 |W| = 0.2 × 2 |W| + 21 |W|.
Thus, since |W| = 30g,
√
|T| = ( 103 + 12 ) × 30g ' 198.
Therefore, when the crate is on the point of moving, the model predicts that the JInterpret solutionI
tension force due to the rope is about 198 N up the ramp.

Mathematically, different choices of axes make no difference to the final solution

obtained to a mechanics problem. However, a sensible choice of axes, as in
Example 4, can reduce the amount of calculation. You will find that, with
experience, you will be able to choose axes that reduce the work involved.

Exercise 13
A full crate of bottles of mass 60 kg is at the top of the ramp described in
Example 4, ready to be lowered into the cellar. What force needs to be applied to
the rope to keep the crate from sliding down the ramp?

Exercise 14
On a building site, a pallet of bricks of mass 1800 kg is suspended from the cable
of a crane. The length of the cable is 10 m. One of the site workers is pulling with
a force of magnitude 800 N horizontally on a rope attached to the pallet, in order
to position the pallet over the lorry into which it is to be lowered. How far can the
pallet be moved horizontally by the worker?

Exercise 15
(a) A box of mass m is resting on a surface inclined at an angle α to the
horizontal. If the box is on the point of slipping, what is the coefficient of
static friction?
(b) Two identical mugs are placed on a tray. One mug is half full of coffee, the
other is empty. The tray is tilted slowly. Use your answer to part (a) to
determine which mug will start to move first.

3 Two or more particles

In the previous section we considered the action of forces on one particle and
introduced the equilibrium condition for particles. In this section we extend these
ideas to situations involving two or more particles. Subsection 3.1 shows how
Newton’s third law can be applied to such situations. Subsection 3.2 introduces a
new modelling device — the model pulley — and Subsection 3.3 considers friction
in the two-particle case.

3.1 Newton’s third law

The equilibrium condition for particles extends to systems involving two or more
particles, in that, if the system is in equilibrium, then each particle must be in
equilibrium, so the sum of the forces acting on each particle must be zero.
Consider, for example, the simple situation of one book lying on top of another on
a desk. Both books are in equilibrium. Let us model each book as a particle. We
can apply the equilibrium condition for particles to each book in turn. We N1 N2
therefore need to determine the forces on each book. For the upper book, the
situation is similar to the case of an object resting on a surface, discussed in
Section 2. There is the weight W1 of the book acting vertically downwards, and
the normal reaction N1 of the surface (of the lower book) acting vertically W1 W2
upwards. For the lower book, we have its weight W2 acting vertically downwards,
and the normal reaction N2 of the surface (of the desk) acting vertically upwards, N3
but this time there is also another force — the normal reaction N3 from the upper upper lower
book book
book. The situation and the force diagrams are shown in Figure 17.
You may find the presence of the force N3 surprising, because in Section 2 we
considered the normal reaction force as acting from a surface to an object. Figure 17
However, there is also a normal reaction force acting from the object to the
surface. So, for example, if we consider the forces acting on the table described in
Subsection 2.3, we have to include the normal reaction exerted by the coffee mug
on the table. In fact, pairs of normal reactions occur between any pair of surfaces
in contact. Such pairs of normal reaction forces can be deduced from Newton’s
third law, a well-established law of mechanics, which says that for each force
exerted by one object on another, there is a force of equal magnitude acting in the
opposite direction exerted by the second object on the first. This enables us not The two normal reaction forces
only to deduce the presence of N3 , but also to deduce that that constitute an equal and
opposite pair act on different
N1 = −N3 . objects.
In addition to this equation, the equilibrium condition for particles applied to
each book in turn gives
W1 + N1 = 0,
W2 + N2 + N3 = 0.
Solving these three equations for N1 , N2 and N3 gives
N1 = −W1 , N2 = −W1 − W2 , N3 = W1 .
If we had considered the two books as one particle, then the normal reaction force
N2 from the table would still be the same, i.e. −(W1 + W2 ). So the above
argument is physically reasonable in the sense that the normal reaction force N2
is unchanged whether we model the books as two particles or one.
Now consider the forces acting on the upper book, namely N1 and W1 . As shown
above, these forces are of equal magnitude and opposite directions. It is a common

mistake to say that these forces form an equal and opposite pair as described in
Newton’s third law. This is not correct — they are equal and opposite because
the book is in equilibrium. As we have seen above, the force paired with N1 by
Newton’s third law is N3 . What force is paired with the force W1 ? The answer is
the force of gravity that the book exerts on the Earth. (The magnitude of this
force is, of course, negligible when compared to the mass of the Earth.)
In summary, solving statics problems involving more than one particle needs these
key ideas:
(a) apply Newton’s third law;
(b) apply the equilibrium condition for particles to each particle separately.

Exercise 16
Consider a pile of four books of equal mass, lying one on top of another on a desk.
Draw the force diagrams for this situation, and find the normal reactions acting
on each book in terms of the weight of a book.

In the same way that Newton’s third law can be applied to the normal reaction
forces between objects, so can it be applied to the tension forces due to a string
joining two objects. Thus, for example, for two particles A and B joined by a
model string, the tension force TA on particle A due to the string is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the tension force TB on particle B due to
the string, so TA = −TB . The magnitude of the two forces due to a string is often This was remarked upon in
referred to as the tension in the string. This is a scalar quantity. Subsection 2.4.

Exercise 17
A lamp of mass 1.5 kg is hanging from the ceiling on its cable. A child’s toy of
mass 0.5 kg is suspended by a string from the lampshade. Model the lamp (plus
lampshade) and the toy as particles, and the cable and the string as model
strings. Draw force diagrams showing the forces acting on the two particles. What
is the magnitude of the tension force due to the cable?

3.2 Pulleys
The pulley is a common device with which you are probably familiar. You may
have seen them in use on building sites, for example, as an aid to raising or
lowering heavy loads. The idea of a pulley is useful in modelling mechanics
problems, as it enables us to model a change in direction of a tension force.
In diagrams, we shall use an idealized pulley as shown in Figure 18. In order to
keep the model simple, we make simplifying assumptions, which are formally
stated in the following definition.
Figure 18

A model pulley is an object with no mass or size, over which a model string
may pass without any resistance to motion. The tension in a string passing
over a model pulley is the same either side of the pulley.

The point to remember is that the result of these assumptions implies that the
tension forces due to the string on either side of the model pulley are equal in

magnitude, i.e. the tension in the string as it passes over the pulley remains
constant.
A model pulley provides a reasonable model of an actual pulley, provided that its
dimensions are small compared with the length of the rope or cable passing over it
and that its weight is small compared with the other forces involved. Model
pulleys can also be used to model a variety of situations that do not involve
pulleys at all, but merely involve a change in direction of a tension force (such as
when a rope is hanging over the edge of a building). Their use is illustrated by the
following example and exercises.

Example 5
A sack of flour of mass 50 kg is lying on the floor of a mill, ready to be loaded into
a cart. To help with the loading process, a light rope is attached to the sack, In mechanics problems, if an
passes over a pulley fixed to the ceiling immediately above the sack, and is object is said to be ‘light’, its
attached at its other end to a stone of mass 15 kg that hangs without touching the mass may be ignored.
floor. The system is shown in Figure 19.
Model the sack and the stone as particles, the pulley as a model pulley, and the
rope as a model string.
(a) Calculate the normal reaction of the floor on the sack.
(b) What force does the pulley exert on the ceiling?
Solution
All the forces are vertical, so we need only one axis, as shown in Figure 19. JChoose axesI

j
15 kg

50 kg

Figure 19
(a) The force diagrams for the sack and the stone are shown in Figure 20, where JDraw force diagramI
W1 and W2 represent the weights, T1 and T2 represent the tension forces,
and N is the normal reaction of the floor on the sack.
T1

N T2

50 kg 15 kg

W1 W2
sack stone

Figure 20
The equilibrium condition for particles gives JApply law(s)I
W1 + N + T1 = 0, (20)
W2 + T2 = 0. (21)
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 24
3 Two or more particles

Since the tension forces on either side of a model pulley have the same
magnitude, we have
|T1 | = |T2 |.
To solve the equations, the first step is to write the forces in component form JSolve equation(s)I
as
W1 = −|W1 | j, N = |N| j, T1 = |T1 | j,
T2 = |T2 | j and W2 = −|W2 | j.
Then resolving Equations (20) and (21) in the j-direction gives
−|W1 | + |N| + |T1 | = 0,
−|W2 | + |T2 | = 0.
Therefore |T1 | = |T2 | = |W2 |, so
|N| = |W1 | − |T1 | = |W1 | − |W2 | = 50g − 15g = 35g ' 343.
So the normal reaction of the floor on the sack has magnitude about 343 N JInterpret solutionI
(35g) and is directed upwards. In the absence of the stone and the pulley, the
magnitude of the normal reaction would have been equal to the magnitude of
the weight of the sack (50g). The effect of the stone, transmitted via the
pulley, is as if the magnitude of the sack’s weight were reduced by the
magnitude of the weight of the stone (15g).
(b) To answer this question we need to model the forces on the pulley. We can JDraw force diagramI
consider the pulley as a particle of no mass. Modelling the short piece of
metal that attaches the pulley to the ceiling as a model string, we have the
force diagram shown in Figure 21.
T5

T4
pulley

Figure 21
The equilibrium condition for particles gives JApply law(s)I
T3 + T4 + T5 = 0. (22)
Since the tension in a string around a model pulley remains constant, we have
|T1 | = |T2 | = |T3 | = |T4 |.
Resolving Equation (22) in the j-direction gives JSolve equation(s)I
−|T3 | − |T4 | + |T5 | = 0.
Using the result from part (a) that |T1 | = |T2 | = |W2 |, we have
|T5 | = |T3 | + |T4 | = 2|W2 | = 30g ' 294.
So the model predicts that the force exerted by the short piece of metal JInterpret solutionI
(shown in Figure 19) on the pulley is about 294 N (30g) upwards. Hence, by
Newton’s third law, the force exerted by this short piece of metal on the
ceiling (i.e. the force exerted by the pulley on the ceiling) is about 294 N (30g)
downwards. This force (which is twice the weight of the stone) balances the

weights of the stone (15g) and the sack (50g), less the normal reaction (35g)
of the floor on the sack.

Exercise 18
Suppose that the pulley in Example 16 is no longer immediately above the sack,
so that the rope attached to the sack makes an angle of π4 to the vertical, as
shown in Figure 22.

i
15 kg
π
4

50 kg

Figure 22
(a) What is the magnitude of the normal reaction of the floor on the sack?
(b) What is the magnitude of the friction force on the sack?
(c) What is the smallest value of the coefficient of static friction that would allow
the system to remain in equilibrium?

Exercise 19
A car engine of mass 120 kg is being held suspended ready for lowering into a car.
The engine is attached to a pulley by a short rope. Another rope, attached at one
end to the ceiling of the garage, passes under the pulley then up towards the
ceiling again, where it passes over another pulley that is joined to the ceiling. A
mechanic holds the end of this rope. The situation is illustrated in Figure 23.

π π
4 4

j
120 kg
i

Figure 23
Assuming that the components of the system can be modelled as particles, model
strings and model pulleys as appropriate, determine the magnitude of the force
that the mechanic has to exert to keep the engine suspended in position while the
car is pushed underneath it.

3.3 Slipping
You have already investigated slipping in the case of a one-particle system. In this
subsection we examine the phenomenon in systems of more than one particle.

Example 6
Consider a scarf draped over the edge of a table. Model the scarf as two particles,
one of mass m1 hanging over the edge and the other of mass m2 resting on the
table, with the masses joined by a model string passing over the edge of the table,
which is modelled as a model pulley. Assume that the scarf’s mass is uniformly
distributed along its length, so that the masses of the two particles are
proportional to the corresponding lengths of scarf.
If the coefficient of static friction between the scarf and the table surface is µ,
what proportion of the scarf’s length can hang over the edge of the table before
the scarf slips off the table?
Solution
We can answer this question if we can find the ratio of m1 (the mass of scarf
hanging over the edge) to m1 + m2 (the total mass of scarf) when the scarf is on
the verge of slipping.
The situation is illustrated in Figure 24, which also shows a suitable choice of axes. JDraw pictureI
m2 JChoose axesI

j N T1

i F m2 T2
m1 m1

W2 W1

Figure 24
There are two forces acting on the hanging particle: its weight W1 and the JDraw force diagramI
tension force T1 . There are four forces acting on the particle on the table: its
weight W2 , the tension force T2 , the normal reaction force N, and the friction
force F. The force diagrams are shown in Figure 24.
While the scarf does not slip, we can apply the equilibrium condition for particles JApply law(s)I
to each particle in turn. For the hanging particle, we have
T1 + W1 = 0. (23)
For the particle on the table, we have
F + N + T2 + W2 = 0. (24)
The assumption of a model pulley gives
|T1 | = |T2 |. (25)
When the particle is on the verge of slipping, we have
|F| = µ|N|, (26)
where µ is the coefficient of static friction.

From Figure 24, the component forms of the force vectors can immediately be JSolve equation(s)I
written down:
T1 = |T1 | j, W1 = −|W1 | j, F = −|F| i,
N = |N| j, T2 = |T2 | i and W2 = −|W2 | j.
Resolving Equation (23) in the j-direction gives
|T1 | − |W1 | = 0,
so
|T1 | = |W1 | = m1 g.
Resolving Equation (24) in the i-direction gives
−|F| + 0 + |T2 | + 0 = 0,
so, using Equation (25),
|F| = |T2 | = |T1 | = m1 g.
Resolving Equation (24) in the j-direction gives
0 + |N| + 0 − |W2 | = 0,
so
|N| = |W2 | = m2 g.
Using Equation (26), we have
m1 g = µm2 g,
so
m1 = µm2 .
Therefore the model predicts that when the scarf is on the verge of slipping, the JInterpret solutionI
fraction of its length that hangs over the edge is
m1 µm2 µ
= = .
m1 + m2 µm2 + m2 µ+1

Exercise 20
A gold medallion of mass 0.02 kg is lying on a glass shelf in a bathroom. Attached
to the medallion is a gold chain of mass 0.03 kg, half of which is dangling over the
edge of the shelf. If the coefficient of static friction between gold and glass is 0.35,
will the chain and medallion remain at rest?

Exercise 21
An object of mass 2 kg is suspended from the ceiling by a string. An object of
mass 1 kg is suspended from the first object by another string. From this second
object is suspended an object of mass 3 kg. Draw the force diagram for each
object, and find the tension in each string.

Exercise 22
A man of mass 80 kg is about to be lowered into a well from a rope that passes
over the horizontal rotating axle of the well. The other end of the rope is held by m
80 kg
several men each of mass 80 kg, as shown in Figure 25, with the rope between the
µ = 0.35
men and the axle horizontal. Assume that the men can be represented by
particles, the rope by a model string and the axle by a model pulley.
j
If the coefficient of static friction between the men’s boots and the ground is 0.35,
how many men are required to hold the man at the end of the rope before he is i
lowered into the well?

Exercise 23 Figure 25
An object of mass m1 , resting on a board inclined at an angle α to the horizontal,
is attached to an object of mass m2 by a string hanging over the edge of the
board, as shown in Figure 26.
Assuming that the objects can be modelled as particles, the string as a model
string and the edge of the board as a model pulley, find the condition on the m1
coefficient of static friction µ between the first object and the board for this
m2
system to remain in equilibrium.
α
(Hint: There are two ways in which the equilibrium can be disturbed.)

Figure 26

4 Describing motion
This section is devoted to describing the motion of objects modelled as particles. The subject matter of this
In Subsection 4.1 the motion is described by giving a position vector at each section, the description of
instant in time. The ideas in Subsection 4.1 apply whether the particle moves motion, is often referred to by
the technical term kinematics.
along a straight line or along a curve of some sort; in Subsection 4.2, however, and
for the rest of the unit, only motion along a straight line is considered.

4.1 The motion of a particle

The motion of a real object, say a leaf that is falling to the ground, is very
difficult to describe exactly. The leaf may rotate, bend or vibrate while moving
along a complicated path in three-dimensional space. And its motion may be
affected by the presence of other moving objects, such as other falling leaves. It
would be foolhardy to try to meet all of these difficulties head-on, so we shall
make a number of simplifications in this unit, some of which will be relaxed later
in the course.
Simplification 1 Objects will be modelled as particles.
Simplification 2 Only the motion of single particles is considered.
Simplification 3 The motion is along a straight line (i.e. one-dimensional
motion).
Modelling objects as particles means that we neglect an object’s size and internal
structure. Neglecting an object’s size means that its location at any given time
may be described by a single point in space, and that its motion may be described
by a single curve. Neglecting the internal structure of an object, and hence also
any internal motion, amounts to saying that the curve described in time by the

particle gives the only information of interest about the way in which the object
moves. In mathematical terms, this means that a particle’s motion is completely
described by its position vector r, relative to some fixed origin O, at those times t
in the time interval of interest.
The representation of the motion of a particle by a position vector that changes
with time leads naturally to the representation of such motion by a vector
function.

A vector function r(t) of some variable t is a vector whose components are

functions of t. r(0) path of particle

Unlike the components of a vector, which are constant, the components of a

r(1)
vector function vary as the independent variable varies. In the case of the motion
of a particle, a vector function r(t), whose components at each time t represent
the position vector r of the particle at that time, completely describes the
particle’s motion. The idea is illustrated in Figure 27 and in the following example O
r(2)
of two-dimensional motion.
Figure 27 The path of a
Example 7 particle described by the
vector function r(t)
A juggler throws a ball from one hand to the other, in a vertical plane, as shown
in Figure 28. The ball is modelled as a particle, and its motion, with respect to
the horizontal and vertical axes shown in Figure 28, is described by the
two-dimensional vector function
r(t) = 1.5ti + t(4 − 5t)j (0 ≤ t ≤ 1), y
where distances are measured in metres, and time t is measured in seconds after
the ball was thrown. The origin is the juggler’s right hand just as he throws the O x
ball, which occurs at time t = 0. Let x(t) be the component of r(t) in the
i-direction, i.e. x(t) = r(t) . i = 1.5t. Similarly, let y(t) be the component of r(t) in j
the j-direction, i.e. y(t) = r(t) . j = t(4 − 5t). These give the horizontal distance
travelled and the height of the ball, respectively, at time t. i

(a) Calculate x(t) and y(t) at times t = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1, and sketch the
graphs of y(t) against t and against x(t). Comment on what the graphs
represent. Figure 28
(b) Using your graphs, or otherwise, answer the following questions.
(i) How high does the ball go, and what is its position at its highest point?
(ii) Does the juggler catch the ball?
Solution
(a) The values are tabulated in Table 2, and the graphs are shown in Figure 29. Table 2

t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

x(t) 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
y(t) 0 0.6 0.8 0.6 0 −1

y(t) y(t)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 t 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 x(t)
– 0.5 – 0.5

–1 –1
(a) y(t) against t (b) y(t) against x(t)

Figure 29
Figure 29(a) is a distance–time graph, representing the height y(t) of the ball
as the time t varies over the interval [0, 1]. Figure 29(b) represents the
position of the ball in the (x, y)-plane as t varies; the coordinates (x(t), y(t)) You may recognize (x(t), y(t)) as
of points on this curve are the components of the vector function r(t) a parametrization of the path of
describing the motion of the ball. In this case, since x(t) = 1.5t is just a the ball, in which the Cartesian
coordinates of the ball are
multiple of t, the two curves appear identical — the only difference is in the expressed in terms of another
scales on the horizontal axes. However, the curves represent different things. variable (in this case time t).
(b) (i) The quadratic function y(t) = t(4 − 5t) represents a parabola with
maximum value in the interval [0, 0.8] (see Figure 29(a)). From the
symmetry of the parabola, this maximum must occur at t = 0.4, at
which time y(t) = 0.8 (see Table 2). So the ball reaches a maximum
height of 0.8 m above the juggler’s hand after 0.4 s. At this maximum
height, x(t) = 0.6 (see Table 2).
So the ball’s position at its maximum height is given by the coordinates
(0.6, 0.8) (see Figure 29(b)), or equivalently by the position vector
r(0.4) = 0.6i + 0.8j.
(ii) The juggler probably does not catch the ball, because the ball continues
to travel downwards until it is one metre below the juggler’s left hand
(see Table 2 and Figure 29).

In general, motion in three-dimensional space is represented by a

three-dimensional vector function. However, because the motion in Example 7 was
in a plane, it was possible by careful choice of axes to represent that motion in
three-dimensional space by a two-dimensional vector function. A similarly careful
choice of axes can enable certain types of motion in three-dimensional space to be
represented by a one-dimensional vector function, as the following exercise
illustrates.

Exercise 24
An ice hockey player aims to hit the puck towards the goal, as shown in Figure 30,
but misses. The puck hits the back wall and bounces straight back, and is then hit
by a second player who (incredibly) hits it along the same path as the first player.
x
Let the origin be the point of impact of the puck by the first player, which occurs i
at time t = 0. The motion of the puck, with respect to the axis shown in O
Figure 30, is described by the one-dimensional vector function r(t) = x(t)i, where
the function x(t) is defined by
Figure 30

 5t, 0 ≤ t < 0.4,
x(t) = 4 − 5t, 0.4 ≤ t < 1,
6t − 7, 1 ≤ t ≤ 1.5,


where x is measured in metres and t in seconds.

(a) Sketch the graph of the function x(t).
(b) Using your graph, or otherwise, answer the following questions.
(i) How far is the first player from the back wall?
(ii) Does the second player hit the puck from a position closer to or further
from the back wall than the first player?
(iii) Does the second player give the puck more speed than the first player?

In Example 7 and Exercise 24, objects were modelled as particles. The question
arises as to when this is appropriate. It seems obvious that small objects can be
modelled as particles, but what about large objects such as the Earth? The
answer is that it depends on the context. For example, to calculate the Earth’s
orbit around the Sun, it is permissible to model the Earth as a particle. Newton The Earth’s diameter (about
realized that it was appropriate to model the Earth as a particle in this context, 13 000 km) is small compared
and it was one of his great achievements. with the Earth–Sun distance
(about 1.5 × 108 km).
Whether a particle model will be satisfactory is not just a question of size. For
example, if a ball is placed on a rough sloping table, then it will roll down the
slope. A particle model could be used to describe the trajectory of the ball’s
centre, but it would not be adequate to keep track of the rolling motion that takes
place about the centre. Note that this inadequacy of the particle model occurs
regardless of the ball’s size, since the same consideration would apply to a
football, a tennis ball, a marble or a ball-bearing.
You might think from this last example that the particle model is of very limited
use for moving objects, but in fact the example hints at how this model can be
extended. You will see in MST210 that the motion of an object can be described
well by specifying:
(a) the motion of the centre of mass of an object; For the symmetric objects
considered in that unit, the
(b) the motion of the whole object relative to its centre of mass. centre of mass is the geometric
As you will see in MST210, the motion of the centre of mass may be predicted by centre.
considering a particle of the same mass as the object, placed at the point defined
by the centre of mass, and subjected to all of the forces that act upon the object.
So, even in this more complicated situation, the concept of a particle is important.
Alternatively, it may be appropriate to think of an object as being composed of a
number of elements, each of which can be modelled individually as a particle.

Position, velocity and acceleration

We have seen how a particle’s motion can be completely described by a vector
function r(t), the position vector of the particle at any given time t. For this As in Units 2 and 3, we may
reason, we shall often refer to particles as having position r(t). sometimes wish to consider
position as a variable rather
However, other quantities, such as the speed and acceleration of a particle, are than as a function, and write r
often of more interest than its position. For example, an aggressive motorist might rather than r(t).
be proud of his acceleration away from traffic lights, whereas a police officer would
probably be more interested in the motorist’s speed. These quantities can be
calculated directly from a particle’s position r(t) by differentiating. But before we
can do that, we need to define the derivative of a vector function.

The derivative of a vector function r(t), whose components are smooth

functions of t, is the vector function

dr(t) r(t + h) − r(t)
= lim .
dt h→0 h
The derivative dr(t)/dt is often written as r0 (t) or, where t represents time,
as ṙ(t). Sometimes it is written more succinctly as dr/dt, r0 or ṙ. Newton’s notation ṙ(t) is
commonly used in mechanics.
This definition makes use of the concept of the limit of a vector function. As you
might expect, the limit of a vector function f (h) as h → 0 is the vector function
whose components are the limits, as h → 0, of the components of f (h).
Now, as you will recall, velocity is defined to be rate of change of position, so the
definition of the derivative of a vector function can be used to define the velocity
of a particle with position r(t) as We sometimes consider velocity
as a variable rather than as a
dr(t) function, and write v rather
v(t) = .
dt than v(t).
The speed of the particle, which as you will recall is defined to be the magnitude
of the velocity, is therefore given by |v(t)|.
To find the derivative of a vector function, we make use of the following theorem.

Theorem 2
If a vector function r(t) has the component form
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k,
where i, j, k are the (constant) Cartesian unit vectors, then its derivative is
given by
dr dx dy dz
= i + j + k.
dt dt dt dt

Exercise 25
For each of the particles whose positions are given, calculate the velocity and
speed of the particle at t = 1.
(a) r(t) = t2 i + 10tj
(b) r(t) = (sin t)i + (cos t)j + tk

In many situations, velocity is less important than changes in velocity. For

example, if you are on board a train travelling at a steady speed, you may not
even notice that you are moving. You will have no difficulty in, say, drinking a cup
of tea. However, this operation becomes more hazardous if the driver changes the
velocity of the train by putting on the brakes! Similarly, if the train goes round a
bend at constant speed, you will notice the change in velocity (hot tea in your lap
again!). In both cases, the rate of change of velocity is an important factor.
Now, you will recall that, just as velocity is defined to be rate of change of
position, so acceleration is defined to be rate of change of velocity. Therefore,

along similar lines to the definition of the velocity of a particle, the acceleration
of a particle with velocity v(t) is defined as
As with position and velocity,
dv(t) we sometimes write a rather
a(t) = .
dt than a(t).
Notice that the definition of acceleration as the rate of change of velocity differs
from its common everyday meaning as the rate of increase of speed. For example,
consider the train moving at constant speed around a bend mentioned above. Its
speed is constant, so it is not accelerating in the everyday sense. However, it is
accelerating in a mathematical sense, because its velocity is changing direction.
Similarly, in the everyday sense, the braking train is not accelerating but
decelerating, in that its speed is decreasing. However, in a mathematical sense it
is accelerating since its velocity is changing.
It is important to understand the difference between the mathematical and
everyday meanings of acceleration, and also to be able to interpret the meaning of
the components of the vectors defining the position, velocity and acceleration of a
particle. The following exercise should help you to do this.

Exercise 26
Three particles, A, B and C, are moving along three different straight lines. In
each case, the straight line is chosen as the x-axis, so the vectors defining the
position, velocity and acceleration of the three particles have only x-components.
The graphs of the x-components x(t) of the position of particle A, ẋ(t) of the
velocity of particle B, and ẍ(t) of the acceleration of particle C are shown in
Figure 31. Use the graphs to answer the following questions.
x(t) ẋ(t) ˙˙
x(t)
particle A particle B 1 particle C
1 1
0
1 2 3 4 5 t

t t –1
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 31
(a) When is particle A travelling fastest?
(b) Does particle B change its direction of motion in the time interval shown?
(c) Particle C starts from rest at time t = 0. Is particle C momentarily stationary
at any later time in the time interval shown?
(Hint: Think about the meaning of the area beneath a curve.)

4.2 One-dimensional motion

The ideas in Subsection 4.1 apply to motion in three-dimensional space generally.
For the rest of this text we make the simplification that the motion will be in one
dimension, so that the fundamental theory is not obscured.
Restriction to one-dimensional motion still allows a wide range of situations to be
covered. One such situation, which is analysed fully in Section 6, is the following.
If a marble is dropped from the Clifton Suspension Bridge, how long does it
take to fall into the River Avon below? And what is its velocity just before it
hits the water?
To answer these questions, we need expressions for the position and velocity of the
falling marble. It is reasonable to assume that the path of the marble is a straight
line; so, under this assumption, although the marble is moving in
three-dimensional space, this is a one-dimensional problem.
With badly chosen axes, all three components of the position vector of the marble
could be changing. (Imagine fixing your axes on a car as it crossed the bridge at
constant speed, or simply axes inclined to the vertical.) What makes this a
one-dimensional problem is that if we choose the axes well, then only one
component of the position vector is changing. Normally this axis is labelled as the
x-axis, with the result that the vector has only an i-component. Furthermore, if
the situation being considered has an obvious direction of positive motion, then it
is
usual to choose this direction as the direction of the positive x-axis. So, in the O
case of the Clifton Suspension Bridge problem (see Figure 32), it is sensible to x
choose the x-axis Ox pointing vertically downwards, so that the marble moves in
the positive x-direction.
For one-dimensional problems in which the x-axis corresponds to the direction of Figure 32
motion, the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle can be expressed as
dx(t) d2 x(t)
r(t) = x(t)i, v(t) = i, a(t) = i,
dt dt2
respectively. So, for such problems, the position of the particle can be described
by the function x(t), the velocity by the function v(t) = dx(t)/dt, and the As with r, v, and a, we shall
acceleration by the function a(t) = dv(t)/dt = d2 x(t)/dt2 . In fact, for sometimes find it convenient to
one-dimensional motion along a given x-axis, the vector quantities position, write x, v and a instead of x(t),
v(t) and a(t).
velocity and acceleration are completely described by the corresponding (scalar)
functions x(t), v(t) and a(t), respectively. For example, the magnitude of the In this course v is taken to mean
velocity is given by |v(t)|, its orientation by the given x-axis, and its sense by the the x-component of the vector v,
sign of v(t). Therefore, for the one-dimensional motion of an object along a given and the magnitude of v is
written |v|. In some books you
x-axis, we can — and frequently shall — refer to x(t) (or x), v(t) (or v) and a(t) may see a different convention,
(or a) as the position, velocity and acceleration of the object. where v is the magnitude of v.
In most of the examples and exercises in this unit so far, the position of the object
was known. It is more usual for the forces acting to be known. As you will see in
Section 5, this gives information about the acceleration of the object. So in the
following examples and exercises we practise finding the position and velocity of a
particle, given its acceleration.

Example 8
A particle is moving in a straight line along the x-axis. The acceleration a of the
particle at time t is given by
a(t) = (12t2 + 2)i.
At the instant t = 1 s, the particle is at x = 3 m and has velocity v = 2 m s−1 . Note that the ‘initial’ condition
for a problem does not have to
(a) Find the velocity v(t) and the position r(t) of the particle. be at t = 0.
(b) Find the velocity and position of the particle at time t = 2 s.
Solution
(a) The acceleration is known and is a one-dimensional vector function. Using the
notation above, we have
a(t) = a(t) . i = 12t2 + 2.
Since a(t) = dv(t)/dt, we have the first-order differential equation
dv
= 12t2 + 2.
dt
This equation can be solved by direct integration, giving In general, when trying to find
Z the position of a particle given
v = (12t2 + 2) dt = 4t3 + 2t + A. its acceleration, it is often easier
to first find its velocity and then
To find the value of the constant A, we use the fact that v = 2 when t = 1, so find its position, and thus solve
two first-order differential
that 2 = 4 + 2 + A, giving A = −4. This gives equations, rather than to find its
v(t) = 4t3 + 2t − 4. position directly by solving a
second-order differential
Since v(t) = dx(t)/dt, we have the first-order differential equation equation.
dx
= 4t3 + 2t − 4.
dt
Solving this equation by direct integration gives
Z
x = (4t3 + 2t − 4) dt = t4 + t2 − 4t + B.

The initial condition x = 3 when t = 1 can be used to find the constant B,

giving 3 = 1 + 1 − 4 + B, so that B = 5. This gives
x(t) = t4 + t2 − 4t + 5.
So the velocity and position of the particle are
v(t) = (4t3 + 2t − 4)i, r(t) = (t4 + t2 − 4t + 5)i.
(b) When t = 2, the velocity and position have values
v(2) = (4 × 23 + 2 × 2 − 4)i = 32i,
r(2) = (24 + 22 − 4 × 2 + 5)i = 17i.
Hence at time 2 seconds the particle has position 17 metres along the positive
x-axis and velocity 32 metres per second in the direction of the positive x-axis.

Exercise 27
A particle is moving in a straight line along the x-axis. At time t the particle has
an acceleration given by
a(t) = (18t − 20)i (t ≥ 0).
Initially, at t = 0, the particle has position r(0) = 7i and velocity v(0) = 3i. Find
the position of the particle at time t = 10.

Exercise 28
A particle is moving in a straight line along the x-axis. At time t the particle has
an acceleration given by
a(t) = ge−kt i (t ≥ 0),
where g and k are positive constants. Initially, at t = 0, the particle is at the
origin (r(0) = 0) and is at rest (v(0) = 0). Find the velocity and position of the
particle as vector functions.

In general, an equation of motion is any equation relating two or more of

acceleration, velocity, position and time. The rest of this subsection is devoted to
problems involving the solution of equations of motion. We begin with the case of
constant acceleration, which occurs frequently.

Example 9
A particle moves in a straight line along the x-axis with constant acceleration
a(t) = a0 i (a0 6= 0). The particle starts from the origin at time t = 0 with initial The subscript 0 is used to
velocity v(0) = v0 i. distinguish the constants a0 and
v0 from the variables a and v.
(a) Show that the velocity and position of the particle are given by
v(t) = v = v0 + a0 t and x(t) = x = v0 t + 12 a0 t2 .
(b) By eliminating t between these two equations, show that
v 2 = v02 + 2a0 x.

Solution
(a) We have
dv
a(t) = = a0 ,
dt
which on integration yields
Z
v = a0 dt = a0 t + A.

The initial condition v(0) = v0 gives A = v0 , so the velocity is given by

v(t) = v = v0 + a0 t. (27) Note that Equations (27)
and (28) are sometimes quoted
Hence using the symbol s instead of x.
dx
= v0 + a0 t,
dt
from which
Z
x = (v0 + a0 t) dt = v0 t + 21 a0 t2 + B.

Since the particle starts at the origin, we have the initial condition x(0) = 0,
which gives B = 0, so the position is given by
x(t) = x = v0 t + 21 a0 t2 . (28)
(b) Rearranging Equation (27) gives, since a0 6= 0,
v − v0
t= .
a0
Substituting this into Equation (28) yields
v − v0 2

v − v0 1
x = v0 + 2 a0 .
a0 a0
Multiplying through by 2a0 and expanding the brackets gives
2a0 x = (2v0 v − 2v02 ) + (v 2 − 2v0 v + v02 ) = v 2 − v02 ,
which can be rearranged to give
v 2 = v02 + 2a0 x, (29)
as required.

The results of Example 9 can be summarized as follows.

Constant acceleration
If a particle is moving in a straight line along the x-axis with constant It is always possible to specify
acceleration a(t) = a0 i, and at time t = 0 it is at the origin with initial that the origin coincides with
velocity v(0) = v0 i, then its acceleration, velocity and position are given, the particle’s position at time
t = 0, so these results are
respectively, by completely general.
a = a0 , However, it is sometimes
convenient to take x = x0 when
v = v0 + a0 t, t = 0, in which case the position
x = v0 t + 21 a0 t2 . is given by x = x0 + v0 t + 12 a0 t2 ,
and Equation (29) becomes
Furthermore, v 2 = v02 + 2a0 (x − x0 ).
v 2 = v02 + 2a0 x. (29)

We know that, by definition, a = dv/dt = d2 x/dt2 . There is a useful alternative

expression for a that can be derived using the Chain Rule:
dv dv dx dv
a= = = v.
dt dx dt dx

Alternative expressions for a(t)

dv d2 x dv
a= = 2 =v
dt dt dx

The formula a = v dv/dx can be used to obtain Equation (29) directly, without
having to find v and x first, as the following exercise asks you to demonstrate.

Exercise 29
A particle moves in a straight line along the x-axis with constant acceleration
a(t) = a0 i. Initially, at time t = 0, the particle is at the origin and has velocity
v(0) = v0 i. Use the relationship a = v dv/dx to show that
v 2 = v02 + 2a0 x.

In general, given an equation of motion relating acceleration to one or more of

velocity, position and time, we want to obtain an equation relating velocity to
position and/or time, or an equation relating position to time. In the case of
one-dimensional motion, we can do this by using one of
dv d2 x dv
a= , a= 2, a=v
dt dt dx
to substitute for a and then solving the resulting differential equation. The
following exercise asks you to decide which formula for a provides the most
appropriate substitution in a variety of typical cases.

Exercise 30
How would you use the above formulae to substitute for a in the following
equations of motion, in order to obtain the specified information? (You are not
expected to solve the resulting equations.)
(a) The equation of motion is a = cos t; it is required to find velocity and position
in terms of time.
(b) The equation of motion is a = −x; it is required to find a relationship between
velocity and position.
(c) The equation of motion is a = −x − v + cos t; it is required to find position in
terms of time.

End-of-section Exercise
Exercise 31
The data in Table 4, taken from the United Kingdom Highway Code, show the
shortest stopping distances of cars travelling along a straight road.
The thinking distance is defined to be the distance travelled by a car in the
maximum time it takes for an alert driver to react to a hazardous situation.
Table 4
Speed Thinking Braking Overall
(mph) distance distance stopping
(feet) (feet) distance
(feet) The foot is a unit of length in
20 20 20 40 the British Imperial system, and
1 foot = 0.3048 m. The British
30 30 45 75 Imperial unit for speed is miles
40 40 80 120 per hour (mph), and
50 50 125 175 1 mph = 0.447 m s−1 .
60 60 180 240
70 70 245 315
(a) The data in Table 4 are not from an experiment; they are the predictions of
models. Your task is to discover what models were used.
(i) What model (using SI units) was used to obtain the thinking distance
data?
(Hint: Think about the speed of the car before and after the thinking
phase, and use the constant acceleration formula x = v0 t + 12 a0 t2 .)
(ii) What model (using SI units) was used to obtain the braking distance
data?
(Hint: Think about the speed of the car before and after the braking
phase, and use the constant acceleration formula v 2 = v02 + 2a0 x.)
(b) Use your models from part (a) to predict the overall stopping distance (in
metres) for a speed of 45 mph.

5 A theory of motion
Section 4 introduced the basic concepts of position, velocity and acceleration that
are needed to describe motion. In this section, two concepts introduced in
Section 2, force and mass, enable us to go beyond the mere description of motion
and formulate laws predicting what motions take place.
At first sight it might seem that a different set of rules of motion would be
required for each type of object — one set for tennis balls, another set for planets,
and so on. Fortunately, there is a simple underlying pattern. Newton was able to Newton’s three laws of motion
see beyond individual cases, and his three laws of motion form a framework, or were stated in the Introduction.
theory, for predicting the motion of all objects.
Our instinctive ideas of motion are shaped by the presence of friction in almost all
things in our everyday lives. Aristotle (384–322 bc) constructed a theory out of
this experience that turned out to be completely wrong. This theory and the

subsequent development of ideas of motion, leading eventually to Newton’s laws,

is the subject of the video for this unit. But before viewing the video, consider the
following thought experiment to imagine motion without friction.
Consider a toboggan on a horizontal icy surface such as a frozen lake. Left
undisturbed, the toboggan remains static; it must be pushed or pulled in some
way if it is to be set in motion, i.e. a force must act on the toboggan. However, if
you give the toboggan a push and then release it, the toboggan will move across Once the toboggan has been
the ice at almost constant speed in the direction that it has been pushed. released, the force of the push
ceases to act on it.
This suggests that under ideal (i.e. frictionless) conditions, the following applies:
in the absence of a force, the toboggan remains at rest or moves with constant
speed in a straight line.
In real life, the toboggan does eventually slow down, partly due to air resistance
and partly due to friction between the toboggan runners and the ice. In
competitive tobogganing, the tobogganers go to great lengths to reduce these
resistive forces (i.e. forces resisting motion) by streamlining the toboggan and
waxing the runners.

Exercise 32
A car on a flat, straight road requires a motive force (supplied by its engine) in
order to maintain a constant speed of 70 miles per hour; if the engine is switched
off, then the car slows down. It might be thought from the above example that if
an object is moving with constant velocity, then there is no force acting on it. Try
to explain this apparent contradiction.

Returning to the example above, suppose that you apply a force by pushing the
toboggan continuously. You cannot quantify this force, but the sensations in your
muscles and nerves will reveal whether you are pushing gently or firmly. From
experience, you know that:
the harder you continue to push, the further and faster the toboggan moves in
a given time.
This suggests that there is a link between the force that is applied and the way in
which the toboggan moves.

Exercise 33
A toboggan on an icy slope may accelerate even when it is not being pushed. Try
to identify the force that causes this acceleration.

Next, imagine pushing two identical toboggans, one of which is empty while the
other carries a heavy person. If you apply the same force to the two toboggans,
then the laden toboggan will move more sluggishly. To achieve the same motion in
each case, it is necessary to apply a greater force to the laden toboggan. In other
words:
if you apply the same force to the two toboggans, the laden toboggan does not
travel as far or as fast in a given time as the empty toboggan;

in order for the two toboggans to move in the same way, a greater force must
be applied to the laden toboggan than to the empty toboggan.
In general, it seems that three concepts are linked together:
(a) the force that is applied to an object;
(b) the mass of the object;
(c) the motion of the object.
Newton proposed in his book Principia that this link takes the form
force = mass × acceleration. (30)
The validity of this equation is shown by its success at predicting motion —
nearly the whole of nineteenth-century science rested on it! It also provides a
more formal definition of force than was given previously.
This equation can be written in the vector form
F = ma,
where F is the vector quantity force, m is the scalar quantity mass, and a is the
vector quantity acceleration. This equation is the bedrock of Newtonian
mechanics, and it is usually referred to as Newton’s second law.
Strictly speaking, the argument concerning the toboggan justifies only the
statement that force is proportional to mass times acceleration, i.e. F = kma with
k some constant of proportionality. However, in the SI system of units, k is chosen
to be 1 by an appropriate definition of the unit of force, the newton, which makes
use of Newton’s second law.

A force of magnitude one newton (1 N) is the force required to accelerate a

mass of one kilogram at one metre per second per second (i.e.
1 N = 1 kg m s−2 ). The direction of the force is the direction in which the
mass accelerates.

This is a good point at which to summarize the discussion so far in this section
into precise laws comprising the foundations of Newtonian mechanics.

Fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics

These laws concern a particle, which is a mathematical model for any
material object whose size and internal structure may be neglected.
The mass of the particle is expressed by a single positive number m. This
number is an inherent property of the particle and does not depend on time,
position, force or any other variable.
Law of addition of mass
If an object modelled as a particle is composed of a number of parts, then
the mass m of the particle is the sum of the masses of the parts.
Law of addition of forces It is very important to take into
account the directions of the
If several forces act simultaneously on a particle, then the resultant force is
individual forces as well as their
the vector sum of the individual forces. magnitudes.
Newton’s second law This statement of Newton’s
If a particle has a constant mass m and experiences a total force F, then its second law applies to particles of
constant mass, which are the
acceleration a is given by only particles studied in this
F = ma. course.

Newton’s first law Newton’s first law is a special

When F is zero, a is zero: in the absence of a force, a particle either stays case of Newton’s second law. It
forms the basis of the
permanently at rest or moves at constant velocity, i.e. at a constant speed in equilibrium conditions that are
a straight line. so useful in the analysis of
statics problems.

Exercise 34
If a mass of 200 grams is subjected to a force of magnitude 10 newtons, what is
the magnitude of the acceleration produced?

Exercise 35
An object of mass 10 kilograms is attached to a string hanging over the edge of a
table, as shown in Figure 33. The other end of the string is attached to another x
object, on top of the table. The object hanging over the edge of the table is
observed to be accelerating at 1 m s−2 downwards.
O
(a) What is the resultant force on the hanging object?
10 kg
(b) Apply Newton’s second law to the hanging object, and hence calculate the
tension force due to the string acting on the hanging object.
Figure 33

End-of-section Exercise
Exercise 36
A fighter pilot can experience an acceleration of magnitude approximately six
times the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity before being rendered
unconscious. If a fighter of mass 4000 kilograms is subjected to a force of
50 000 i + 60 000 j + 100 000 k newtons during an aerobatic manoeuvre, will the
pilot remain conscious?

6 Predicting motion
Newton’s second law of motion can be used to help solve a huge variety of
mechanics problems. The first example considers the motion of an object falling
under gravity alone.
The steps involved in the solution are similar to those in the procedure for solving
statics problems. As before, the steps are highlighted by labels in the margin.

Example 10
A marble, initially at rest, is dropped from the Clifton Suspension Bridge and falls
into the River Avon, 77 metres below. Assuming that the only force acting on the
marble is gravity, find:
(a) the time taken before the marble hits the water;
(b) the speed of the marble just before it hits the water.
Solution
The first step is always to draw a diagram that includes all the relevant JDraw pictureI
information given in the problem, as in Figure 34.

77 m x

Figure 34
Choose an x-axis pointing vertically downwards, with its origin at the point where JChoose axesI
the object is released, as shown in Figure 34. (This makes the algebra simpler as
all quantities are positive.)
The marble is modelled as a particle with gravity the only force acting on it. This JDraw force diagramI
is represented by the following force diagram, in which m denotes the mass of the
marble and W denotes its weight.
m

The resultant force acting on the marble is W = mgi (where, as usual, i is a unit
vector pointing in the direction of the positive x-axis, in this case vertically
downwards).
The acceleration, a, is obtained by applying Newton’s second law: JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI
ma = mgi.
From this equation we see that only the i-component of a could be varying, so we
have a = a(t) i. So the equation becomes ma = mg, and dividing through by m
gives
a = g.
(Notice that since m cancels out, the results apply to a marble of any mass.)
There are several approaches to obtaining the equations needed to solve the JSolve differential equationI
problem. One approach requires that we first replace a by dv/dt to obtain
dv The constant acceleration
= g. formulae from Subsection 4.2
dt could be used since a = g is
This is integrated to give constant, but we choose a more
general method that applies
v = gt + A. even when a is not constant.
The initial condition that the marble is initially at rest (i.e. v = 0 when t = 0)
gives A = 0, so
v = gt. (31)
Now, replacing v by dx/dt gives
dx
= gt.
dt
This is integrated to obtain
x = 12 gt2 + B.
The origin was chosen so that x = 0 when t = 0, so B = 0, which gives
x = 12 gt2 . (32)
(a) When the marble hits the water, x = 77 and Equation (32) gives JInterpret solutionI
77 = 21 gt2 , which on putting g = 9.81 gives
r
2 × 77
t= ' 3.962.
9.81
So the model predicts that the marble hits the water approximately
3.96 seconds after being released.
(b) Putting t = 3.962 into Equation (31) gives
v = 9.81 × 3.962 ' 38.87.
So the model predicts that the marble has a speed of approximately
38.9 metres per second just before it hits the water.

Try the following exercise following the same steps as given in the margin in the
above example.

Exercise 37
A stone, dropped from rest, takes 3 seconds to reach the bottom of a well. Use the more general approach
Assuming that the only force acting on the stone is gravity, estimate: of Example 10 rather than the
constant acceleration formulae of
(a) the depth of the well; Subsection 4.2.
(b) the speed of the stone when it reaches the bottom.

The steps highlighted in Example 10 and in the solution to Exercise 37 are

re-stated in the following procedure for solving mechanics problems involving
one-dimensional motion using Newton’s second law. Remember that it is intended
to be a guide rather than a rigid set of rules.

Procedure 1.3 Applying Newton’s second law

Given a mechanics problem involving one-dimensional motion in which a
question regarding the motion is to be answered, proceed as follows.
(a) Draw a sketch of the physical situation, and annotate it with any JDraw pictureI
relevant information.
(b) Choose the x-axis to lie along the direction of motion, and select an JChoose axesI
origin. Mark the x-axis, its direction and the origin on your sketch.
(c) Draw a force diagram. JDraw force diagramI
(d) Apply Newton’s second law to obtain a vector equation. Resolve each JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI
force along the chosen axes in order to resolve the vector equation into
scalar equations. For one-dimensional motion, this gives a single
differential equation if the axes are chosen correctly.
(e) Substitute v dv/dx, dv/dt or d2 x/dt2 for the acceleration a in the JSolve differential equationI
equation of motion, and solve the resulting differential equation(s) to
obtain the velocity v in terms of the position x or time t, or the
position x in terms of the time t, as appropriate.
(f) Interpret the solution in terms of the original problem. JInterpret solutionI

Notes on the procedure

• This procedure assumes that the question to be answered is given. When
modelling real-world situations, deriving a suitable question is half the work.
This part of the modelling process that is a major theme of MST210.
• The importance of drawing a picture cannot be stressed too strongly. Include
in the picture all relevant information from the problem, e.g. distances,
masses and initial velocities.
• The choices of the origin and of the direction of the x-axis are arbitrary, and
will have no effect on the final outcome of your calculations. However, try to
make these choices so that the position x and/or the velocity v are positive
for the particle’s motion, as this will simplify the algebra. If there is a clear
starting point for the motion, then this is often a suitable choice for the origin.
• For some problems it may be necessary to choose a y-axis and even a z-axis See Subsection 7.
as well as an x-axis.

• Steps (b) and (c) are interchangeable: the force diagram does not change with
a different choice of axes. If you have difficulty choosing an x-axis, then draw
the force diagram first.
• Your choice of substitution for a will depend on what question you want to
answer (for example, you may want an equation linking velocity to time, or
velocity to position). (See Exercise 30 for examples of this.)
• When the acceleration is constant, you can use the general constant
acceleration formulae from Subsection 4.2 to solve the differential equation.
• Perform any readily available checks on your working, and consider whether
your answers are physically reasonable. For example, you could check that
the units of your answer are correct, or use common sense to tell you whether
your answer is in the correct range.
• When you have finished interpreting the solution, write out your conclusion in
words, and remember to include the physical units for any quantities given
(as in Example 10). Also look back at the problem and check that you have
fully answered the question asked.
Try using the procedure in the following exercise.

Exercise 38
A ball is thrown vertically upwards from ground level with an initial speed of
10 metres per second. Assuming that gravity is the only force acting on the ball,
find:
(a) the time taken for the ball to reach its maximum height;
(b) the maximum height attained;
(c) the time taken for the ball to return to the ground;
(d) the speed of the ball as it reaches the ground on its return.

In Example 10, which considered the motion of a marble falling from the Clifton
Suspension Bridge, first the velocity and then the position were found as functions
of time (by using the substitutions dv/dt for a and dx/dt for v). However, as was
indicated in the solution to that example, there are other approaches to solving
the problem. You are asked to adopt one of these other approaches in the
following exercise.

Exercise 39
A marble, initially at rest, is dropped from the Clifton Suspension Bridge and falls
into the River Avon, 77 metres below. Assume that the only force acting on the
marble is gravity.
(a) By putting a = v dv/dx in Newton’s second law and solving the resulting
differential equation, find the marble’s velocity v as a function of the
distance x through which it has fallen.
(b) By putting v = dx/dt in your answer to part (a), find the time t that the
object takes to fall a distance x.
(c) Hence find the time taken before the marble hits the water, and the speed of
the marble just before it hits the water.

In the previous examples and exercises, all of the forces acting on an object were
in the same direction; but this does not have to be so for the motion to be in one
dimension. This is illustrated in the following example.

Example 11
A crate of empty bottles of total mass 30 kilograms is being hauled by rope up a
smooth ramp from the cellar of a pub. The ramp makes an angle of π/6 radians
with the horizontal. When the crate has been hauled 2 metres up the ramp (i.e.
2 metres along the slope of the ramp), the rope suddenly breaks. It is estimated
that if the crate hits the bottom of the ramp at a speed of 5 metres per second or
greater, then the bottles in the crate will break. Assuming that there is no friction
between the crate and the ramp, and assuming that air resistance can be
neglected, will the bottles break?
Solution
The situation is sketched in Figure 35. JDraw pictureI

j 30
kg 2m
y

Ο x
i π
6

Figure 35
The crate moves down the slope, so we choose the x-axis to point down the slope, JChoose axesI
with the origin at the crate’s position when the rope breaks. (We model the crate
as a particle, so its position is at a point.) Choose a y-axis perpendicular to this,
as shown in Figure 35. Also shown in the picture are the unit vectors i and j
implied by this choice of axes. Note the difference between drawing the axes
(which have a fixed origin) and drawing the unit vectors (which are not fixed and
only convey directions).
The only forces on the crate are the weight W and the normal reaction N of the JDraw force diagramI
ramp (since we are neglecting friction and air resistance in this example). So,
modelling the crate as a particle of mass m, the force diagram (showing also how
N j
m
π
π
3 i
6
π
6

the relevant angles are calculated) is as follows. W

Now, Newton’s second law for this system gives JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI
ma = W + N. (33) We use the letter m rather than
the value 30 kg for the mass
From the force diagram, N = |N| j. The weight can be resolved into components since inserting actual data
as follows: values too early in the modelling
process can obscure features of
W = (W . i) i + (W . j) j the resulting model.
= |W| cos π3 i + |W| cos( π2 + π3 ) j
√
3
= 12 |W| i − 2 |W| j.

The motion is along the slope, so a = ai. (All we are saying here is that there is
no resultant force in the j-direction.) Now that we have all the vectors in
component form, we can immediately resolve Equation (33) in the i-direction:
ma = 21 |W| + 0.
Substituting |W| = mg gives ma = 12 mg, so Again m cancels out, so the
results apply to a crate of any
a = 21 g. mass.
We want an equation for the velocity v in terms of the distance travelled x. Since JSolve differential equationI
the acceleration is constant, we can use Equation (29), i.e.
v 2 = v02 + 2ax.
This gives the final velocity in terms of known quantities: the initial velocity
v0 = 0 m s−1 , the distance travelled x = 2 m, and the constant acceleration a = 21 g.
Putting the data into the equation gives JInterpret solutionI
v 2 = 02 + 2 × 12 g × 2 ' 19.6.
So v ' 4.4, which means that the crate is travelling at about 4.4 metres per
second when it hits the bottom of the ramp. This speed is just below the
estimated speed at which the bottles will break, so — provided that the estimate
of the speed at which the bottles will break is a good one — this model predicts
that the bottles will not break.

Exercise 40
A skier of mass 65 kilograms starts from rest at the top of a 120-metre ski slope
(i.e. 120 metres is the vertical distance from top to bottom), as shown in
Figure 36. The skier is to ski down the slope before taking off and then landing
some distance further down the hill. Use the x-axis shown, which points down the
slope with the origin at the top of the slope. Let θ be the angle that the slope
makes with the horizontal. Assuming that friction and air resistance can be
neglected, answer the following questions.
(a) If θ = π4 , what is the speed of the skier at the bottom of the slope?
(b) If θ = π3 , what is the speed of the skier at the bottom of the slope?

x
65 kg
120 m

Figure 36

End-of-section Exercise
Exercise 41
A man leaning from a window throws a ball vertically upwards from a point
4.4 metres above the ground. The initial speed of the ball is 7.6 metres per second.
It travels up and then down in a straight vertical line, and eventually reaches the
ground. Assuming that gravity is the only force acting on the ball, estimate:
(a) the time that elapses before the ball reaches the ground
(b) the speed of the ball when it strikes the ground.

7 Friction F N

Previously you encountered a model for the friction force that acts on an object at
rest in contact with a surface. This force F has magnitude less than or equal to
µ|N|, i.e. |F| ≤ µ|N|, where N is the normal reaction force and µ is the coefficient
W
of static friction between the object and the surface. The direction of the friction
force opposes any possible motion (e.g. is up the slope in Figure 37).
The coefficient µ is called the coefficient of static friction to distinguish it from the
coefficient of sliding friction, denoted by µ0 , which is used when an object is Figure 37 The forces acting
on a block at rest on a slope
moving along a surface. In this situation, experiments show that the magnitude of
the friction force F is equal to µ0 |N|, i.e. |F| = µ0 |N|, where N is the normal
reaction force and µ0 is the coefficient of sliding friction; the direction of the The names coefficient of
friction force is opposite to the direction of motion. dynamical friction or coefficient
of kinetic friction are sometimes
used instead of the name
coefficient of sliding friction.
Modelling sliding friction
(a) The friction force F acts in a direction perpendicular to the normal
reaction N and opposite to the motion.
(b) |F| = µ0 |N|, where µ0 is the coefficient of sliding friction for the two
surfaces involved.

The numerical value of the coefficient of sliding friction µ0 is always smaller than
the numerical value of the coefficient of static friction µ. (It is harder to get
objects moving than to keep them moving.) A generalization that is often useful is
µ0 ' 43 µ.
The use of the sliding friction model is best explained by an example.

Example 12
Consider again the problem of Example 11 concerning the crate of empty bottles
sliding down a cellar ramp, but this time assume that there is friction between the
crate and the ramp, with coefficient of sliding friction µ0 = 0.15.
(a) Estimate the speed of the crate when it reaches the bottom of the ramp. Will
the bottles break?
(b) Compare the answer to part (a) with the answer to Example 11, and
comment.

Solution
The situation is sketched in Figure 38. JDraw pictureI

µ' = 0.15

j 30
kg 2m
y

Ο x
i π
6

Figure 38
Choose the x-axis parallel to the ramp and the y-axis perpendicular to it, as shown JChoose axesI
in Figure 38. Choose the origin to be the crate’s position when the rope breaks.
The forces acting on the crate are its weight, the normal reaction of the ramp, and JDraw force diagramI
friction.
N j
F
m
π
π
3 i
6
π
6
W

Using m for the mass of the crate (as in Example 11), applying Newton’s second JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI
law to this system gives
ma = W + N + F. (34)
From the force diagram, N = |N| j and F = −|F| i. It is also apparent that the
motion is one-dimensional parallel to the x-axis, i.e. a = ai. The weight is resolved
into components as follows:
W = |W| cos π3 i + |W| cos( π2 + π3 ) j
√
3
= 12 mg i − 2 mg j.
Now we can immediately resolve Equation (34) in the i-direction to obtain
ma = 21 mg + 0 − |F|.
Using the friction model |F| = µ0 |N| gives
ma = 21 mg − µ0 |N|. (35)
So, to find a, we need to find |N|. To do this, we resolve Equation (34) in the
j-direction to obtain
√
3
0=− 2 mg + |N| + 0,
√
3
which gives |N| = 2 mg. Substituting this into Equation (35) gives
√
3 0
ma = 12 mg − 2 µ mg,
so
√
3 0
a = 12 g − 2 µ g.
As in Example 11, the acceleration is constant, so we can use JSolve differential equationI
2
v = v02 + 2ax.

This gives the final speed in terms of known quantities: the initial velocity
v0 = 0 m s−1
√ , the distance travelled x = 2 m, and the constant acceleration
a = 12 g − 23 µ0 g where µ0 = 0.15.
(a) Putting the data into the equation gives JInterpret solutionI
√
v 2 = 02 + 2 × ( 12 g − 2
3
× 0.15 × g) × 2 ' 14.5.
So v ' 3.8, which means that the crate is travelling at about 3.8 metres per
second when it hits the bottom of the ramp. This speed is well below the
estimated speed at which the bottles will break, so this model predicts that
the bottles will not break.
(b) The model that neglected friction (Example 11) predicted a speed of
4.4 m s−1 . The new prediction of 3.8 m s−1 is slower, as should be expected
after the incorporation of friction into the model (this is a good quick check of
the solution), and is significantly slower than the breaking threshold of
5 m s−1 . So in this case, even if the estimated breaking threshold is not
terribly accurate, we can be reasonably confident that our prediction that the
bottles will not break is correct.

Table 6 shows some values of the coefficient of sliding friction that may be useful
in problems involving sliding objects.
Table 6 Coefficients of sliding friction
Object Surface µ0
waxed ski dry snow 0.03
brass ice 0.02
vulcanized rubber dry tarmac 1.07
vulcanized rubber wet tarmac 0.95

Exercise 42
A tip-up truck is delivering a concrete block to a building site. The driver
increases the angle of tip of the carrier until the concrete block begins to slide,
then keeps the carrier at this constant angle. The coefficient of static friction
between a concrete block and metal is approximately 0.4, and the coefficient of
sliding friction is approximately 0.3.
(a) Calculate the angle at which the concrete block begins to slide.
(b) If the concrete block has 3 metres to travel before leaving the carrier, how
long will it take to unload it?

Exercise 43
Repeat Exercise 40 (page 49) under the new modelling assumption that friction
cannot be neglected; the coefficient of sliding friction between (waxed) skis and
snow is 0.03. Compare your answers here with those to Exercise 40, and comment.

Solutions to exercises
Solution to Exercise 1 On integrating (by parts on the right-hand side), we
3 5
(a) The equation dy/dx + x y = x is linear, with find Z
g(x) = x3 and h(x) = x5 . e−x y = xe−x dx
(b) The equation dy/dx = x sin x is linear, with Z
g(x) = 0 (for all x) and h(x) = x sin x. = −xe + e−x dx
−x

(c) The equation dz/dt = −3z 1/2 is not linear = −xe−x − e−x + C
(because of the z 1/2 term). = C − (x + 1)e−x ,
(d) The equation ẏ + y 2 = t is not linear (because where C is an arbitrary constant. After multiplying
of the y 2 term). through by ex , the general solution in explicit form
(e) The equation x(dy/dx) + y = y 2 is not linear is
(because of the y 2 term). y = Cex − (x + 1).
(f ) The equation (1 + x2 )(dy/dx) + 2xy = 3x2 is
linear, since we can divide through by 1 + x2 to
Solution to Exercise 3
obtain (a) The given equation, when rearranged into
dy/dx + 2xy/(1 + x2 ) = 3x2 /(1 + x2 ), which is of form (1), is du/dx − xu = 0. The integrating factor
the defined form with g(x) = 2x/(1 + x2 ) and is Z
h(x) = 3x2 /(1 + x2 ).
p = exp (−x) dx
Solution to Exercise 2
= exp(−x2 /2)
x
(a) The given equation is dy/dx − y = e sin x. 2
= e−x /2 .
Comparison with Equations (1) and (9) shows that
the integrating factor is Multiplying through by p(x) gives
Z 2 du 2

p = exp (−1) dx = exp(−x) = e−x . e−x /2 − xe−x /2 u = 0.

dx
Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as
Multiplying through by p(x) gives
d −x2 /2
dy (e u) = 0.
e−x − e−x y = sin x. dx
dx On integrating, we find the general solution
Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as 2 2

d −x e−x /2 u = C, or, equivalently, u = Cex /2

,
(e y) = sin x. where C is an arbitrary constant.
dx
On integrating, we find the general solution From the initial condition u(0) = 2, we have
e−x y = − cos x + C, 2 = Ce0 , so C = 2. Hence the solution of the
or, equivalently, initial-value problem is
2
y = ex (C − cos x), u = 2ex /2
.
where C is an arbitrary constant. (b) After division by t, the given equation can be
(b) The given equation, when rearranged into written as dy/dt + (2/t)y = t. (To avoid division by
form (1), is dy/dx − y = x. This has the same zero, we take t > 0, say, which is consistent with the
left-hand side as the differential equation in initial condition.) The integrating factor is
Z
part (a), and hence the same integrating factor, 2
p = exp dt
p = e−x . Multiplying through by p(x) gives t
dy = exp(2 ln t)
e−x − e−x y = xe−x .
dx = exp(ln(t2 ))
Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as
= t2 .
d −x
(e y) = xe−x . Multiplying through by p(t) gives
dx
dy
t2 + 2ty = t3 .
dt

Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as (b) After division by e3t and rearrangement, the
d 2 given equation becomes dy/dt + y = e−3t . This has
(t y) = t3 . the same left-hand side as the differential equation
dt
On integrating, we find the general solution in part (a), and hence the same integrating factor,
t2 y = 41 t4 + C, or, equivalently, y = 14 t2 + Ct−2 , p = et . Multiplying through by p(t) gives
dy
where C is an arbitrary constant. et + et y = e−2t .
dt
From the initial condition y(1) = 1, we have Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as
1 = 14 + C, so C = 34 . Hence the solution of the d t
initial-value problem is (e y) = e−2t .
dt
y = 14 (t2 + 3t−2 ). On integrating, we find the general solution
et y = − 21 e−2t + C,
Solution to Exercise 4
or, equivalently,
(a) This requires the integrating factor method.
y = Ce−t − 12 e−3t ,
(b) This is best solved by direct integration. where C is an arbitrary constant.
(c) This can be solved by separation of variables or From the initial condition y(0) = 3, we have
the integrating factor method. 3 = Ce0 − 21 e0 , so C = 27 . Hence the solution of the
(d) This requires the integrating factor method. initial-value problem is
y = 12 (7e−t − e−3t ).
Solution to Exercise 5
(a) The given equation is dy/dt + y = t + 1. Solution to Exercise 6
Comparison with Equations (1) and (9) shows that (a) After division by x (where x > 0), the given
the integrating factor is equation becomes dy/dx − (3/x)y = 1. The
Z
integrating factor is
p = exp 1 dt Z
3
p = exp − dx
= exp(t) x
= et . = exp(−3 ln x)
Multiplying through by p(t) gives = exp(ln(x−3 ))
et
dy
+ et y = (t + 1)et . = x−3 .
dt Multiplying through by p(x) gives
Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as
dy
d t t x−3 − 3x−4 y = x−3 .
(e y) = (t + 1)e . dx
dt Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as
On integrating (by parts on the right-hand side), we d −3
find (x y) = x−3 .
Z dx
et y = (t + 1)et dt On integrating, we find the general solution
Z x−3 y = − 12 x−2 + C,
t t
= (t + 1)e − e dt or, equivalently,
= (t + 1)et − et + C y = Cx3 − 21 x,
= tet + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
where C is an arbitrary constant. After multiplying (b) The given equation is dv/dt + 4v = 3 cos 2t.
through by e−t , the general solution in explicit form The integrating factor is
Z
is
p = exp 4 dt
y = Ce−t + t.
From the initial condition y(1) = 0, we have = exp(4t)
0 = Ce−1 + 1, so C = −e. Hence the solution of the = e4t .
initial-value problem is Multiplying through by p(t) gives
y = t − e1−t . dv
e4t + 4e4t v = 3e4t cos 2t.
dt
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 54
Solutions to exercises

Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as

d 4t
(e v) = 3e4t cos 2t. π
4
dt
On integrating (using the hint for the right-hand π
6
side, with a = 4 and b = 2), we find
e4t v = 20
3 4t
e (4 cos 2t + 2 sin 2t) + C, j
where C is an arbitrary constant. After multiplying 10 kg
through by e−4t , the general solution in explicit i
form is
v = 203
(4 cos 2t + 2 sin 2t) + Ce−4t .

Solution to Exercise 7
The weight is 3gk.
JChoose axesI
Solution to Exercise 8 The forces all lie in a vertical plane, so we need only
Since the weight acts vertically downwards, its two axes, as shown in the diagram above.
direction is in the vertical plane defined by i and j, JDraw force diagramI
so W has no k-component. To find the i- and The force diagram, where the tension forces are
j-components, the first step is to draw a diagram denoted by T1 and T2 , and the weight of the tree
and work out the angles involved. In this case we by W, is as follows.
use the two right-angles marked to work out the
T2
required angles. (Note that π3 = π2 − π6 .) T1
π
i π 6
π
4
6
π
j 3
W
W π
6
JApply law(s)I
Resolving the weight: The equilibrium condition for particles gives
W = (W . i) i + (W . j) j T1 + T2 + W = 0. (36)
= (|W| × 1 × cos 2π π
3 ) i + (|W| × 1 × cos 6 ) j
√ JSolve equation(s)I
3
= 15g × (− 12 ) i + 15g × ( 2 )j From the above force diagram we have
√
15 3
= − 15
2 gi + 2 gj.
W = −|W| j = −10gj.
(If you are puzzled as to why cos 2π 1 The other forces can be expressed in terms of
3 = − 2 , then see
the note in the main text following this exercise.) components:
T1 = (T1 . i) i + (T1 . j) j
Solution to Exercise 9 = |T1 | cos 5π π
6 i + |T1 | cos 3 j
In this and other solutions, you may find that your √
3 1
diagrams and chosen axes are different from those = − 2 |T1 | i + 2 |T1 | j,
given. You should still be able to check the validity T2 = (T2 . i) i + (T2 . j) j
of your solution against the given one, as the basic = |T2 | cos π4 i + |T2 | cos π4 j
concepts are unchanged by these differences. Any
choice of axes should lead to the same final answers = √12 |T2 | i + √12 |T2 | j.
as those given. Resolving (36) in the i-direction gives
√
JDraw pictureI − 23 |T1 | + √12 |T2 | + 0 = 0. (37)
Similarly, resolving (36) in the j-direction gives
1 √1
2 |T1 | + 2 |T2 | − 10g = 0. (38)
Subtracting (37) from (38) gives
√
3
( 12 + 2 )|T1 | − 10g = 0,

so If the block does not move,

20
|T1 | = ' 71.81.
√ g
1+ 3
|F| ≤ µ|N|,
Substituting this value of |T1 | into (37) gives where µ is the coefficient of static friction.
√
|T2 | = √20 3
√ g ' 87.95. Resolving (40) in the i-direction gives
2+ 6
|F| = |P|.
JInterpret solutionI
Resolving (40) in the j-direction gives
The model predicts that the magnitudes of the
|N| = |W|.
tension forces due to the ropes are about 72 N and
88 N. Therefore, if the block does not move,
|P| = |F| ≤ µ|N| = µ|W|.
Solution to Exercise 10
Since |P| = 2 and |W| = 0.5g, the block does not
JDraw pictureI
move provided that
horizontal j N µ ≥ 2/(0.5g) ' 0.41.
force
5 kg F P The coefficient of static friction in Table 1 for steel
µ = 0.35 i on dry steel is 0.58, so the model predicts that the
block does not move.
W
Since we have |F| = |P|, the magnitude of the
friction force is 2 N.
JChoose axesI
Solution to Exercise 12
Suitable axes are shown in the diagram.
Since the friction force does not depend on the area
JDraw force diagramI of contact, the sideways force required to start the
The force diagram, where F is the friction force, box slipping is the same in both cases.
P is the horizontal force, W is the weight, and N is
the normal reaction, is shown above. Solution to Exercise 13
JApply law(s)I JChoose axesI
The equilibrium condition for particles gives Choose the same axes as in Example 4.
F + N + P + W = 0. (39) JDraw force diagramI
When the block is about to move, we have Modelling the crate as a particle and the rope as a
|F| = µ |N|, model string, the force diagram is as shown below,
where the notation is as in Example 4. Both F and
where µ = 0.35 (see Table 1 on page 18).
T act in the same direction (on the implied
JSolve equation(s)I assumption that the crate will slide down the ramp
Resolving (39) in the i-direction gives if nothing holds it back).
|F| = |P|. T
Resolving (39) in the j-direction gives F N j

|N| = |W|.
Therefore, when the block is about to move, π π
3 i
6
|P| = |F| = µ|N| = µ|W| π
6
= 0.35 × 5g = 1.75g ' 17.2.
W
JInterpret solutionI
The model predicts that a horizontal force in excess (It is conventional to draw two forces acting in the
of 17 N is required to start the block moving. same direction on a particle as overlapping arrows of
different lengths.)
Solution to Exercise 11 JApply law(s)I
Choose axes as in Solution 10. The force diagram is The equilibrium condition for particles gives
the same as in Solution 10. If the object does not
move, the equilibrium condition for particles holds, F + T + N + W = 0. (41)
so If the crate does not move, then
F + N + P + W = 0. (40) |F| ≤ µ|N| = 0.2|N|, (42)

where µ is the coefficient of static friction. Suitable axes are shown in the diagram.
JSolve equationsI JDraw force diagramI
From the diagram we have Denoting the tension forces as T1 and T2 , and the
N = |N| j, T = −|T| i and F = −|F| i. weight as W, the force diagram is as follows.
T1
So
θ j
W = |W| cos π3 i + |W| cos 5π6 j
√ T2
= 21 |W| i − 23 |W| j. i
Resolving (41) in the i-direction gives θ
−|F| − |T| + 0 + 21 |W| = 0, W
so (Note that we have used the fact that opposite
|F| = 21 |W| − |T|. (43) angles are equal to find the angle between T1 and j.)
Resolving (41) in the j-direction gives JApply law(s)I
√
0 + 0 + |N| − 3 The equilibrium condition for particles gives
2 |W| = 0,
so T1 + T2 + W = 0. (46)
√
|N| = 23 |W|. (44) JSolve equation(s)I
Substituting from (43) and (44) into (42) gives From the diagram,
√
1 3 W = −|W| j and T2 = −|T2 | i.
2 |W| − |T| ≤ 0.2 × 2 |W|,
which, on rearrangement and using |W| = 60g, gives So
√ T1 = |T1 | cos( π2 − θ) i + |T1 | cos θ j.
|T| ≥ 30g − 6 3g ' 192.
This can be slightly simplified by using the fact that
JInterpret solutionI cos( π − θ) = cos π cos θ + sin π sin θ = sin θ, to
2 2 2
Therefore the model predicts that a force of at least obtain
192 N up the slope needs to be applied to the rope T1 = |T1 | sin θ i + |T1 | cos θ j.
to keep the crate from sliding down the ramp.
Resolving (46) in the i- and j-directions in turn gives
Solution to Exercise 14 |T1 | sin θ − |T2 | = 0, (47)
Model the pallet as a particle, the cable and the |T1 | cos θ − |W| = 0. (48)
rope as model strings, and consider the (static) final Substituting |T2 | = 800 into (47) and |W| = 1800g
position of the pallet. into (48) gives
JDraw pictureI sin θ = 800/|T1 |, cos θ = 1800g/|T1 |,
The final position of the pallet is shown in the so
following diagram, where we have marked the final
tan θ = 800/1800g ' 4/(9 × 9.81) ' 0.045 305.
distance moved by the pallet as x and also an
angle θ. Note that these are related by Hence θ ' 0.045 274, sin θ ' 0.045 259 and (45) gives
trigonometry: x ' 0.453.
x = 10 sin θ. (45) JInterpret solutionI
So the model predicts that the pallet can be moved
by about 0.45 m horizontally; the crane driver needs
j to be pretty accurate in positioning the pallet over
θ the lorry in the first place.
10 m
i

800 N
1800 kg

JChoose axesI

Solution to Exercise 15 which this happens is the required value of µ.)

(a) JDraw pictureI JDraw force diagramI (b) JInterpret solutionI
The situation is illustrated below. The result in part (a) tells us that for an object on
an inclined plane, the angle at which the object
j N starts to slip depends only on the two surfaces in
F
contact (i.e. on the coefficient of static friction µ).
α The mass of the object is irrelevant — so the
i α
half-full mug will start to slip at the same angle as
W
the empty one.
JChoose axesI
Solution to Exercise 16
Choose axes so that i points down the slope and j is
in the direction of the normal reaction. The force diagrams for the four books (with the
topmost book on the left) are as follows.
JApply law(s)I
N1 N2 N4 N6
The equilibrium condition for particles gives
F + N + W = 0. (49)
Since the box is on the point of slipping,
W W W W
|F| = µ|N|, (50)
where µ is the coefficient of static friction. N3 N5 N7
JSolve equation(s)I
Applying Newton’s third law to the system gives
Two of the forces are aligned with the axes and can
N1 = −N3 , N2 = −N5 , N4 = −N7 .
be written down immediately:
The equilibrium condition for particles applied to
F = −|F| i and N = |N| j.
each book gives
The third force is inclined to the axes, so we can
N1 + W = 0, N2 + N3 + W = 0,
proceed as follows:
N4 + N5 + W = 0, N6 + N7 + W = 0.
W = (W . i) i + (W . j) j
Solving these seven equations for the normal
= |W| cos( π2 − α) i + |W| cos(π − α) j
reactions gives
= mg(cos π2 cos α + sin π2 sin α) i
N1 = −W, N2 = −2W, N3 = W,
+ mg(cos π cos α + sin π sin α) j
N4 = −3W, N5 = 2W, N6 = −4W,
= mg sin α i − mg cos α j.
N7 = 3W.
Resolving (49) in the i-direction gives
−|F| + 0 + mg sin α = 0, Solution to Exercise 17
so JDraw force diagramI
|F| = mg sin α. The force diagrams for the lamp (plus lampshade)
Resolving (49) in the j-direction gives and the toy are as follows.
0 + |N| − mg cos α = 0, T1 T3

so
|N| = mg cos α.
Substituting |F| and |N| into (50) gives W1 W2
|F|
µ= = tan α.
|N| T2
lamp toy
(This result provides us with a technique for
estimating the coefficient of static friction µ for two JApply law(s)I
surfaces. Put the two surfaces in contact, and Applying Newton’s third law to the system gives
increase the angle of inclination from the horizontal T2 = −T3 .
until slipping begins. The tangent of the angle at

The equilibrium condition for particles applied to so

each particle gives |F| = √1 |T1 |.
2
T1 + T2 + W1 = 0, T3 + W2 = 0.
Resolving (51) and (52) in the j-direction gives
JSolve equation(s)I −|W1 | + 0 + |N| + √12 |T1 | = 0,
Solving these three equations for the tensions gives
−|W2 | + |T2 | = 0,
T1 = −W1 − W2 , T2 = W2 , T3 = −W2 .
so
Therefore, since |W1 | = 1.5g and |W2 | = 0.5g, the
|W1 | = |N| + √1 |T1 | and |W2 | = |T2 |.
magnitude of the tension force due to the cable is 2

|T1 | = |W1 + W2 | = 1.5g + 0.5g = 2g ' 19.6. JInterpret solutionI

(An alternative approach is to model the system (a) We have
consisting of lamp, string and toy as a single particle |W1 | = 50g, |W2 | = 15g, |T1 | = |T2 | = |W2 |,
of weight W1 + W2 . The equilibrium condition for
so
particles then immediately gives the tension force
T1 due to the cable as T1 = −W1 − W2 .)
15
|N| = |W1 | − √12 |T1 | = 50g − √2
g ' 386.
JInterpret solutionI So the model predicts that the magnitude of the
The magnitude of the tension force due to the cable normal reaction is about 386 N.
is approximately 19.6 N. (b) We have
|F| = √12 |T1 | = √1 |W2 | = 15
√ g ' 104,
Solution to Exercise 18 2 2
so the model predicts that the magnitude of the
The sack, stone, pulley and rope are modelled as in
friction force is about 104 N.
Example 5.
JChoose axesI (c) For equilibrium, we must have |F| ≤ µ|N|, i.e.
This time we need two axes, as shown in Figure 22. µ ≥ |F|/|N| ' 104/386 ' 0.27.
JDraw force diagramI So the model predicts that the smallest value of µ
that allows the system to remain in equilibrium is
The force diagrams for the sack and the stone, using
about 0.27.
the usual notation, are as follows.
N T2 Solution to Exercise 19
π
4 T1 Given that the pulleys can be modelled as model
F
50 kg 15 kg pulleys, we know that the magnitude of the force
exerted by the mechanic is the tension in the model
W1 W2 string used to model the long rope — and this
sack stone tension is constant throughout the length of the
JApply law(s)I string. So we need consider only the forces acting on
the model pulley attached to the engine.
The equilibrium condition for particles gives
JChoose axesI
W1 + F + N + T1 = 0, (51)
We use the axes given in Figure 23.
W2 + T2 = 0. (52)
JDraw force diagramI
The fact that we have a model pulley tells us that
Using the usual notation, we have the following force
|T1 | = |T2 |.
diagrams for the engine and the pulley above it.
JSolve equation(s)I T4
π π
From the diagram we have T1 4 4 T2
N = |N| j, F = −|F| i, W1 = −|W1 | j, 120 kg

T2 = |T2 | j, W2 = −|W2 | j.
T3 W
So pulley engine
T1 = |T1 | cos π4 i + |T1 | cos π4 j = √12 |T1 | i + √12 |T1 | j.
JApply law(s)I
Resolving (51) in the i-direction gives The equilibrium condition for particles gives
0 − |F| + 0 + √12 |T1 | = 0, T1 + T2 + T3 = 0, (53)
T4 + W = 0. (54)
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 59
Solutions to exercises

Since the engine is joined to a model pulley by a JChoose axesI JDraw force diagramI
model string, we have A suitable choice of axes and a force diagram for
|T3 | = |T4 |, |T1 | = |T2 |. each particle are shown above.
JSolve equation(s)I JApply law(s)I
From the diagram we have The equilibrium condition for particles gives
T3 = −|T3 | j, T4 = |T4 | j, W = −|W| j. F + N + T1 + W1 = 0, (55)
So T2 + W2 = 0. (56)
3π
T1 = |T1 | cos 4 i + |T1 | cos 4 j π The assumption of a model pulley gives
= − √12 |T1 | i + √12 |T1 | j, |T1 | = |T2 |.
If the medallion and chain are to remain on the
T2 = |T2 | cos π4 i + |T2 | cos π4 j shelf, we must have
= √12 |T2 | i + √12 |T2 | j. |F| ≤ µ|N|, (57)
Resolving (53) and (54) in turn in the j-direction: where µ is the coefficient of static friction.
√1 |T1 | + √1 |T2 | − |T3 | = 0, JSolve equation(s)I
2 2
|T4 | − |W| = 0. From the diagram
Therefore T1 = |T1 | i, N = |N| j, F = −|F| i,
|T3 | = |T4 | = |W|, W1 = −|W1 | j, T2 = |T2 | j, W2 = −|W2 | j.
1
√ (|T1 | + |T2 |) = |T3 | = |W|. Resolving (55) in the i- and j-directions in turn gives
2
Since |T1 | = |T2 |, we have −|F| + |T1 | = 0,
√
|N| − |W1 | = 0.
|T1 | = 22 |W| = √12 × 120g ' 832.
Resolving (56) in the j-direction gives
JInterpret solutionI |T2 | − |W2 | = 0.
The model predicts that the force exerted by the Therefore
mechanic has magnitude about 832 N, which is
√1 ' 0.7 (i.e. 70%) of the weight of the engine. |F| = |T1 | = |T2 | = |W2 | = 0.015g,
2
|N| = |W1 | = 0.035g.
(Because the engine is joined to the pulley by a
model string so that |T3 | = |T4 | = |W| and hence JInterpret solutionI
T3 = W, an alternative approach is to model the We have
pulley as a particle of mass 120 kg, giving |F| = 0.015g,
T1 + T2 + W = 0.)
µ|N| = 0.35 × 0.035g = 0.012 25g.
Solution to Exercise 20 So (57) is not satisfied and the model predicts that
JDraw pictureI the medallion will slip off the shelf.
Model the gold medallion and the chain on the shelf
Solution to Exercise 21
as a single particle of mass
0.02 + 21 × 0.03 = 0.035 kg, and the dangling chain This is similar to the situation of a pile of books,
as another particle, of mass 12 × 0.03 = 0.015 kg. except that the forces acting on the objects are
Model the chain as a model string and the edge of tension forces not normal reactions. We model the
the shelf as a model pulley. objects as particles and the strings as model strings.
JDraw pictureI JChoose axesI
j JDraw force diagramI
0.035 kg
The situation is shown below. Only one axis is
µ = 0.35 i N T2 needed, a j-axis as shown. The force diagrams
F T1 (topmost mass on the left) are as shown, where the
weights are denoted by the Wi and the tension
0.015 kg forces by the Ti .
W1 W2

JApply law(s)I
T1 T3 T5
The equilibrium condition for particles gives
j T1 + W1 = 0, (61)
2 kg 2 kg 1 kg 3 kg
T2 + N + F + W2 = 0. (62)
1 kg W1 W2 W3
The assumption of a model pulley gives
|T1 | = |T2 |.
3 kg T2 T4
If the men are not to slip, we must have
|F| ≤ µ|N|, (63)
JApply law(s)I
where µ is the coefficient of static friction.
Newton’s third law applies to the strings, so
JSolve equation(s)I
T2 = −T3 , T4 = −T5 .
Resolving (62) in the i- and j-directions in turn gives
The equilibrium condition applied to each particle
gives −|T2 | + 0 + |F| + 0 = 0,
T1 + T2 + W1 = 0, (58) 0 + |N| + 0 − |W2 | = 0.
T3 + T4 + W2 = 0, (59) Resolving (61) in the j-direction gives
T5 + W3 = 0. (60) |T1 | − |W1 | = 0.
Therefore
JSolve equation(s)I
|F| = |T2 | = |T1 | = |W1 | = 80g,
Resolving (58), (59) and (60) in turn in the
j-direction gives |N| = |W2 | = mg,
|T1 | − |T2 | − |W1 | = 0, hence
|T3 | − |T4 | − |W2 | = 0, µ|N| = 0.35 × mg = 0.35mg.
|T5 | − |W3 | = 0. So, for (63) to be satisfied, we need 0.35mg ≥ 80g,
which gives m ≥ 228.57.
Therefore, since
JInterpret solutionI
|T2 | = |T3 |, |T4 | = |T5 |,
The model predicts that three men of mass 80 kg are
|W1 | = 2g, |W2 | = g, |W3 | = 3g, required to hold the man above the well.
we have
|T5 | = |T4 | = 3g ' 29.4, Solution to Exercise 23
|T3 | = |T2 | = 4g ' 39.2, Equilibrium can be disturbed either by the object of
mass m1 sliding down the board and pulling up the
|T1 | = 6g ' 58.9.
object of mass m2 , or by the object of mass m2
JInterpret solutionI dropping down and pulling the object of mass m1
The model predicts that the tensions in the strings up the board.
are about 58.9 N, 39.2 N and 29.4 N, in order from JDraw pictureI
top to bottom. Model the masses as particles joined by a model
string hanging over a model pulley representing the
Solution to Exercise 22 edge of the board.
Model the man in the well as a particle of mass
80 kg, and all the men on the ground as a single j
m1
particle of mass m.
JChoose axesI JDraw force diagramI m2 i
α
A suitable choice of axes is shown in Figure 25. A
force diagram for each particle, using the usual
notation, is shown below. JChoose axesI
T1 N One choice of axes is shown above.
T2
JDraw force diagramI
F
80 kg We need to consider the two cases of possible
m
movement separately, as they lead to different force
W1 W2 diagrams and hence to different results.
man in well men on ground

Consider first the case where m2 is likely to drop T2 N

T1
down and pull m1 up the board. The force diagrams
F m1
are as follows. m2
T2 N
W2 α
T1 m1 W1
m2 F
JApply law(s)I
W2 α
W1 The equilibrium condition and the use of a model
pulley lead to the same conditions as before.
JApply law(s)I JSolve equation(s)I
The equilibrium condition for particles gives The only difference is that the friction force is in the
T1 + N + F + W1 = 0, (64) opposite direction, i.e. F = −|F| i. This means that
T2 + W2 = 0. (65) when (64) is resolved in the i-direction, it now gives
The use of a model pulley gives −|T1 | + 0 − |F| + |W1 | sin α = 0,
|T1 | = |T2 |. (66) leading to
If the system is to remain in equilibrium, we require |F| = |W1 | sin α − |T1 |
|F| ≤ µ|N|, (67) = m1 g sin α − m2 g.
where µ is the coefficient of static friction. JInterpret solutionI
JSolve equation(s)I For (67) to be satisfied, the model predicts that
From (65) we have T2 = −W2 , therefore |F| m1 sin α − m2
µ≥ = . (69)
|T2 | = |W2 | = m2 g. |N| m1 cos α
So, by (66), Both (68) and (69) must hold for the system to be
|T1 | = m2 g. in equilibrium. Since µ is non-negative and the
right-hand sides of (68) and (69) are of opposite
For the particle of mass m1 , the forces acting are
signs, we can say
F = |F| i, N = |N| j, T1 = −|T1 | i = −m2 g i
condition (68) applies when m2 > m1 sin α,
and W1 , which can be resolved as follows: condition (69) applies when m2 < m1 sin α.
W1 = |W1 | cos( π2 − α) i + |W1 | cos(π − α) j If there is no friction, then µ = 0, and (68) and (69)
= |W1 | sin α i − |W1 | cos α j. can both be satisfied only if the right-hand side is
Resolving (64) in the i- and j-directions in turn gives also zero, i.e. m2 = m1 sin α.
−|T1 | + 0 + |F| + |W1 | sin α = 0,
Solution to Exercise 24
0 + |N| + 0 − |W1 | cos α = 0. x(t)
Therefore 2
|F| = |T1 | − |W1 | sin α = m2 g − m1 g sin α,
|N| = |W1 | cos α = m1 g cos α.
1
JInterpret solutionI
For (67) to be satisfied, the model predicts that
0 t
|F| m2 g − m1 g sin α 0.5 1 1.5
µ≥ =
|N| m1 g cos α
m2 − m1 sin α –1
= . (68)
m1 cos α (a)
JDraw force diagramI (b) (i) The distance between the first player and
Now consider the other case where equilibrium the back wall is the distance between where the
could be disturbed, i.e. where m1 may slide down puck starts and where it first changes direction.
the board and pull m2 up. The force diagrams are This can be read off the graph as 2 m.
as follows. (ii) The second player must be further away than
the first player since the x-coordinate is negative

when the puck changes direction for a second time. However, on the interval [2.5, 5], the ‘area’ under the
(iii) The speed at which the puck is travelling is curve is negative, and furthermore the magnitude of
given by the slope of the distance–time graph. The this ‘area’ is greater than the magnitude of the
slope after ‘area’ for the interval [0, 2.5]; therefore the velocity
the second player hits the puck is greater than the after 5 seconds is negative. Hence, since the particle
slope after the first player hits the puck, so the has both positive and negative velocity in the given
second player gives the puck more speed. time interval, it must be momentarily stationary at
some point towards the end of the time interval.
Solution to Exercise 25
d

d 2

d
Solution to Exercise 27
(a) r(t) = t i+ 10t j = 2ti + 10j. Since
dt dt dt
dv
So the velocity of the particle at t = 1 is a(t) = = 18t − 20,
dt
v = 2i + 10j, we haveZ
and the speed is v = (18t − 20) dt = 9t2 − 20t + A.
√ √
|v| = 4 + 100 = 104 ' 10.20.
Using the initial condition v(0) = 3, we obtain
d
(b) r(t) = (cos t)i − (sin t)j + k. A = 3. Hence the velocity of the particle is given by
dt
So the velocity of the particle at t = 1 is v(t) = 9t2 − 20t + 3.
v = (cos 1)i − (sin 1)j + k, Now v(t) = dx/dt, so
Z
and the speed is x = (9t2 − 20t + 3) dt = 3t3 − 10t2 + 3t + B.
p √
|v| = cos2 1 + sin2 1 + 1 = 2 ' 1.41. The initial condition x(0) = 7 gives B = 7. Hence
Solution to Exercise 26 the position of the particle is given by
x(t) = 3t3 − 10t2 + 3t + 7.
(a) The graph for particle A is its position–time
graph. The velocity of the particle along the x-axis Substituting t = 10 into this expression gives
is given by the slope of this graph: it can be seen x(10) = 3000 − 1000 + 30 + 7 = 2037,
that the slope starts at a high value and decreases so at time t = 10 the particle is 2037 units along the
as time increases. So particle A is travelling fastest positive x-axis.
when t = 0.
(b) The graph for particle B shows the variation Solution to Exercise 28
with time of the particle’s velocity along the x-axis. We have
For the particle to change direction, this velocity dv
a(t) = = ge−kt .
must change from positive to negative or from dt
negative to positive (i.e. the graph must cross the Integrating this gives
Z
t-axis). The graph shown does not do this, so g
v = ge−kt dt = A − e−kt .
particle B does not change its direction. k
(c) The graph for particle C shows the variation The initial condition v(0) = 0 gives A = g/k, so the
with time of the particle’s acceleration along the velocity is given by
g g g
x-axis. To discover whether the particle is ever v(t) = − e−kt = (1 − e−kt ).
stationary for t > 0, we need to know whether its k k k
velocity along the x-axis is ever zero for t > 0. Now, Then from v(t) = dx/dt we have
Z
since acceleration is obtained by differentiating g g g g
x= − e−kt dt = t + 2 e−kt + B.
velocity, we can obtain velocity by integrating k k k k
acceleration. We also know that the definite integral The initial condition x(0) = 0 gives B = −g/k 2 , so
of a function over a given interval gives the ‘area’ the position is given by
under the graph of the function, where ‘areas’ below g g g g g
the t-axis are negative. So the ‘area’ under the x(t) = t + 2 e−kt − 2 = t − 2 (1 − e−kt ).
k k k k k
graph gives us the velocity.
Now, on the interval [0, 2.5], the ‘area’ under the
curve is positive, and, since the particle started from
rest, the velocity after 2.5 seconds is positive.
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 63
Solutions to exercises

Therefore the velocity and position of the particle margin next to the question); the only unknown is
are given by the vector functions the thinking time t. The value of t for each pair of
g speeds and distances can be calculated from
1 − e−kt i,

v(t) =
kg g t = x/v0 .
r(t) = t − 2 (1 − e−kt ) i. The calculation for the first pair (20 mph, 20 feet),
k k
using the given conversion factors, is
Solution to Exercise 29 x 20 × 0.3048
t= = ' 0.68 s.
Given that a(t) = a0 , the relationship a = v dv/dx v0 20 × 0.447
gives (Other pairs give the same value for the thinking
dv time.)
v = a0 .
dx
Applying the separation of variables method to this So the model used for calculating the thinking
differential equation gives distance data is
Z Z x = v0 t = 0.68v0 .
v dv = a0 dx,
(ii) The speed of a car at the start of the braking
so phase is the speed at the end of the thinking phase
1 2
2v= a0 x + C. (i.e. the value given in the table). The speed at the
Using the initial condition, that the velocity is v0 end of the braking phase is zero (v = 0). Assuming
along the x-axis at the origin (i.e. when x = 0), that the braking is uniform, so that the acceleration
gives C = 12 v02 , so is constant, we can use the formula v 2 = v02 + 2a0 x,
1 2 which for v = 0 reduces to 0 = v02 + 2a0 x.
2v = a0 x + 12 v02 .
Multiplying through by 2 and rearranging gives The values of v0 and the braking distance x, in SI
units, can be calculated from the values given in the
v 2 = v02 + 2a0 x, table; the only unknown is the acceleration a0 . The
as required. value of a0 for each pair of speeds and distances can
be calculated from a0 = −v02 /(2x). (Note that from
Solution to Exercise 30 this equation the acceleration is negative, which is a
(a) To find v in terms of t, substitute dv/dt for a; good check because the car is stopping!)
then v may be found by direct integration. To find The calculation for the last pair of values given in
x in terms of t, substitute dx/dt for v and integrate the table is
again. v2 −(70 × 0.447)2
a0 = − 0 = ' −6.55 m s−2 .
(b) To find a relationship between v and x, 2x 2(245 × 0.3048)
substitute v dv/dx for a. The result is an equation (Other pairs give the same value for the
that can be solved by separation of variables, whose acceleration, which is about two-thirds of the
solution will give the required relationship. acceleration due to gravity.)
(c) To find x in terms of t, substitute d2 x/dt2 for a, So the model used for calculating the braking
and dx/dt for v. The result is a linear distance data is
constant-coefficient second-order differential v02 v02
equation for the variable x, namely x = − = .
2a0 13.1
ẍ + ẋ + x = cos t. In MST210 you will meet
methods for solving such equations. (b) The overall stopping distance is equal to the
thinking distance plus the braking distance, which
Solution to Exercise 31 are calculated separately using the models in
part (a). The thinking distance at 45 mph is
(a) (i) The speed of a car before the thinking calculated using
phase is the value given in the table. The speed
after the thinking phase is exactly the same, because x = 0.68v0 = 0.68 × (45 × 0.447) ' 13.68 m.
the driver has not yet reacted to the hazard. So the The stopping distance at 45 mph is calculated using
acceleration is zero during this phase, and the v2 (45 × 0.447)2
1 2 x= 0 = ' 30.89 m.
formula x = v0 t + 2 a0 t reduces to x = v0 t. 13.1 13.1
The values of v0 and the thinking distance x, in SI This gives an overall stopping distance of
units, can be calculated from the values given in the 13.68 + 30.89 = 44.57 m.
table (using the conversion factors given in the
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 64
Solutions to exercises

(Note that the calculated distance is about 146 feet, From the force diagram, we have
which is nearly half-way between the tabulated W = −|W| i = −mgi, where g is the magnitude of
values for 40 mph and 50 mph — it is not exactly the acceleration due to gravity. Similarly, the
half-way, tension force due to the string is T = |T| i. The
because the braking distance is not a linear function given acceleration of the hanging object is 1 m s−2
of v0 .) downwards, so a = −i. With this information we
can resolve Equation (70) in the i-direction to obtain
Solution to Exercise 32 m × (−1) = −mg + |T|.
Any moving car is subject to resistive forces, namely Substituting m = 10 and rearranging gives
air resistance, the internal frictional forces in the
car’s engine, transmission and wheel bearings, and |T| = 10g − 10 ' 88.1 (using g = 9.81 m s−2 ).
the external frictional forces between the car’s tyres So T = |T| i = 88.1i, i.e. the tension force due to the
and the road. In order to maintain a constant string is 88.1 newtons in the upward direction.
velocity, it is necessary to apply a motive force that
balances these resistive forces. Solution to Exercise 36
Substitute the given force and mass into the
Solution to Exercise 33 equation for Newton’s second law to obtain
The component of the force of gravity in the 4000 a = 50 000 i + 60 000 j + 100 000 k.
direction of a unit vector pointing down the slope is So a = 12.5i + 15j + 25k, which has a magnitude of
non-zero. If the slope is steep enough, then this force approximately 32 m s−2 . This is well below the
down the slope will be greater than the resistive threshold of 6g ' 59 m s−2 , so the pilot should
force of friction, causing the toboggan to accelerate. remain conscious.

Solution to Exercise 34 Solution to Exercise 37

Newton’s second law, F = ma, is a vector equation. JDraw pictureI
Taking the magnitude of both sides of the equation
(and using the fact that mass is always positive) O
gives the scalar equation |F| = m|a|, into which the
values given in the question can be substituted
x
(after converting the mass from grams into the SI
unit kilograms) to obtain
10 = 0.2|a|.
This gives |a| = 50, so the force produces an
acceleration of magnitude 50 m s−2 .
JChoose axesI
Solution to Exercise 35
The x-axis is chosen to point vertically downwards,
(a) The only forces on the hanging object are the with the origin at the top of the well, as shown
tension force T due to the string (an upward force, above.
in the direction of the positive x-axis shown) and
JDraw force diagramI
the weight W of the object (a downward force, in
the direction of the negative x-axis). The resultant The model assumes that the only force is gravity, so
force on the object is the sum T + W of these the force diagram is as follows.
forces. This information is shown in the force m
diagram below.
T W
i
JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI
m
Applying Newton’s second law to the stone gives
W W = ma. Since W = mgi, we have ma = mgi, and
resolving in the i-direction gives
(b) Applying Newton’s second law to this system a = g.
gives
JSolve differential equationI
ma = W + T. (70)

Using a = dv/dt, we obtain Since the x-axis points upwards, the weight of the
dv ball is given by W = −mgi. The acceleration is
= g. downwards, so a = ai. Resolving Equation (73) in
dt
Integrating this gives the i-direction gives ma = −mg. Dividing by the
v = gt + A. mass gives
The initial condition that the stone is dropped from a = −g.
rest (v = 0 when t = 0) gives A = 0. Hence JSolve differential equationI
v = gt. (71) To answer the question we need an equation relating
Now using v = dx/dt, we have x to t, and another relating v to t or to x. Since the
dx acceleration a = −g is constant, one approach is to
= gt. use the constant acceleration formulae of
dt
Integrating this gives Subsection 4.2. The initial velocity is 10 m s−1
upwards from the origin. So, using the notation of
x = 21 gt2 + B.
Subsection 4.2, we have v0 = 10 and a0 = −g, and
The initial condition x = 0 when t = 0 gives B = 0. hence
So
v = v0 + a0 t = 10 − gt, (74)
x = 21 gt2 . (72) 1 2 1 2
x = v0 t + 2 a0 t = 10t − 2 gt . (75)
JInterpret solutionI (The approach of Example 10, using the
(a) Using Equation (72) with t = 3 gives substitutions a = dv/dt and v = dx/dt and
1 2
x = 2 × 9.81 × 3 = 44.15. integrating, leads to the same pair of equations.)
So the well is estimated to be about 44 m deep. JInterpret solutionI

(b) Using Equation (71) with t = 3 gives (a) The ball reaches its maximum height when
v = 0, and from Equation (74) this occurs at time
v = 9.81 × 3 = 29.43.
10
So the predicted speed of the stone as it reaches the t= ' 1.
−1
g
bottom is about 29 m s .
Since the motion started at t = 0, the duration of
Solution to Exercise 38 the upward flight of the ball is about 1 s.
JDraw pictureI (b) Substituting t = 10/g into Equation (75), we
have
100 100
x= − ' 5.1.
g 2g
So the maximum height attained by the ball is
about 5.1 m.
x
(c) The ball reaches the ground when x = 0, and
O 10 m s–1
from Equation (75) this occurs when
0 = 10t − 12 gt2 = t(10 − 21 gt).
JChoose axesI Hence t = 0 or t = 20/g. Now t = 0 corresponds to
Choose the x-axis to point vertically upwards, with the time when the ball is thrown, so the ball returns
its origin at the point from which the ball is thrown, to the ground after a time 20/g ' 2 s.
as shown above. (d) Substituting t = 20/g into Equation (74) gives
JDraw force diagramI v = 10 − 20 = −10.
The model assumes that gravity is the only force So the ball reaches the ground on its return with a
acting on the ball, so the force diagram is as follows. speed of 10 m s−1 . (The minus sign indicates that
m the ball is now travelling in the direction of
decreasing x, i.e. downwards.)
W

JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI

Applying Newton’s second law to the ball gives
ma = W. (73)
Copyright
c 2017 The Open University 66
Solutions to exercises

Solution to Exercise 39 JDraw pictureI

(a) Choose the same x-axis and the same origin as A diagram of the situation is shown next to the
in Example 10, and proceed in exactly the same way exercise as Figure 36, and is repeated here.
as before until you reach the equation a = g. Now
write a as v dv/dx to obtain
O
dv
v = g. x
dx 65 kg
Solving this differential equation by the method of 120 m
separation of variables, we have
Z Z
v dv = g dx, so 12 v 2 = gx + A. θ

Now the marble starts from rest, so v = 0 when

x = 0, which leads to A = 0. Hence 21 v 2 = gx, or,
equivalently,
p
v = 2gx, (76)
JChoose axesI
where we have taken the positive square root
because the velocity is positive throughout the The x-axis is given as pointing down the slope with
motion. origin at the top of the slope, as shown above.
JDraw force diagramI
(Equation (76) could also have been obtained from
N j
the constant acceleration formula (29).)
m
(b) Putting v = dx/dt in Equation (76) gives
π
dx p 2
–θ i
= 2gx.
dt θ
Again we use the method of separation of variables W
to solve this differential equation. So we have
Z Z
1 1
Z JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI
1 dt = √ dx = √ x−1/2 dx, Applying Newton’s second law to the skier gives
2gx 2g
so r ma = W + N. (78)
2x From the force diagram, N = |N| j. We can resolve
t= + B.
g W into components as follows:
The marble starts at the origin, so x = 0 when W = |W| cos( π2 − θ) i + |W| cos(π − θ) j
t = 0, which gives B = 0. Hence
r = mg sin θ i − mg cos θ j.
2x
t= . (77) Now we can resolve Equation (78) in the i-direction
g to obtain
(Equation (77) could also have been obtained from ma = mg sin θ,
the constant acceleration formula (28).)
so
(c) At x = 77, Equation (77) yields
r a = g sin θ.
2 × 77
t= ' 3.962, JSolve differential equationI
9.81
and Equation (76) gives Since we want the velocity when the skier has
√ travelled a vertical distance of 120 metres, it is best
v = 2 × 9.81 × 77 ' 38.87. to find v as a function of x. Since the acceleration is
So the object hits the water after about 3.96 s, with constant, we can use Equation (29) to obtain
a speed of about 38.9 m s−1 . (The answers are, of v 2 = v02 + 2ax = 0 + 2(g sin θ)x,
course, the same as those in Example 10.)
so
p
Solution to Exercise 40 v = 2gx sin θ. (79)
As the questions ask for the speed for two different JInterpret solutionI
angles of the slope of the jump, it is sensible (as
suggested in Figure 36) to use θ to be an arbitrary (a) The task is to find the velocity when the skier
angle of slope and substitute for θ at the end. has travelled a vertical distance of 120 metres. Now

x is the distance travelled down the slope; so, usingThe initial velocity of the ball is 7.6i, so v = 7.6
trigonometry, x = 120/sin θ. Substituting for x in when t = 0, which gives A = 7.6. So
Equation (79) gives v = −gt + 7.6. (80)
r
120 p Therefore, using the substitution v = dx/dt gives
v = 2g × × sin θ = 240g ' 48.5.
sin θ dx
So the speed of the skier at the bottom of the slope = −gt + 7.6.
dt
angled at π4 is about 48.5 m s−1 . Integrating this gives
(b) In part (a), all mention of θ cancelled from the x = − 12 gt2 + 7.6t + B.
final expression. So the answer remains the same: The initial condition that x = 4.4 when t = 0 leads
the speed at the bottom of the π3 slope is about to B = 4.4. So
48.5 m s−1 . x = − 12 gt2 + 7.6t + 4.4. (81)
Solution to Exercise 41 (Since the acceleration is constant, another
approach is use the constant acceleration formulae
JDraw pictureI
to obtain Equations (80) and (81). Note that, with
the choice of origin used here, x0 = 4.4 (i.e. x 6= 0
7.6 m s–1 when t = 0), so you would have to use the equation
x = x0 + v0 t + 21 a0 t2 rather than x = v0 t + 21 a0 t2 to
initial height
obtain Equation (81).)
4.4 m x JInterpret solutionI
O (a) The ball reaches the ground when x = 0.
Substituting this into Equation (81) gives a
quadratic equation for the time t,
JChoose axesI
4.905t2 − 7.6t − 4.4 = 0,
The x-axis is chosen to point vertically upwards
with the origin at ground level, as shown in the whose solution√ is
diagram. (The other obvious choice for the origin, 7.6 ± 7.62 + 4 × 4.905 × 4.4
t= ,
which you may well have chosen, is at the point 2 × 4.905
where the ball is thrown. Both choices of course so t ' 1.998 or −0.4489. The negative time is before
lead to the same answers to (a) and (b) below.) the ball is thrown and may therefore be ignored. So
the ball lands about 2 seconds after being thrown.
JDraw force diagramI
The model assumes that the only force acting on the (b) Substituting this time into Equation (80) gives
ball is gravity, so the force diagram is as follows. v = −9.81 × 1.998 + 7.6 ' −12.00.
m So the ball lands with a speed of about 12 m s−1 .
(The negative sign for v confirms that the ball is
W moving downwards.)
JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI Solution to Exercise 42
Applying Newton’s second law to the ball gives
(a) JDraw pictureI
ma = W, where W = −mgi (as the x-axis points
upwards). Resolving in the i-direction gives Let θ be the angle that the carrier makes with the
ma = −mg, so a = −g. horizontal, as shown below, and let m be the mass
of the block.
JSolve differential equationI
We want equations relating x to t, and v to x or t. y
One approach is to use the substitution a = dv/dt, 3m
to obtain
dv O
= −g. µ = 0.4
dt µ' = 0.3 x
Integrating this, we obtain θ
v = −gt + A.

JChoose axesI second law.

Choose the axes to be parallel and perpendicular to JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI
the carrier, with origin at the rest position of the Applying Newton’s second law to the block gives
concrete block, as shown above.
ma = F + N + W. (84)
JDraw force diagramI
The acceleration is down the carrier, so a = ai and
Modelling the block as a particle then gives the
all the forces are resolved in exactly the same way
following force diagram.
as in the statics problem. So we can resolve
N j Equation (84) in the i-direction to obtain
F
m ma = mg sin θ − |F|. (85)
π
–θ i Now, from the moment at which the block begins to
2
θ
slide, |F| = µ0 |N|, so Equation (85) becomes
W ma = mg sin θ − µ0 |N|. (86)
To find |N|, we resolve Equation (84) in the
JApply law(s)I j-direction to obtain
The equilibrium condition for the block is 0 = −mg cos θ + |N|.
F + N + W = 0. (82) Therefore |N| = mg cos θ (as before). Substituting
When the block is on the point of moving, the this into Equation (86) gives
magnitude of the friction force is given by ma = mg sin θ − µ0 mg cos θ,
|F| = µ|N|. (83) so
JSolve equation(s)I a = g sin θ − µ0 g cos θ. (87)
From the force diagram, N = |N| j and F = −|F| i. JSolve differential equationI
The weight can be resolved into components as
For a fixed angle θ, the acceleration is constant, so
follows:
we can use the constant acceleration formulae from
W = |W| cos( π2 − θ) i + |W| cos(π − θ) j Section 4. Since we want to relate time to distance
= mg sin θ i − mg cos θ j. travelled, the appropriate formula is
Now Equation (82) can be resolved in the x = v0 t + 12 a0 t2 .
i-direction, giving −|F| + mg sin θ = 0, so Initially, the block is at rest, so v0 = 0 and the
|F| = mg sin θ. equation becomes
Resolving Equation (82) in the j-direction gives x = 12 g(sin θ − µ0 cos θ)t2 . (88)
|N| − mg cos θ = 0, so
JInterpret solutionI
|N| = mg cos θ.
The time before the block slides off the back of the
But when the block is on the point of slipping,
truck is calculated from Equation (88) with the
Equation (83) applies, and substituting the values of
value of θ calculated in part (a). Substituting the
|F| and |N| gives
distance travelled (x = 3) and µ0 = 0.3, we obtain
mg sin θ = µmg cos θ.
3 ' 21 g[sin(0.381) − 0.3 cos(0.381)]t2 ' 0.458t2 ,
Rearranging this gives
so t ' 2.56.
tan θ = µ.
So, once the concrete block begins to slide, it takes
JInterpret solutionI about 2.6 seconds to slide off the back of the truck.
Substituting µ = 0.4 into this equation gives
θ = arctan 0.4 ' 0.381.
So the angle at which the concrete block begins to
slide is about 0.381 radians.
(b) To solve the dynamics problem when the block
is in motion down the carrier, we start in exactly
the same way as for the statics problem. So we start
the analysis of the motion by applying Newton’s

Solution to Exercise 43 so
p
JDraw pictureI v= 2g(sin θ − 0.03 cos θ)x. (92)
y JInterpret solutionI
O (a) As in Exercise 40, x = 120/sin θ, so from
x Equation (92),
65 kg r
120 m 120
v = 2g(sin θ − 0.03 cos θ)
µ' = 0.03 sin θ
p
θ = 240g − 7.2g cot θ.
Substituting θ = π4 into this equation gives v ' 47.8.
So the speed of the skier at the bottom of the slope
angled at π4 is about 47.8 m s−1 .
π
JChoose axesI (b) Substituting θ = 3 into the equation gives
The x-axis is given to be parallel to the slope with v ' 48.1.
origin at the top of the slope. Choose the y-axis to So the speed of the skier at the bottom of the slope
be perpendicular to the slope, as shown above. angled at π3 is about 48.1 m s−1 .
JDraw force diagramI From the answers to (a) and (b), it can be seen that
N j the steeper the slope, the faster the final speed of
F
the skier. The final speed is always less than the
m
48.5 m s−1 calculated in Exercise 40, which omitted
π
2
–θ i friction from the model.
θ
W

JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI

Applying Newton’s second law to the skier gives
ma = W + N + F. (89)
From the force diagram, N = |N| j and F = −|F| i.
The weight can be resolved as follows:
W = |W| cos( π2 − θ) i + |W| cos(π − θ) j
= mg sin θ i − mg cos θ j.
The acceleration is down the slope, so a = ai, and
we can resolve Equation (89) in the i-direction to
obtain
ma = mg sin θ + 0 − |F|. (90)
0
Using |F| = µ |N| = 0.03|N|, Equation (90) becomes
ma = mg sin θ − 0.03|N|. (91)
Resolving Equation (89) in the j-direction leads to
0 = −mg cos θ + |N| + 0,
so |N| = mg cos θ. Substituting into Equation (91)
gives
ma = mg sin θ − 0.03 × mg cos θ,
so
a = g sin θ − 0.03g cos θ.
JSolve differential equationI
Using Equation (29), we obtain
v 2 = v02 + 2ax = 0 + 2(g sin θ − 0.03g cos θ)x,

Index
acceleration, 34, 38 light object, 24
acceleration due to gravity, 12 limit of a vector function, 33
arbitrary constant, 7 limiting friction, 19
linear differential equation, 4
centre of mass, 32
choosing axes, 13 mass, 12, 42, 43
coefficient of dynamical friction, 50 model pulley, 23
coefficient of kinetic friction, 50 model string, 15
coefficient of sliding friction, 50, 52 modelling static friction, 19
coefficient of static friction, 18, 19
constant acceleration, 38 newton, 12, 42
Newton’s first law, 43
derivative of a vector function, 33 Newton’s second law, 42, 43, 46
differential equation Newtonian mechanics, 2
homogeneous, 4 Newton’s first law, 3
inhomogeneous, 4 Newton’s laws of motion, 3
linear, 4 Newton’s second law, 3
non-homogeneous, 4 Newton’s third law, 3, 22
non-homogeneous differential equation, 4
equation of motion, 37
normal reaction force, 13
equilibrium, 12
equilibrium condition for particles, 12 particle, 11
point of action of a force, 11
force, 42, 43
position, 32
force diagram, 12
pulley, 23
force of gravity, 12
friction, 40, 50
quantum mechanics, 2
friction force, 17
fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics, 43 relativistic mechanics, 2
gravitational force, 12
slipping, 17, 27
homogeneous differential equation, 4 smooth surface, 19
speed, 33
inclined plane, 19 static friction, 19
inhomogeneous differential equation, 4 string, 14
integrating factor, 7
integrating factor method, 8 tension force, 14, 15, 23
tension in a string, 15, 23
kinematics, 29
vector function, 30
law of addition of forces, 43 velocity, 33
law of addition of mass, 43
laws of motion, 2 weight, 12, 13

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MST 210 Bridging

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MST 210 Bridging

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Mathematics, Computing and Technology/Science

MST210 Mathematical methods, models and modelling

1 Solving linear differential equations

1.1 Linear differential equations

A first-order differential equation for y = y(x) is linear if it can be expressed

For example, the differential equation

An important theorem guarantees that an initial-value problem based on a linear

1.2 The integrating factor method

where C is an arbitrary constant. Division by 1 + x2 then gives the general

Now, performing the integral on the right,

which, by redefining D, can be written as

Procedure 1.1 Integrating factor method

(a) On rearranging the differential equation as

and the differential equation thus becomes

A particle is a material object whose size and internal structure may be

space occupied by the particle. It is conventional to show these forces in diagrams,

Equilibrium condition for particles This condition was first stated

When modelling forces acting on objects, it is often convenient to define Cartesian

2.3 Normal reaction

If the lamp has mass m, then W = −mgk, and hence

Substituting this into Equation (14) gives

Procedure 1.2 Solving statics problems

no friction friction force

Here is a summary of how we go about modelling problems that involve static

Modelling static friction

Now Equation (17) can easily be resolved in the i-direction, giving

Mathematically, different choices of axes make no difference to the final solution

3 Two or more particles

3.1 Newton’s third law

4.1 The motion of a particle

A vector function r(t) of some variable t is a vector whose components are

Unlike the components of a vector, which are constant, the components of a

t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

In general, motion in three-dimensional space is represented by a

where x is measured in metres and t in seconds.

Position, velocity and acceleration

The derivative of a vector function r(t), whose components are smooth

In many situations, velocity is less important than changes in velocity. For

4.2 One-dimensional motion

The initial condition x = 3 when t = 1 can be used to find the constant B,

In general, an equation of motion is any equation relating two or more of

The initial condition v(0) = v0 gives A = v0 , so the velocity is given by

The results of Example 9 can be summarized as follows.

We know that, by definition, a = dv/dt = d2 x/dt2 . There is a useful alternative

Alternative expressions for a(t)

In general, given an equation of motion relating acceleration to one or more of

subsequent development of ideas of motion, leading eventually to Newton’s laws,

A force of magnitude one newton (1 N) is the force required to accelerate a

Fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics

Newton’s first law Newton’s first law is a special

The steps highlighted in Example 10 and in the solution to Exercise 37 are

Procedure 1.3 Applying Newton’s second law

Notes on the procedure

the relevant angles are calculated) is as follows. W

p = exp (−1) dx = exp(−x) = e−x . e−x /2 − xe−x /2 u = 0.

d −x e−x /2 u = C, or, equivalently, u = Cex /2

Thus the differential equation can be rewritten as

so If the block does not move,

Solution to Exercise 15 which this happens is the required value of µ.)

The equilibrium condition for particles applied to so

|T1 | = |W1 + W2 | = 1.5g + 0.5g = 2g ' 19.6. JInterpret solutionI

Consider first the case where m2 is likely to drop T2 N

Solution to Exercise 34 Solution to Exercise 37

JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI

Solution to Exercise 39 JDraw pictureI

Now the marble starts from rest, so v = 0 when

JChoose axesI second law.

JApply Newton’s 2nd lawI

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