Engr. BLESS G.

AMPUAN, RME
Part-Time Lecturer

First Semester, SY 2021 - 2022

Table of Contents

1. Review Guide Details ................................................. iii

2. Short Description ....................................................... iii
3. Aims of the Review Guide .......................................... iii

Chapter 1: ALGEBRA....................................................... 1
Lesson 1: Exponents ..................................................................... 2
Lesson 2: Radicals ......................................................................... 6
Lesson 3: Binomial Expansion ................................................... 16
Lesson 4: Polynomials ................................................................ 20
Lesson 5: Rational Expressions ................................................. 30
Lesson 6: Partial Fractions ......................................................... 34

Chapter 2: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY............................... 40

Lesson 7: Rectangular Coordinate System .................................... 41
Lesson 8: Curve Tracing ................................................................ 49
Lesson 9: Conic Section ................................................................. 55
Lesson 10: Polar Graphs ................................................................ 59

Chapter 3: PLANE TRIGONOMETRY ............................ 63

Lesson 11: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions .............. 64
Lesson 12: Basic Concepts and Right Triangle ....................... 71
Lesson 13: Trigonometric Identities......................................... 93

References ..................................................................... 100

ii
1. REVIEW GUIDE DETAILS

Review Guide Title: Review Guide in Pre-Integral

Calculus
Review Guide Coordinator: Engr. Bless G. Ampuan
Contact Details: Mobile +63-9063763572
Email [email protected]
Subject Area: College Algebra
Advanced Algebra
Plane Trigonometry
Analytic Geometry
Solid Mensuration
Differential Calculus

2. SHORT DESCRIPTION

This Review Guide is a product of a research made

by Engr. Kissa P. Banawis. The topics included are the
identified concepts where the engineering students
commonly commit errors. Topics were arranged per pre-
requisite subject starting from Algebra, Trigonometry,
Plane and Solid Mensuration, Analytic Geometry and
Differential Calculus.

3. AIMS OF THE REVIEW GUIDE

This Review Guide, generally, aims to help the
students taking up Calculus in recollecting the concepts in
its pre-requisite subjects like Algebra, Analytic Geometry,
and Trigonometry.

iii
 Chapter 1

ALGEBRA
Lessons:

1. Exponents
2. Radicals
3. Binomial Expansion
4. Polynomials
A. Operations
B. Special Products
C. Factoring Polynomials
5. Rational Expressions
6. Partial Fractions

1
Lesson 1

EXPONENTS

Objectives:

1. Improve further the understanding of the properties of exponents and

a. perform operations involving exponents, including negative and rational
exponents
b. demonstrate an understanding of the properties of exponential
expressions
c. use the properties of exponents to rewrite expressions that have radicals
or rational exponents

𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟒
Is ൬𝒙 ൰ = 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 ?
and
𝒎
𝒂𝒎
Is
𝒂𝒏
=𝒂 𝒏 ?

Exponent
an
read as:
“a to the nth power”
“a to the n”

For an as a to the nth power or, simply, a to the n, the positive integer n
is called the exponent, and the real number a is called the base.

2
Exponential Notation

General case (n is any positive Special cases

integer)
an = a ∙ a ∙ a ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ a a1 = a
a2 = a ∙ a
n factors of a a3 = a ∙ a ∙ a
a6 = a ∙ a ∙ a ∙ a ∙ a ∙ a

Zero and Negative Exponents

Definition (a ≠ 0) Illustration
a0 = 1 0
3 =1 ; (−√2)0 = 1
1 1 1
a–n = 𝑎𝑛 5−3 = 53 ; (−3)−5 = (−3)5

Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers a and b and Integers m and n

Law Illustration
(1) 𝑚 𝑛
𝑎 𝑎 =𝑎 𝑚+𝑛 3 4
2 ∙2 = 2 3+4
= 27 = 128
(2) (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 (23 )4 = 23 ∙ 4 = 212 = 4096
(3) (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 (20)3 = (2 ∙ 10)3 = 23 ∙ 103 = 8 ∙ 1000 = 8000
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 2 3 23 8
(4) (𝑏 ) = 𝑏 𝑛 (5) = 53 = 125
𝑎𝑚 25
(5) (a) = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 = 25−3 = 22 = 4
𝑎𝑛 23
𝑎𝑚 1 23
(b) = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 1 1
= 25−3 = 22 = 4
1
𝑎𝑛 25

We usually use 5(a) if m > n and 5(b) if m < n. We can extend the laws
of exponents to obtain rules such as (abc)n = an bn cn and am an ap = am+n+p.

To simplify an expression involving powers of real numbers means to

change it to an expression in which each real number appears only once and
all exponents are positive. We shall assume that denominators always represent
nonzero real numbers.

Examples:

(a) (3x3 y4) (4xy5) = (3) (4) x3 xy4 y5 rearrange factors

= 12 x4 y9 law 1

(b) (2a2 b3 c)4 = 24 (a2)4 (b3)4 c4 law 3

= 16 a8 b12 c4 law 2

3
 2 3 2
2𝑟 3 𝑠 (2𝑟 3 ) 𝑠3
(c) ( ) (𝑟 3 ) = ∙ law 4
𝑠 𝑠2 (𝑟 3 )3
2
22 (𝑟 3 ) 𝑠3
= ∙ law 3
𝑠2 (𝑟 3 )3
4𝑟 6 𝑠3
= ( 𝑠2 ) (𝑟 9 ) law 2
𝑟6 𝑠3
= 4 (𝑟 9 ) (𝑠2 ) rearrange factors
1
= 4 (𝑟 3 ) (𝑠) laws 5(b) and 5(a)
4𝑠
= 𝑟3 rearrange factors

Theorem on Negative Exponents

𝑎−𝑚 𝑏𝑛 𝑎 −𝑛 𝑏 𝑛
(1) = (2) ( ) =( )
𝑏 −𝑛 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑎

𝑎−𝑚 1/𝑎𝑚 1 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑎 −𝑛 𝑎−𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑏 𝑛

Proof (1): = = 𝑎𝑚 ∙ = 𝑎𝑚 (2): (𝑏) = 𝑏−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 = (𝑎)
𝑏 −𝑛 1/𝑏 𝑛 1

Examples:
8 𝑥 3 𝑦 −5 8 𝑥3 𝑦 −5
(a) = ∙ rearrange quotients so that negative
4 𝑥 −1 𝑦2 4 𝑦2 𝑥 −1
exponents are in one fraction
8 𝑥3 𝑥1
= ∙ theorem on negative exponents (1)
4 𝑦2 𝑦5
2 𝑥4
= law 1 of exponents
𝑦7

𝑢 −3 2𝑣 3
(b) (2𝑣) = (𝑢) theorem on negative exponents (2)
23 𝑣 3
= (𝑢3 )
laws 4 and 3 of exponents
8 𝑣3
= law 2 of exponents
𝑢3

Definition of Rational Exponents

Let m/n be a rational number, where n is a positive integer greater than 1. If a

𝑛
is a real number such that √𝑎 exists, then
𝑛
(1) 𝑎1/𝑛 = √𝑎
𝑛 𝑚 𝑛
(2) 𝑎𝑚/𝑛 = ( √𝑎) = √𝑎𝑚
𝑚
(3) 𝑎𝑚/𝑛 = (𝑎1/𝑛 ) = (𝑎𝑚 )1/𝑛
𝑛 𝑚
When evaluating 𝑎𝑚/𝑛 in (2), we usually use ( √𝑎) ; that is, we take the nth
root of a first and then raise that result to the mth power.

Examples:
3
(a) 𝑥1/3 = √𝑥
5 3 5
(b) 𝑥 3/5 = ( √𝑥 ) = √𝑎3
3 2 3 2
(c) 1252/3 = ( √125) = ( √53 ) = 52 = 25

4
 3 3
32 3/5 5 32 5 2 5 2 3 8
(d) (243) = (√243) = ( √(3) ) = (3) = 27

EXERCISES:
I – Simplify the following
1
1. (2 𝑥 4 ) (16𝑥 5 ) = ___________________________________________
(2𝑥 3 )(3𝑥 2 )
2. = ___________________________________________
(𝑥 2 )3

1
3. (6 𝑎5 ) (−3𝑎2 )(4𝑎7 ) = ___________________________________________
4𝑎2 𝑏 5𝑎2 𝑏
4. (𝑎3 𝑏2 ) ( 2𝑏4 ) = ___________________________________________
𝑥7
5. (−2𝑥𝑦 2 )5 (8𝑦 3 ) = ___________________________________________
2
3 𝑥5𝑦4
6. ( 𝑥 0 𝑦 −3 ) = ___________________________________________

7. (−2𝑟 2 𝑠)5 (3𝑟 −1 𝑠 3 )2 = ___________________________________________

8. (−3𝑎2 𝑏 −5 )2 = ___________________________________________
9. (4𝑎3/2 )(2𝑎1/2 ) = ___________________________________________
10. (27𝑎6 )−2/3 = ___________________________________________
11. (8𝑥 −2/3 )𝑥1/6 = ___________________________________________
2/3
−8 𝑥 3
12. ( ) = ___________________________________________
𝑦 −6

II. Rewrite the expression using rational exponents.

4
13. √𝑥 3 = ___________________________________________
3
14. √(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = ___________________________________________

15. √𝑎 + √𝑏 = ___________________________________________

𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Therefore, ൬𝒙 ൰ = 𝒙𝟒 𝟐

𝒂𝒎
and = 𝒂𝒎−𝒏 ?
𝒂𝒏

5
Lesson 2
RADICALS

Objectives:
1. Understanding laws, simplifying and performing operations involving
radicals.

𝟐 𝟑
Is 𝟏𝟎𝒙 = √𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 ?
𝟑

and
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
√𝟏𝟔 + 𝟖𝟏 = √𝟏𝟔 + √𝟖𝟏 ?

Definition

If n is a positive integer that is greater than 1 and a is a real number

then,
𝒏
√𝒂 = 𝒂𝟏/𝒏
where n is called the index, a is called the radicand, and the symbol √ is
called the radical. The left side of this equation is often called the radical form
and the right side is often called the exponent form.

Note as well that the index is required in these to make sure that we
correctly evaluate the radical. There is one exception to this rule and that is
square root. For square roots we have,
𝟐
√𝒂 = √𝒂
In other words, for square roots we typically drop the index.

Examples:

(1) Write each of the following radicals in exponent form.

a) b) c)

As seen in the last two parts of this example we need to be careful with
parenthesis. When we convert to exponent form and the radicand consists of

6
more than one term then we need to enclose the whole radicand in
parenthesis as we did with b and c. To see why this is, consider the following,

Note that the term immediately to the left of the exponent actually gets the
exponent. Therefore, the radical form of this is,

So, we once again see that parenthesis are very important in this class.

(2) Evaluate each of the following.

a) and

So, the index is important. Different indexes will give different

evaluations so make sure that you don’t drop the index unless it is a 2 (and
hence we’re using square roots). In this part we made the claim that √16 =
4 because 42 = 16. However, 4 isn’t the only number that we can square to get
16. We also have (–4)2 = 16. So, why didn’t we use –4 instead? There is a
general rule about evaluating square roots (or more generally radicals with
even indexes). When evaluating square roots we ALWAYS take the positive
answer. If we want the negative answer we will do the following.

b) ;

c) ;

d) ;

e) ;

In item (e) we can’t evaluate the radical of a negative number if the

index is even. Note however that we can evaluate the radical of a negative
number if the index is odd as item (d) shows.

Note that we don’t have a similar rule as stated in part (a) for radicals
with odd indexes such as the cube root in part (d) above. This is because
there will never be more than one possible answer for a radical with an odd
index.

7
Properties

If n is a positive integer greater than 1 and both a and b are positive real
numbers then,
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑎 √𝑎
1. √𝑎 𝑛 =a 3. √ = 𝑛
𝑏 √𝑏
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
2. √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 √𝑏 𝑛
𝑚 𝑚𝑛
4. √ √𝑎 = √𝑎
Restrictions:
a. indexes m and n are positive integers
b. no denominator should be equal to zero
c. radicals of even order should have positive radicands

Note that on occasion we can allow a or b to be negative and still have these properties
work. When we run across those situations we will acknowledge them.

Sums and Differences of Radicals

Also note that while we can “break up” products and quotients under
a radical we can’t do the same thing for sums or differences. In other words,
𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 + 𝑏 ≠ 𝑛√𝑎 + √𝑏
and
𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 − 𝑏 ≠ 𝑛√𝑎 − √𝑏

If you aren’t sure that you believe this consider the following quick
number example.

If we “break up” the root into the sum of the two pieces we clearly get
different answers! So, be careful to not make this very common mistake!

Radical Simplification

A radical is said to be in simplified radical form (or just simplified form) if

each of the following are true.
All exponents in the radicand must be less than the index.
1. Any exponents in the radicand can have no factors in common with the
index.
2. No fractions appear under a radical.
3. No radicals appear in the denominator of a fraction.

8
Examples:
Simplify each of the following. Assume that x, y, and z are positive.

(1) √𝒚𝟕

Solution
In this case the exponent (7) is larger than the index (2) and so the first
rule for simplification is violated. To fix this we will use the first and second
properties of radicals above. So, let’s note that we can write the radicand as
follows.

So, we’ve got the radicand written as a perfect square times a term whose
exponent is smaller than the index. The radical then becomes,

Now use the second property of radicals to break up the radical and then use
the first property of radicals on the first term.

This now satisfies the rules for simplification and so we are done.

Before moving on let’s briefly discuss how we figured out how to break up
the exponent as we did. To do this we noted that the index was 2. We then
determined the largest multiple of 2 that is less than 7, the exponent on the
radicand. This is 6. Next, we noticed that 7=6+1.

Finally, remembering several rules of exponents we can rewrite the radicand

as,

In the remaining examples we will typically jump straight to the final form of
this and leave the details to you to check.

𝟗
(2) √𝒙𝟔

Solution
This radical violates the second simplification rule since both the index
and the exponent have a common factor of 3. To fix this all we need to do is
convert the radical to exponent form do some simplification and then convert
back to radical form.

9
(3) √𝟏𝟖 𝒙𝟔 𝒚𝟏𝟏

Solution
There is more than one term here but everything works in exactly the
same fashion. We will break the radicand up into perfect squares times terms
whose exponents are less than 2 (i.e. 1).

Don’t forget to look for perfect squares in the number as well.

Now, go back to the radical and then use the second and first property of
radicals as we did in the first example.

Note that we used the fact that the second property can be expanded
out to as many terms as we have in the product under the radical. Also, don’t
get excited that there are no x’s under the radical in the final answer. This
will happen on occasion.

𝟒
(4) √𝟑𝟐 𝒙𝟗 𝒚𝟓 𝒛𝟏𝟐

Solution
This one is similar to the previous part except the index is now a 4. So,
instead of get perfect squares we want powers of 4. This time we will
combine the work in the previous part into one step.

𝟑 𝟑
(5) √𝟗 𝒙𝟐 √𝟔𝒙𝟐

Solution
This last part seems a little tricky. Individually both of the radicals are
in simplified form. However, there is often an unspoken rule for
simplification. The unspoken rule is that we should have as few radicals in
the problem as possible. In this case that means that we can use the second
property of radicals to combine the two radicals into one radical and then
we’ll see if there is any simplification that needs to be done.

Now that it’s in this form we can do some simplification.

10
Adding, Subtracting and Multiplying Radical expressions

Performing these operations with radicals is much the same as

performing these operations with polynomials.

Recall that to add/subtract terms with x in them all we need to do is

add/subtract the coefficients of the x. For example,

Adding/subtracting radicals works in exactly the same manner. For instance,

Examples

Multiply each of the following. Assume that x is positive.

(1)

Solution
In all of these problems all we need to do is recall how to FOIL
binomials. Recall,

With radicals we multiply in exactly the same manner. The main difference is
that on occasion we’ll need to do some simplification after doing the
multiplication

As noted above we did need to do a little simplification on the first term after
doing the multiplication.

(2)

Solution

Again, notice that we combined up the terms with two radicals in them.

11
(3)

Solution

Notice that, in this case, the answer has no radicals. That will happen on
occasion so don’t get excited about it when it happens.

Rationalizing the Denominator

Note that the fourth rule of radical simplification says that we shouldn’t have
any radicals in the denominator. To get rid of them we will use some of the
multiplication ideas that we looked at above and the process of getting rid of
the radicals in the denominator is called rationalizing the denominator.

Examples:

Rationalize the denominator for each of the following. Assume that x is

positive.

𝟒
(a)
√𝒙

Solution
𝑛
In this case we are going to make use of the fact that √𝑎𝑛 = a. We need to
determine what to multiply the denominator by so that this will show up in
the denominator. Once we figure this out we will multiply the numerator
and denominator by this term.

Here is the work for this part.

Remember that if we multiply the denominator by a term we must also

multiply the numerator by the same term. In this way we are really

𝑎
multiplying the term by 1 (since 𝑎 = 1 ) and so aren’t changing its value in any
way.

12
 𝟓 𝟐
(b) √
𝒙𝟑

Solution
We’ll need to start this one off with first using the third property of
radicals to eliminate the fraction from underneath the radical as is required
for simplification.

Now, in order to get rid of the radical in the denominator we need the

exponent on the x to be a 5. This means that we need to multiply by so

let’s do that.

𝟏
(c)
𝟑 −√𝒙

Solution
In this case we can’t do the same thing that we did in the previous two
parts. To do this one we will need to instead to make use of the fact that

When the denominator consists of two terms with at least one of the
terms involving a radical we will do the following to get rid of the radical.

So, we took the original denominator and changed the sign on the second
term and multiplied the numerator and denominator by this new term. By
doing this we were able to eliminate the radical in the denominator when we
then multiplied out.

𝟓
(d)
𝟒√𝟑 +√𝟑

Solution
This one works exactly the same as the previous example. The only
difference is that both terms in the denominator now have radicals. The
process is the same however.

13
EXERCISES

Write the expressions in exponential form.

1. = _______________________________________________________
2. = _______________________________________________________

3. = _______________________________________________________

4. = _______________________________________________________
5. = _______________________________________________________

Evaluate the radicals.

6. = _______________________________________________________
7. = _______________________________________________________
8. = _______________________________________________________
9. = _______________________________________________________
10. = _______________________________________________________

Simplify each of the following. Assume that x, y and z are all positive.
11. = _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
12. = _______________________________________________________

13. = _______________________________________________________

14. = ______________________________________________________

15. = _____________________________________________________

16. = _______________________________________________________

17. = _____________________________________________________

18. = __________________________________________________
19. = ___________________________________________________

20. = __________________________________________________

Multiply each of the following. Assume that x is positive.

21. = ________________________________________________

22. = _________________________________________________

14
23. = ___________________________________________

24. = ______________________________________________________

Rationalize the denominator. Assume that x and y are both positive.

25. = _______________________________________________________
= _______________________________________________________

26. = _______________________________________________________
= _______________________________________________________

27. = _______________________________________________________
= _______________________________________________________

28. = _______________________________________________________
= _______________________________________________________

29. = _______________________________________________________
= _______________________________________________________

30. = _______________________________________________________
= _______________________________________________________

𝟐 𝟑
Therefore, 𝟏𝟎𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎 √𝒙𝟐𝟑

𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
and √𝟏𝟔 + 𝟖𝟏 ≠ √𝟏𝟔 + √𝟖𝟏
𝟒
it is equal to √𝟗𝟕

15
Lesson 3

BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Objectives:

1. To apply the binomial theorem for the expansion of (x + y)n in powers of x and
y for a positive integer n.

𝟐
Is (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟓 )
= 𝒙𝟔 − 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟔 + 𝒙𝟏𝟎 ?

A binomial is a sum a + b, where a and b represent numbers. If n is a positive

integer, then a general formula for expanding (a + b)n (that is, for expressing it
as sum) is given by the binomial theorem.
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3+ 5ab4 + b5

Properties:

(1) There are n + 1 terms, the first being an and the last bn.
(2) As we proceed from any term to the next, the power of a decreases by 1
and the power of b increases by 1. For each term, the sum of the exponents of
a and b is n.
(3) Each term has the form (c)an–k bk, where the coefficient c is an integer and
k = 0, 1, 2, …, n.
(4) The following formula is true for each of the first n terms of the
expansion:
(𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)∙(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎)
= coefficient of next term
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

16
Coefficient of the (k + 1)st Term in the Expansion of (a + b)n

𝑛 𝑛!
( ) = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) = k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
𝑘 𝑘!(𝑛−𝑘)!

𝑛
The symbols ( ) and 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) are sometimes read “n choose k”
𝑘

The Binomial Theorem (Alternative Form)

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)…(𝑛−𝑘+1)
(a + b)n = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + . . . + 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 𝑏𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + 𝑏 𝑛
2! 𝑘!

Examples

(1) The term a8b4 occurs in the expansion of what binomial?

Answer. (a + b)12. The sum of 8 + 4 is 12.

(2) In that expansion in (1), what number is the coefficient of a8b4?

12· 11· 10· 9

Answer. It is the combinatorial number, 12C4 = = 495
1· 2· 3· 4
Note again: The lower index, in this case 4, is the exponent of b. This same
number is also the coefficient of a4b8, since 12C8 = 12C4.

(3) Expand (a − b)5.

Solution. We found the binomial coefficients to be 1 5 10 10 5 1. The

difference with (a − b) is that the signs of the terms will alternate:
(a − b)5 = a5 − 5a4b + 10a3b2 − 10a2b3 + 5ab4 − b5.

For, a − b = a + (−b), therefore each term will have the form a5

− k(−b)k.

When k is even, (−b)k will be positive. But when k is odd, (−b)k will be
negative. Each odd power of b will have a minus sign.

(4) In the expansion of (x − y)15, calculate the coefficients of x3y12 and x2y13.

Solution. The coefficient of x3y12 is positive because the exponent of y is

even. That coefficient is 15C12. But 15C12 = 15C3, and so we have
15 · 14 · 13
= 455
1· 2· 3
The coefficient of x2y13, on the other hand, is negative because the
exponent of y is odd. The coefficient is − 15C13 = − 15C2. We have
15 · 14
− = −105.
1· 2
(5). Use the binomial theorem to expand (a + b)8.

17
 Solution. The expansion will begin:
(a + b)8 = a8 + 8a7b
The first coefficient is always 1. The second is always the exponent of
the expansion, in this case 8.
(𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)∙(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎) (8)∙(7)
The next coefficient is equal to , that is, .
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 2
(a + b)8 = a8 + 8a7b + 28a6b2
(28)∙(6)
The next coefficient is = 56
3
(a + b)8 = a8 + 8a7b + 28a6b2 + 56a5b3
(56)∙(5)
The next coefficient is = 70
4
(a + b)8
= + 8a7b + 28a6b2 + 56a5b3 + 70a4b4
a8
We have now come to the point of symmetry. For, the coefficient
of a b is equal to the coefficient of a5b3, which is 56. And so on for the
3 5

remaining coefficients. The complete expansion:

(a + b)8 = a8 + 8a7b + 28a6b2 + 56a5b3 + 70a4b4 + 56a3b5 + 28a2b6 + 8ab7 + b8

(6) Write the 5th term in the expansion of (a + b)10.

Solution. In the 1st term, k = 0. In the 2nd term, k = 1. And so on.

The index k -- the exponent of b -- of each term is one less than
the ordinal number of the term.
Thus in the 5th term, k = 4. The exponent of b is 4. The 5th term is
10C4 a6b4 =
10· 9· 8· 7 6 4
a b = 210 a6b4
1· 2· 3· 4

EXERCISES:
Problem 1.
1) Calculate the coefficient of a4b6 in the expansion of (a + b)10.

2) The coefficient of which other term is the same?

3) In the expansion of (a + b)n, the coefficient of an − kbk is the same as the

coefficient of which other term?

Problem 2. Calculate the coefficient of

4) x17y3 in the expansion of (x + y)20. = ______________________________

5) x3y17 in the expansion of (x + y)20. = ______________________________

6) x3y17 in the expansion of (x − y)20. = ______________________________

7) x2y18 in the expansion of (x − y)20. = ______________________________

8) x5y5 in the expansion of (x − y)10. = ______________________________

18
 9) x10 in the expansion of (x − 1)15. = ______________________________

Problem 3. Compute the first four terms of each of the following.

10) (a + b)15 = ______________________________________________________

11) (x − 1)20 = ______________________________________________________

Problem 4. Consider the expansion of (x + b)30.

12) What is the exponent of b in the 1st term? = ________________________

13) What is the exponent of b in the 3rd term? = ________________________

14) In the 25th term? = __________________________________________

15) In the kth term? = __________________________________________

16) Write the fourth term, with its coefficient. = ________________________

Problem 5. Calculate each of the following.

17) The fifth term of (x − y)7. = ______________________________

18) The tenth term of (x − 1)12. = ______________________________

1 18
19) The fifteenth term of (1 + 𝑥) . = ______________________________

1 10
20) The fourth term of (𝑥 + 𝑥) . = ______________________________

𝟐
Therefore, (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟓 )
= 𝒙𝟔 − 𝟐(𝒙𝟑 )(𝒙𝟓 ) + 𝒙𝟏𝟎
= 𝒙𝟔 − 𝟐𝒙𝟖 + 𝒙𝟏𝟎

Lesson 4

19
 POLYNOMIALS

Objectives:

1. To perform arithmetic operations on polynomials: a) multiplication and b)

division using long and synthetic methods
2. To use special products to multiply polynomials by inspection.
3. To rewrite polynomials through different methods of factoring.

𝒙𝟓
Can this be done: 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏
= 𝒙𝟓 (𝒙−𝟑 − 𝟏) = x2 – x5?

A polynomial in x is a sum of the form

a0 xn + a1 xn-1 + a2 xn-2 + … + an–1 x + an

where a’s are real constants with a0 ≠ 0, and n is a positive integer.

A. OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS

Multiplying Polynomials

The product of two polynomials is the sum of all results obtained by

multiplying all the terms of one polynomial by each term of the other.

Examples:

(1) Multiplying binomials. Find the product: (4x + 5)(3x – 2)

Solution:
(4x + 5)(3x – 2)
= (4x)(3x) + (4x)(–2) + (5)(3x) + (5)(–2) distributive properties
= 12x2 – 8x + 15x – 10 multiply
= 12x + 7x – 10
2 simplify

(2) Multiplying monomials. (x2 + 5x – 4)(2x3 + 3x – 1)

Solution:

20
 Method 1. We begin by using a distributive property, treating the
polynomial 2x + 3x – 1 as a single real number:
3

(x2 + 5x – 4) (2x3 + 3x – 1)
= x2(2x3 + 3x – 1) + 5x(2x3 + 3x – 1) – 4(2x3 + 3x – 1)

We next use another distributive property three times and simplify the result,
obtaining
(x2 + 5x – 4) (2x3 + 3x – 1)
= 2x5 + 3x3 – x2 + 10x4 +15x2 – 5x – 8x3 – 12x + 4
= 2x5 + 10x4 – 5x3 + 14x2 – 17x + 4

Method 2. We list the polynomials vertically and multiply, leaving

spaces for powers for x that have zero coefficients, as follows:
2x3 + 3x – 1
x 2 + 5x – 4 0
2x5 + 3x3 – x2
10x4 + 15x2 – 5x
(+) – 8x 3 – 12x + 4
2x5 + 10x4 – 5x3 + 14x2 – 17x + 4

Division of Polynomials

Theorem. For any a, b, c which are all real numbers, and c is non-zero.
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂+𝒃
+ =
𝒄 𝒄 𝒄

Examples:

(1) Divide 3x2y – 6xy2 + 12x by 3x.

Solution
3𝑥 2 𝑦 – 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 3𝑥 2 𝑦 6𝑥𝑦 2 12𝑥
= – + = xy – 2y2 + 4
3𝑥 3𝑥 3𝑥 3𝑥

𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟒𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝒚

(2) Express as a polynomial in x and y:
𝟐𝒙𝒚

Solution
6𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥𝑦 6𝑥 2 𝑦 3 4𝑥 3 𝑦 2 10𝑥𝑦
= + – = 3xy2 + 2x2y – 5
2𝑥𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 2𝑥𝑦

Long Division

21
 We now describe a method of dividing polynomials in which the
divisor has two or more terms. The procedure is similar to that of long
division in arithmetic.

(1) Arrange the dividend and divisor in order of descending powers of a

common letter, leaving a gap for any missing power of the letter in the
dividend.
(2) Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. This
gives the first term of the quotient.
(3) Multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient and subtract the result
from the dividend.
(4) Consider the remainder thus obtained as a new dividend and repeat steps
2 and 3 to find the second term of the quotient and the next remainder.
(5) Continue this process until a remainder is obtained which is zero or is of
lower degree in the common letter than the degree of the divisor.

If the remainder is 0, the division is exact and the result may be expressed as
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑
= quotient
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟

If the remainder is not zero, we express the result as

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
= quotient +
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟

In either case, the result may be checked by the relation

Dividend = (quotient) (divisor) + remainder

Examples

(1) Divide 3x – 6x2 + 18 by 2x + 3.

Solution. We write the dividend and divisor in order of descending powers

of x and carry out the steps listed above.

– 3x + 6 Quotient
Divisor 2x + / – 6x2 + 3x + 18 Dividend
– 6x2 – 9x
12x + 18
12x + 18
0 Remainder
– 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 18
Hence we have = – 3x + 6
2𝑥 + 3

(2) Divide 6a4 – 41a2 + 3a + 6 by 2a2 – 4a – 3.

22
Solution. We carry out the steps listed above using an arrangement which
facilitates the operations.
3a2 + 6a – 4 Quotient
Divisor 2a – 4a – 3 / 6a
2 4 – 41a + 3a + 6
2 Dividend
6a4 – 12a3 – 9a2
12a3 – 32a2 + 3a
12a3 – 24a2 – 18a
– 8a2 + 21a + 6
– 8a2 + 16a + 12
5a – 6 Remainder
6𝑎4 − 41𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6 5𝑎− 6
Hence, = 3a2 + 6a – 4 +
2𝑎2 − 4𝑎− 3 2𝑎2 − 4𝑎− 3

Synthetic Division

In order to divide polynomials using synthetic division, you must be

dividing by a linear expression and the leading coefficient (first number) must
be a 1. For example, you can use synthetic division to divide by x + 3 or x – 6,
but you cannot use synthetic division to divide by x 2 + 2 or 3x2 – x + 7. If the
leading coefficient is not a 1, then you must divide by the leading coefficient
1
to turn the leading coefficient into a 1. For example, 3x – 1 would become x – 3
7
and 2x + 7 would become x + 2 . If synthetic division will not work, then you
must use long division.
Here are the steps required for Synthetic Division of a Polynomial:
Step 1 : To set up the problem, first, set the denominator equal to zero to
find the number to put in the division box. Next, make sure the
numerator is written in descending order and if any terms are
missing you must use a zero to fill in the missing term, finally list
only the coefficient in the division problem.
Step 2 : Once the problem is set up correctly, bring the leading coefficient
(first number) straight down.
Step 3 : Multiply the number in the division box with the number you
brought down and put the result in the next column.
Step 4 : Add the two numbers together and write the result in the bottom
of the row.
Step 5 : Repeat steps 3 and 4 until you reach the end of the problem.
Step 6 : Write the final answer. The final answer is made up of the
numbers in the bottom row with the last number being the
remainder and the remainder must be written as a fraction. The
variables or x’s start off one power less than the original
denominator and go down one with each term.
Examples:

23
(1) Divide using Synthetic
Division:
Step 5

Solution

Step 1

Step 2
Step 6 Final Answer is

Step 3

Step 4

(2) Divide using Synthetic Division:

Step 6 Final Answer is

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5
EXERCISES (Operations)

I – Multiply the following polynomials:

1. 5x2y(7x2 – 4xy2 + 2y3) = _______________________________________

2. (4x – 7)(2x – 9) = _______________________________________
3. (3x – 5)(2x2 – 4x + 7) = _______________________________________
4. (4x + 3)(7x – 5) = _______________________________________
5. (4x + 3)(3x2 – 5x – 6) = _______________________________________

II – Divide the following polynomials:

6. _______________________________________

7. ________________________________________

8.
________________________________________

III – Divide the following polynomials using either long division or synthetic division:

9. ________________________________________

10. ________________________________________

𝑒 4𝑥 − 3
11. ________________________________________
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1

12. ________________________________________

13. ________________________________________

(𝑥−1)(2𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2)

14.
𝑥 3 (𝑥+1)
________________________________________

25
B. SPECIAL PRODUCTS

Formula Illustration
(1) Sum and Difference
(x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2 (2a + 3) (2a – 3) = (2a)2 – 32 = 4a2 – 9
(2) Square of a Binomial
(2a – 3)2 = (2a)2 – 2(2a)(3) + (3)2
(x ± y)2 = x2 ± 2xy + y2
= 4a2 – 12a + 9
(3) Cube of a Binomial
(2a + 3)3 = (2a)3 + 3(2a)2(3) + 3(2a)(3)2 + (3)3
(x ± y)3 = x3 ± 3x2y + 3xy2 ± y3
= 8a3 + 36a2 + 54a + 27
(4) Square of a Polynomial
(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + (2a – 3b – 5)2 = (2a)2 + (–3b)2 + (–5)2
2xz + 2yz +2(2a)(–3b) + 2(2a)(–5)
Rule: The square of a polynomial is + 2(–3b)(–5)
equal to the sum of the squares of the = 4x + 9y2 + 25 – 12xy – 20x + 30y
2
separate terms plus twice the algebraic
sum of the products obtained by
multiplying each term by the sum of
the terms that follow it

EXERCISES (Special Products)

I – Find the product.

(1) (2x + 3y)(2x – 3y) = ___________________________________________

(2) (x2 + 9)(x2 – 4) = ___________________________________________
(3) (5x + 4y)((5x – 4y) = ___________________________________________
(4) (3x + y3)(3x – y3) = ___________________________________________
(5) (5x – 4y)2 = ___________________________________________
(6) (2x2 + 5y2)2 = ___________________________________________
(7) (x + y)2 (x – y)2 = ___________________________________________
(8) (√𝑥 +√𝑦) (√𝑥 –√𝑦) = ___________________________________________

(9) (√𝑥 +√𝑦)2 (√𝑥 –√𝑦)2 = ___________________________________________

(10) (x1/3 – y1/3)(x2/3 + x1/3y1/3 + y2/3) = ________________________________
(11) (x1/3 + y1/3)(x2/3 – x1/3y1/3 + y2/3) = ________________________________
(12) (2x + 3y)3 = ___________________________________________
(13) (x + 3y)3 = ___________________________________________

26
(14) (2x + y – 3z)2 = ___________________________________________
(15) (x – 2y + 3z)2 = ___________________________________________

C. FACTORING POLYNOMIALS

Formula Illustration
(1) Common Factors

If each term of polynomial has a

common factor, the distributive law
1. 4x3y2 + 2x2y3 – 6x2y2 = 2x2y2 (2x + y – 3)
enables us to express the polynomial as
the product of two factors, one of 2. x(a + b) + y(a + b) = (a + b)(x + y)
which is the common factor.

(2) Difference of Two Squares

x2 – y2 = (x + y)(x – y) 9a2 – 16 = (3a)2 – (4)2 = (3a + 4) (3a – 4)
(3) Difference of Two Cubes

9a3 – 27 = (2a)3 – (3)3

x3 – y3 = (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) = (2a – 3)[(2a)2 + (2a)(3) + (3)2]
= (2a – 3)(4a2 + 6a + 9)

(4) Sum of Two Cubes

125a3 + 1 = (5a)3 + (1)3

x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) = (5a + 1)[(5a)2 – (5a)(1) + (1)2]
= (5a + 1)(25a2 – 5a + 1)

Trinomials with Distinct Factors

acx2 + (ad + bc)xy + bdy2 = (ax + by) (cx + dy)
Examples:

(1) Factor 6x2 – 7x – 3.

Solution. If we write
6x2 – 7x – 3 = (ax + b)(cx + d)
then the following relationships must be true:
ac = 6, bd = –3, and ad + bc = –7
If we assume that a and c are both positive, then all possible values are given in the
following table:
a 1 6 2 3
b 6 1 3 2
Thus, if 6x – 7x – 3 is factorable, then one of the following is true:
2

6x2 – 7x – 3 = (x + b)(6x + d)
6x2 – 7x – 3 = (6x + b)(x + d)
6x2 – 7x – 3 = (2x + b)(3x + d)

27
 6x2 – 7x – 3 = (3x + b)(2x + d)

We next consider all possible values for b and d. Since bd = –3, these are as follows:
b 1 –1 3 –3
d –3 3 –1 1
Trying various (possibly all) values, we arrive at b = –3, and d = 1; that is,
6x2 – 7x – 3 = (2x – 3) (3x + 1)
As a check, you should multiply the final factorization to see whether the given
polynomial is obtained.

(2) Factor 12x2 – 36xy + 27y2.

Solution.
Since each term has 3 as a factor, we begin by writing
12x2 – 36xy + 27y2 = 3 (4x2 – 12xy + 9y2)
A factorization of 4x2 – 12xy + 9y2 as a product of two first-degree polynomials
must be of the form
4x2 – 12xy + 9y2 = (ax + by) (cx + dy)
with ac = 4, bd = 9, and ad + bc = –12
Using the method of trial and error, as in previous example, we obtain
4x2 – 12xy + 9y2 = (2x – 3y) (2x – 3y) = (2x – 3y)2

Thus, 12x2 – 36xy + 27y2 = 3(4x2 – 12xy + 9y2) = (2x – 3y)2

Factoring by Grouping

If a sum contains four or more terms, it may be possible to group the terms in a
suitable manner and then find a factorization by using distributive properties. This
technique is called factoring by grouping..

Examples:

(1) Factor 4ac + 2bc – 2ad – bd.

Solution.
We group the first two terms and the last two terms and then proceed as follows:
4ac + 2bc – 2ad – bd = (4ac + 2bc) – (2ad + bd)
= 2c (2a + b) – d(2a + b)
At this stage we have not factored the given expression because the right-hand
side has the form
2ck – dk with k = 2a + b
However, if we factor out k, then
2ck – dk = (2c – d)k = (2c – d)(2a + b)

Hence,
4ac + 2bc – 2ad – bd = 2c (2a + b) – d(2a + b)
= (2c – d) (2a + b)

28
(2) Factor 3x3 + 2x2 – 12x – 8.
Solution.
We group the first two terms and the last two terms and then proceed as follows:
3x3 + 2x2 – 12x – 8 = (3x3 + 2x2) – (12x + 8)
= x2 (3x + 2) – 4(3x + 2)
= (x2 – 4) (3x + 2)
Finally, using the difference of two squares formula for x2 – 4, we obtain the
factorization:
3x3 + 2x2 – 12x – 8 = (x + 2) (x – 2) (3x + 2)

EXERCISES (Factoring)
I - Factor the following polynomials:
(1) rs + 4st = _________________________________________________
(2) 4u2 – 2uv = _________________________________________________
(3) 3a2b2 – 6a2b = _________________________________________________
(4) 16x5y2 + 8x3y3 = _________________________________________________
(5) 15x2y5 – 25x4y2 + 10x6y4 = _____________________________________
(6) 4x2 – 20x + 25 = _________________________________________________
(7) 45x2 + 38xy + 8y2 = ___________________________________________
(8) 36r2 – 25t2 = _________________________________________________
(9) 4x2 - 9 = _________________________________________________
(10) 64x3 – y6 = _________________________________________________
(11) x6 – 27y3 = _________________________________________________
(12) 2ax – 6bx + ay – 3by = ___________________________________________
(13) 2ay2 – axy + 6xy – 3x2 = ___________________________________________
(14) 5x3 + 10x2 – 20x – 40 = ___________________________________________
(15) x4 + 2x3 – x – 2 = __________________________________________

𝒙𝟓
Therefore, , by long
𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏
division
𝒙𝟐
x2 +
𝒙𝟑 −𝟏
തതത𝟓
= 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏/𝒙
x5 – x2
x2
29
Lesson 5

RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Objectives:

1. To apply the laws on cancellations and simplification of rational expressions.

How can I simplify

𝟐−𝒙−𝟑𝒙𝟐
? I guess it is
𝟔𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟐
𝟐−𝒙−𝟑𝒙𝟐
=½
𝟔𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟐

Definition

A fractional expression is a quotient of two algebraic expressions. As a special

case, a rational expression is a quotient p/q of two polynomials p and q. The domain of
p/q consists of all real numbers except those that make the denominator zero.

Simplification Process

A common nonzero factor in the numerator and denominator of a quotient may

be canceled.
𝒂𝒅 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎 𝒂
= ∙ = ∙ 1=
𝒃𝒅 𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝒃

A rational expression is simplified, or reduced to lowest terms, if the numerator and

denominator have no common polynomial factors of positive degree and no common
integral factors greater than 1.

30
Examples:

𝟑𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙−𝟐
(1) Simplify the rational expression .
𝒙𝟐 −𝟒
Solution
3𝑥 2 −5𝑥−2 (3𝑥+1)(𝑥−2) 𝟑𝒙+𝟏
= =
𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 𝒙+𝟐

𝟐−𝒙−𝟑𝒙𝟐
(2) Simplify the rational expression .
𝟔𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟐
Solution
2−𝑥−3𝑥 2 −(3𝑥 2 +𝑥−2) (3𝑥−2)(𝑥+1) 𝒙+𝟏
= = = −
6𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 6𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 (3𝑥−2)(2𝑥+1) 𝟐𝒙+𝟏

(𝒙𝟐 +𝟖𝒙+𝟏𝟔)(𝒙−𝟓)
(3) Simplify the rational expression .
(𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙)(𝒙𝟐 −𝟏𝟔)
Solution
1
(𝑥 2 +8𝑥+16)(𝑥−5) (𝑥+4)2 (𝑥−5) 𝒙+𝟒
= =
(𝑥 2 −5𝑥)(𝑥 2 −16) 𝑥 (𝑥−5)(𝑥+4)(𝑥−4) 𝒙(𝒙−𝟒)

Products, Quotients, Sum and Difference of Rational Fractions

For PRODUCTS, QUOTIENT, SUM and DIFFERENCE of rational expressions,

you simply follow rules of fractions in Lesson 1 and follow simplification process in this
lesson.

Examples:
(𝒙𝟐 −𝟔𝒙+𝟗) (𝟐𝒙−𝟐)
(1) Multiply and simplify the rational expressions ∙ .
(𝒙𝟐 −𝟏) (𝒙−𝟑)

1
(𝑥 2 −6𝑥+9) (2𝑥−2) (𝑥 2 −6𝑥+9)(2𝑥−2) (𝑥−3)2 ∙ 2(𝑥−1) 𝟐(𝒙−𝟑)
∙ = = =
(𝑥 2 −1) (𝑥−3) (𝑥 2 −1)(𝑥−3) (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)(𝑥−3) 𝒙+𝟏

(𝒙+𝟐) (𝒙𝟐 −𝟒)

(2) Divide and simplify the rational expressions ÷ .
(𝟐𝒙−𝟑) (𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙)

(𝑥+2) (𝑥 2 −4) (𝑥+2) (2𝑥 2 −3𝑥) (𝑥+2)𝑥(2𝑥−3) 𝒙

÷ = ∙ = = =
(2𝑥−3) (2𝑥 2 −3𝑥) (2𝑥−3) (𝑥 2 −4) (2𝑥−3)(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 𝒙−𝟐

31
 𝟔 𝟓 𝟐
(3) Perform the operations and simplify: + − .
𝒙(𝟑𝒙−𝟐) 𝟑𝒙−𝟐 𝒙𝟐
LCD is x2(3x – 2)
6 5 2 6 𝑥 5 𝑥2 2 3𝑥−2
+ − =( ∙ )+( ∙ )−( ∙ )
𝑥(3𝑥−2) 3𝑥−2 𝑥2 𝑥(3𝑥−2) 𝑥 3𝑥−2 𝑥2 𝑥2 3𝑥−2

6𝑥 5𝑥 2 2(3𝑥−2)
= + −
𝑥 2 (3𝑥−2) 𝑥 2 (3𝑥−2) 𝑥 2 (3𝑥−2)

6𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 − 2(3𝑥−2) 𝟓𝒙𝟐 +𝟒
= =
𝑥 2 (3𝑥−2) 𝒙𝟐 (𝟑𝒙−𝟐)

Complex Fraction

A complex fraction is a quotient in which the numerator and/or the

denominator is a fractional expression. Certain problems in calculus require
simplifying complex fractions of the type given in the next example.

Example: Simplify the complex fraction

𝟐 𝟐
−
𝒙+𝟑 𝒂+𝟑
𝒙−𝒂

2 2 2(𝑎+3) − 2(𝑥+3)
− (𝑥+3)(𝑎+3) 2(𝑎+3) − 2(𝑥+3) 1
𝑥+3 𝑎+3
= = ∙
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 (𝑥+3)(𝑎+3) 𝑥−𝑎

2(𝑎−𝑥) 𝟐
= =−
(𝑥+3)(𝑎+3)(𝑥−𝑎) (𝒙+𝟑)(𝒂+𝟑)

Rational Fraction Rationalization

Some quotients that are not rational expressions contain denominators of the
form a + √𝑏 or √𝑎 + √𝑏; these quotients can be simplified by multiplying the numerator
and denominator by the conjugate a – √𝑏 or √𝑎 – √𝑏, respectively. Of course, if a – √𝑏
appears, multiply by a + √𝑏 instxead.

Examples:

(1) Rationalize the denominator:

𝟏
√𝒙 + √𝒚
1 1 √𝑥 −√𝑦 √𝑥 −√𝑦 √𝒙 −√𝒚
= ∙ = 2 =
√𝑥+√𝑦 √𝑥+√𝑦 √𝑥 −√𝑦 (√𝑥) −(√𝑦)2 𝒙 −𝒚

32
(2) Rationalize the numerator:
√𝒙 + 𝒚 − √𝒙
𝒚
2
√𝑥+𝑦 − √𝑥 √𝑥+𝑦 −√𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 + √𝑥 (√𝑥+𝑦 )2 −(√𝑥)
= ∙ √ =
𝑦 𝑦 √𝑥+𝑦 + √𝑥 𝑦(√𝑥+𝑦 + √𝑥)
(𝑥+𝑦)−𝑥 𝑦 𝟏
= = =
𝑦(√𝑥+𝑦 + √𝑥) 𝑦(√𝑥+𝑦 + √𝑥) √𝒙+𝒚 + √𝒙

EXERCISES
Simplify the following rational expressions:
2𝑥 2 +7𝑥+3
1. = ____________________________________________
2𝑥 2 −7𝑥−4
10+3𝑟− 42
2. = ____________________________________________
𝑟 4 +2𝑟 3
9𝑥 2 −4 9𝑥 4 −6𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2
3. ∙ = _________________________________
3𝑥 2 −5𝑥+2 27𝑥 4 +8𝑥
𝑎3 −8 𝑎
4. ÷ = ____________________________________________
𝑎2 −4 𝑎3 +8
6 3𝑥
5. − = ____________________________________________
𝑥 2 −4 𝑥 2 −4
2 3𝑥+1 𝑥−2
6. + − = _______________________________________
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑥 𝑦
− 2
𝑦2 𝑥
7. 1 1 = ____________________________________________
− 2
𝑦2 𝑥

5 2𝑥
+
𝑥+1 𝑥+3
8. 𝑥 7 = ____________________________________________
+
𝑥+1 𝑥+3

81𝑥 2 −16𝑦 2
9. = ____________________________________________
3√𝑥 − 2√𝑦

16𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
10. = ____________________________________________
2√𝑥 − √𝑦

Therefore, I should factor

𝟐−𝒙−𝟑𝒙𝟐 −(𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝒙−𝟐)
first. =
𝟔𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟐 𝟔𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟐
(3𝑥−2)(𝑥+1) 𝒙+𝟏
(3𝑥−2)(2𝑥+1)
= − 𝟐𝒙+𝟏
33
Lesson 6

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Objectives:

1. To use the systems of equations to decompose proper and improper rational

expressions into sums of simpler expressions.
2. To decompose partial fractions with different kinds of denominators: distinct
linear, repeated linear, distinct or irreducible quadratic, and repeated factors.

Is the partial fraction

𝟖
decomposition of
𝒙 (𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒)
𝑨 𝑩
= 𝒙 + (𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒)?

2 1 −1
= +
𝑥2 − 1 𝑥−1 𝑥+1

The expression on the right side of this equation is called the partial fraction
decomposition of 2/(x2 – 1).

It is theoretically possible to write any rational expression as a sum of rational

expressions whose denominators involve powers of polynomials of degree not greater
than two. If f(x) and g(x) are polynomials and the degree of f(x) is less than the degree of g(x),
it can be proved that
𝑓(𝑥)
= F1 + F2 + . . . + Fr
𝑔(𝑥)
such that each Fk has one of the forms
𝐴 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
or
(𝑝𝑥+𝑞)2 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
Where A and B are real numbers, m and n are nonnegative integers, and the quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c is irreducible over ℝ (that is, has no real zero). The sum F1 + F2
+ … + Fr is the partial fraction decomposition of f(x)/g(x), and each Fk is a partial
fraction.

34
 For the partial fraction decomposition of f(x)/g(x) to be found, it is essential that
f(x) have lower degree than g(x), which is called the proper fraction. If this is not the case,
the fraction is an improper fraction and we can use long division to obtain such an
expression with a polynomial plus a proper fraction.

Guidelines for Finding Partial Fraction

(1) If the degree of the numerator f(x) is not lower than the degree of the denominator
g(x), use long division to obtain the proper form.

(2) Factor the denominator g(x) into a product of linear factors px + q or irreducible
quadratic factors ax2 + bx + c, and collect repeated factors so that g(x) is a product of
different factors of the form (px + q)m or (ax2 + bx + c)n for a nonnegative integer m or n.

(3) Apply the following rules to the factors found in guideline 2.

Rule A: For each factor of the form (px + q)m with m ≥ 1, the partial fraction
decomposition contains a sum of m partial fractions of the form
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑚
+ + ⋯ +
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)2 (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)𝑚
where each numerator Ak is a real number.
Rule B: For each factor of the form (ax2 + bx + c)n with n ≥ 1 and ax2 + bx + c
irreducible, the partial fraction decomposition contains a sum of n partial fractions of
the form
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛
2
+ 2 2
+⋯+
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
where each Ak and each Bk is a real number.

(4) Find the numbers Ak and Bk in guideline 3.

Denominators of Partial Fraction

𝐴
(1) Distinct Linear Factors where A is constant.
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑘
(2) Repeated Linear Factors +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 2 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑘
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
where A1, A2,…, Ak are constants and Ak ≠ 0; k corresponds the number of partial
fractions.
𝐴𝑥+𝐵
(3) Distinct or Irreducible Quadratic Factors
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+ 𝑐
where A and B is constant.

(4) Repeated Quadratic Factors

𝐴1 𝑥+𝐵1 𝐴1 𝑥+𝐵1 𝐴𝑘 𝑥+𝐵𝑘
+ + ⋯ +
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+ 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+ 𝑐)2 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+ 𝑐)𝑘
where A1, B1, A2, B2, … , Ak, Bk are constants and Ak and Bk not both zero; k
corresponds the number of partial fractions.

35
Examples

(1) A Partial Fraction Decomposition in which each Denominator is Linear

Find the partial fraction decomposition of

4𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 9
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥
Solution
Guideline 1. The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the
denominator, 3, so long division is not required.

Guideline 2. We factor the denominator:

x3 + 2x2 – 3x = x(x2 + 2x – 3) = x(x + 3)(x – 1)

Guideline 3. Each factor of the denominator has the form stated in Rule A with m = 1.
Thus, to the factor x there corresponds a partial fraction of the form A/x. Similarly, to
the factors x + 3 and x – 1 there correspond partial fractions of the form B/(x + 3) and
C/(x – 1), respectively. The partial fraction decomposition has the form
4𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 9 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3 2
= + +
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+3 𝑥−1

Guideline 4. We find the values of A, B, and C in guideline 3. Multiplying both sides

of the partial fraction decomposition by the least common denominator, x(x + 3)(x –
1), gives us
4𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 9 = A(x + 3)(x – 1) + Bx(x – 1) + C x(x + 3)
= A(x2 + 2x – 3) + B(x2 – x) + C (x2 + 3x)
= (A + B + C)x2 + (2A – B + 3C)x – 3A
Equating the coefficients of like powers of x on each side of the last equation, we
obtain the system of equations
A +B +C = 4
2A – B + 3C = 13
– 3A = –9
Using the methods of the preceding section yields the solution A = 3, B = –1, and
C = 2. Hence, the partial fraction decomposition is
4𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 9 3 −1 2
= + +
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+3 𝑥−1

There is an alternative way to find A, B, and C if all factors of the denominator

are linear and non-repeated, as in this example. Instead of equating coefficients and
using a system of equations, we begin with the equation
4𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 9 = A(x + 3)(x – 1) + Bx(x – 1) + C x(x + 3)
We next substitute values for x that make the factors, x, x – 1, and x – 3, equal to
zero. If we let x = 0 and simplify, we obtain
let x = 0; 4(0)2 +13(0) – 9 = A(0 + 3)(0 – 1) + B(0)(0 – 1) + C(0)(0 + 3)
–9 = –3A, or A=3
let x = 1; 4(1) +13(1) – 9 = A(1 + 3)(1 – 1) + B(1)(1 – 1) + C(1)(1 + 3)
2

8 = 4C or C=2
let x = –3; 4(–3) + 13(–3) – 9 = A(–3 + 3)( –3 – 1) + B(–3)( –3 – 1) +
2

36
 C(–3)(–3 + 3)
–12 = 12B or B = –1.

(2) A Partial Fraction Decomposition Containing a Repeated Linear Factor

Find the partial fraction decomposition of

𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36
𝑥(𝑥 − 3)2
Solution
Guideline 1. The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the
denominator, 3, so long division is not required.

Guideline 2. The denominator, 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)2 , is already in factored form.

Guideline 3. By Rule A with m = 1, there is a partial fraction of the form A/x

corresponding to the factor x. Next, applying Rule A with m = 2, we find that the factor
(x – 3)2 determines a sum of two partial fractions of the form B/(x – 3) and C/(x – 3)2.
Thus, the partial fraction decomposition has the form
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
= + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 3)2

Guideline 4. We find the values of A, B, and C in guideline 3. Multiplying both sides

of the partial fraction decomposition by the LCD, 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)2 :
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 = A(𝑥 – 3)2 + Bx(x – 3) + Cx
= A(x2 + 6x + 9) + B(x2 – 3x) + Cx
= (A + B)x2 + (–6A – 3B + C)x + 9A

We next equate the coefficients of like powers of x, obtaining the system

A +B = 1
– 6A – 3B + C = 10
9A = – 36
This system of equations has the solution A = – 4, B = 5, and C = 1. The partial fraction
decomposition is therefore
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 −4 5 1
2
= + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 3)2

As in previous example, an alternative way to find A and C is by beginning with

the equation
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 = A(𝑥 – 3)2 + Bx(x – 3) + Cx
and then substituting values for x that make the factors, x – 3, and x, equal to zero.
Thus, letting x = 3, we obtain 3 = 3C, or C = 1. Letting x = 0 gives us –36 = 9A, or A = –4.
The value of B may then be found by using one of the equations in the system.
let x = 0; (0)2 +10(0) – 36 = A (0 – 3)2 + B(0)(0 – 3) + C(0)
– 36 = 9A, or A = –4
let x = 3; (3) +10(3) – 36 = A (3 – 3) + B(3)(3 – 3) + C(3)
2 2

3 = 3C, or C=1

(3) A Partial Fraction Decomposition Containing an Irreducible Quadratic Factor

37
 Find the partial fraction decomposition of
4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 − 29
2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 4
Solution
Guideline 1. The degree of the numerator, 3, is equal to the degree of the denominator.
Thus, long division is required, and we obtain
4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 − 29 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 21
= 2 +
2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 4

Guideline 2. The denominator may be factored by grouping, as follows:

2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 4 = x2(2x – 1) + 4(2x – 1) = (x2 + 4) (2x – 1)

Guideline 3. Applying Rule B to the irreducible quadratic factor x2 + 4 in guideline 2,

we see that one of the partial fractions has the form (Ax + B)/(x2 + 4). By Rule A, there is
also partial fraction C/(2x – 1) corresponding to 2x – 1. Consequently,
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 21 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶
= +
2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 4 𝑥2 + 4 2𝑥 − 1

Guideline 4. Multiplying both sides of the partial fraction decomposition in guideline

3 by the LCD, (𝑥 2 + 4) (2𝑥 − 1), we obtain
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 21 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(2𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 4)
= 2Ax2 – Ax + 2Bx – B + Cx2 + 4C
= (2A + C)x2 + (–A + 2B)x – B + 4C
This leads to the system
2A +C = 1
– A + 2B = –1
– B + 4C = – 21

This system has the solution A = 3, B = 1, and C = – 5. Thus, the partial fraction
decomposition in guideline 3 is
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 21 3𝑥 + 1 −5
3 2
= 2 +
2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 4 𝑥 + 4 2𝑥 − 1

and therefore the decomposition of the given expression (see guideline 1) is

4𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 +15𝑥−29 3𝑥+1 −5
= 2 + +
2𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 +8𝑥−4 𝑥 2 +4 2𝑥−1

(4) A Partial Fraction Decomposition Containing a Repeated Quadratic Factor

Find the partial fraction decomposition of

5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 3
(𝑥 2 + 1)2
Solution

Guideline 1. The degree of the numerator, 3, is less than the degree of the
denominator, 4, so long division is not required.

38
 Guideline 2. The denominator, (𝑥 2 + 1)2, is already in factored form.

Guideline 3. We apply Rule B with n = 2 to (𝑥 2 + 1)2, to obtain the partial fraction

decomposition
5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 3 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
2 2
= 2 + 2
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 +1 (𝑥 + 1)2

Guideline 4. Multiplying both sides of the decomposition in guideline 3 by (𝑥 2 + 1)2

gives us
5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 3 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
= Ax3 + Bx2 + (A + C)x + (B + D)

Comparing the coefficients of x3 and x2, we obtain A = 5 and B = – 3. From the

coefficients of x, we see that A + C = 7. Thus, C = 7 – A = 7 – 5 = 2. Finally, comparing
the constant terms gives us B + D = – 3 and D = – 3 – B = – 3 – (– 3) = 0. Therefore, the
partial fraction decomposition is
5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 3 5𝑥 − 3 2𝑥
2 2
= 2 + 2
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

EXERCISES
Determine the final decomposition of the following:

1. = _____________________________________________________

2. = _____________________________________________________

3. = _____________________________________________________

4. = _____________________________________________________

5. = _____________________________________________________

Since Quadratic,
𝟖 𝑨 𝑩(𝟒𝒙𝟑 )+𝑪
𝒙 (𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒)
= 𝒙
+ 𝟒
(𝒙 + 𝟒)
8 = Ax4 + 4A + 4Bx4 + Cx
Hence, A = 2; B = -1/2; C = 0
Therefore,
𝟖 𝟐 𝟐𝒙𝟑
𝒙 (𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒)
= 𝒙
− 𝟒
(𝒙 + 𝟒)
39
 Chapter 3

ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY

Lesson 7. Rectangular Coordinate System

Lesson 8. Curve Tracing

Lesson 9. Conic Section

Lesson 10. Polar Graphs

Lesson 7

40
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

Objectives:

1. To familiarize and apply the steps in graphing an equation.

In both elementary and high school algebra, the rectangular coordinate

system has been introduced and discussed already. However, for the sake of
clarity and consistency of understanding this concept, a review of this is presented
below:

 The Rectangular Coordinate System (or Cartesian Coordinate System) is a

method of locating points in a plane with the use of ordered pair of numbers.
y-axis
 The plane has a horizontal line, called the x-
axis, which intersects a vertical line, called
the y-axis, at a point, called the origin, that
is usually represented by 0. But this xc P (xc, yc)
notation is merely a convention. yc

 With a convenient scale, equal divisions 0

x-axis
(coordinates) starting from zero are laid in
both directions of the “x” and “y” axes. In
the x-axis, divisions at the right side of the
y-axis are marked by positive integers while
divisions at the left side of the y-axis are
marked by negative integers. In the y-axis,
divisions above the x-axis are marked by positive integers while divisions below
the x-axis are marked by negative integers. These divisions indicate the
vertical or horizontal distance of a point from the origin along the y-axis and x-
axis, respectively.

 The rectangular plane has infinite points denoted by an ordered pair of

numbers, P(xc, yc) where “xc” and “yc” are the coordinates of the point in the x-
axis and y-axis, respectively. The “xc”, technically called abscissa, is the
distance of a point from the origin measured along the x-axis. The “yc”,
technically called ordinate, is the distance of a point from the origin measured
along the y-axis.

 To locate a point P(xc, yc), draw a line parallel to the y-axis passing through the
x-coordinate “xc” and another line parallel to the x-axis passing through the y-
coordinate “yc”. The point of intersection of these lines is the desired point.

 The y-coordinate of any point on the x-axis is 0; the x-coordinate of any point on
the y-axis is likewise 0.

THE FOUR QUADRANTS

41
  The x and y axes divide the rectangular plane into four (4) distinct partitions
which are labeled as Quadrant I (Q I), Quadrant II (Q II), Quadrant III (Q III),
and Quadrant IV (Q IV) in the counterclockwise direction, beginning with the
upper right quadrant.

 The signs of the coordinates of points in the four quadrants are shown in the
figure given below:

Q II QI
(-, +) (+, +)

Q III Q IV
(-, -) (+, -)

 When the coordinates of a point are known, the quadrant in which this point lie
is easily determined.

THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The distance between two points P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) is the number
of divisions measured along the line connecting the two points. When given two
points, there are three (3) possible ways of determining the distance between said
two points, as follows:

a. When the line connecting the given

two points is parallel to the x-axis,
which means that y1 = y2, the P2 (x2, y2)
distance is determined by: P1 (x1, y1)
d

d = x1 – x2 , if x1 > x2

d = x2 – x1 , if x2 > x1

or, simply,

d = x b - xs

wherein xb and xs are the bigger and smaller

x-coordinates of the two given points,
respectively. P1 (x1, y1)

b. When the line connecting the given two points

d
is parallel to the y-axis, which means that x1 =
x2, then the distance is determined by:

42
P2 (x2, y2)
 d = y1 – y2, if y1 > y2

d = y2 – y1, if y2 > y1

or, simply,

d = yb - ys

wherein yb and ys are the bigger and smaller y-coordinates of the two given
points, respectively.

c. When the line connecting the given two points is P1 (x1, y1)
not parallel to either x- or y-axis, the distance
can be found by the application of the
Pythagorean Theorem, which is expressed d
mathematically as:

d = √(𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 – 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐

P2 (x2, y2)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

1. Locate and plot the following points on the rectangular coordinate system :

a) A (1,1), B (2,-4), C(-6, -3), D(-5, 10)

D (-5, 10)

A (1, 1)

C (-6, -3) B (2, -4)

b) E (1/2, 2), F (-3, 3/2), G (-4/3, -3/4), H (1¼, -2½)

E ( ½, 2)

F (-3, 3/2)

43

G (-4/3, -3/4)
2. Find the distance between the given two points :

a. (5, -2) and (-10, -2)

Solution:
(-10, -2) (5, -2)
d = x b - xs d
= 5 – (-10)
= 15

b. (-½, 3) and (14/3, 3)

( -½, 3) (14/3, 3)
Solution:
d

d = x b - xs
= 14/3 – (-1/2)
= 31/6

c. (-5a/3, -3a/5) and (-5a/3, 8a/5) ( -5a/3, 8a/5)

Solution:

d = yb - ys d
= 8a/5 – (-3a/5)
= 11a/5

(-5a/3, -3a/5)

44
 d. (5/2, 5) and (2½, 7/3) e. (1, -3) and (-3, 0)

Solution: Solution:
d = yb - ys d = √(𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 – 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐
= 5 – (7/3) = √(1 + 3)2 + (−3 – 0)2
= 8/3 = √16 + 9 = √25 = 5

(5/2, 5)

d
( -3, 0)

(2½, 7/3)
d

(1, -3)

f. (-6, 10) and (1, -14) g. (-a, -3a/2) and (2a/3, 2a)

Solution: Solution:
d = √(𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 – 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐 d = √(𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 – 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐
2𝑎 2 3𝑎 2
= √(−6 − 1)2 + (10 + 14)2 = √( 3 + 𝑎) + (2𝑎 + )
2
5𝑎 2 7𝑎 2
= √49 + 576 = √625 = 25 = √( 3 ) + ( 2 )
25𝑎2 49𝑎2
=√ +
9 4
541𝑎2 √541𝑎
( -6, 10) =√ = = 3.877a
36 6

(2a/3, 2a)

3. Find the perimeter of the triangle whose vertices are given in each
number below: (-a, -3a/2)
(1, -14)

45
 (-6, 7)
a. (-3, 0), (-6, 7) and (1, 4)

Solution: d1
d1 = √(1 + 6)2 + (4 − 7)2 = √49 + 9
= √58 (1, 4)

d2 = √(−6 + 3)2 + (7 − 0)2 = √9 + 49

= √58 d2
d3
d3 = √(1 + 3)2 + (4 − 0)2 = √16 + 16
= √32

P = d1 + d2 + d3 (-3, 0)
= √58 + √58 + √32 = 20.888

(5, 6)
b. (1, 1), (5, 1) and (5, 6)

Solution:
d1 = √(5 − 1)2 + (6 − 1)2 = √16 + 25 d1 d2
= √41
d2 = 6 – 1 = 5
d3 = 5 – 1 = 4 (5, 1)
(1, 1) d3
P = d1 + d2 + d3
= √41 + 5 + 4 = 15.403

c) (1, 1), (5, 4) and (2, 6) (2, 6)

d1
Solution:
d1 = √(2 − 5)2 + (6 − 4)2 = √9 + 4
= √13 d2 (5, 4)
d2 = √(2 − 1)2 + (6 − 1)2 = √1 + 25
= √26 d3
d3 = √(5 − 1)2 + (4 − 1)2 = √16 + 9
= √25 = 5
(1, 1)

P = d1 + d2 + d3
= √13 + √26 + 5 = 13.705

4. Find the area of the rectangle whose vertices are given below:

(-2, 5) W (3, 5)

46
L
a. (-2, 1), (-2, 5), (3, 1), and (3, 5)

Solution:
L=5–1=4
W = 3 – (-2) = 5

Area = L x W
= 4 x 5 = 20 sq. units

b. (-7, -1), (0, -3), (2, 4) and (-5, 6)

Solution:
L = √(−5 + 7)2 + (6 + 1)2 = √4 + 49 = √53
W = √(2 + 5)2 + (4 − 6)2 = √49 + 4 = √53

Area = L x W
= √53 x √53 = 53 sq. units

(-5, 6)
W

(2, 4)

(-7, -1)

(0, -3)

EXERCISES

47
1. Locate and plot the following points:

a. A (2, 3), B (3, -2), C (-8, -4) and D (-5, 10)

b. E (2, ½), F (3/2, -3), G (-3/4, -5/3) and H (1¾, -2⅔)

c. I (0, -3a), J (5a, 0), K (2a/3, 3a/2), and L (2a, -5a)

2. Find the distance between the given two points:

a. (-5, 2) and (10, 2)

b. b. (½, -3) and (14/3, -3)

c. (-3a/5, 5a/3) and -8a/5, 5a/3)

e. (3½, -5) and (7/2, 7/5)

f. (-1, 3) and (3, 0)

g. (6, -10) and (-1, 14)

h. (a, 3a/2) and (2a/3, -2a)

3. Find the perimeter of the triangles whose vertices are given below:

a. (0, 0), (3, 4) and (7, 9)

b. (0, 0), (-2, -5) and (-5, 5)

c. (-2, -2), (3, 3) and (4, -4)

4. Find the area of the rectangle whose vertices are given below:

a. (1, 1), (1, 6), (6, 1) and (6, 6)

b. (-6, 1), (-3, 7), (7, 2) and (4, -4)

Lesson 8

48
 CURVE TRACING

Objectives:

1. To familiarize and apply the steps in graphing an equation.

What are the x- and y-

intercepts of the curve
y = 3x – x3? How does its
graph look like?

Definitions

Solution of an equation in x and y is an ordered pair (a, b) that yields a

true statement if x = a and y = b. The set of all such points is called the graph
of the equation. To sketch the graph of an equation, we illustrate the significant
features of the graph in a coordinate plane.

x and y – Intercepts

x – intercepts are the x-coordinates of points where the graph

intersects the x-axis. y

x
a b

y – intercepts are the y-coordinates of points where the graph

intersects the y-axis. y

Example
(1) Find the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of y = (x – 3)(x + 2)(x + 5).

49
 a) x-intercepts:
y = (x – 3)(x + 2)(x + 5)
0 = (x – 3) ;x=3
0 = (x + 2) ; x = –2
0 = (x + 5) ; x = –5
Thus, the x-intercepts are 3, –2, and –5. The points at which the graph crosses x-axis
are (3, 0), (–2, 0) and (–5, 0).

b) y-intercept:
y = (x – 3)(x + 2)(x + 5)
y = (0 – 3)(0 + 2)(0 + 5)
y = – 30
Thus, the y-intercepts is –30. The point at which the graph crosses y-axis is (0, –30).

Multiplicity

If x = r is a zero of the polynomial P(x) with multiplicity k then,

1. If k is odd then the x-intercept corresponding to x = r will cross the x-

axis.
2. If k is even then the x-intercept corresponding to x = r will only touch
the x-axis and not actually cross it.
Furthermore, if k > 1 then the graph will flatten out at x = r.

Example:
Find the multiplicities of P(x) = x4 – x3 – 6x2.
Solution
First, we will need to factor this polynomial as much as possible so we can
identify the zeroes and get their multiplicities.
P(x) = x4 – x3 – 6x2 = x2 (x2 – x – 6) = x2 (x – 3)(x + 2)
Here is the list of the zeroes and their multiplicities.
x=-2 (multiplicity 1)
x=0 (multiplicity 2)
x=3 (multiplicity 1)

So, the zeroes at x = - 2 and x = 3 will correspond to x-intercepts that cross the
x-axis since their multiplicity is odd and will do so at an angle since their
multiplicity is NOT at least 2. The zero at x = 0 will not cross the x-axis since
its multiplicity is even.

50
Here is the sketch of the graph.

Symmetry

The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis if after substitution of

–x for x leads to the same equation.

ex: y = x2

The graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if after substitution of

–y for y leads to the same equation.

ex: x = y2

The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin if after substitution of

–x for x and –y for y leads to the same equation.

ex: 4y = x3

Leading Coefficient Test

51
 Suppose that P(x) is a polynomial with degree n. So we know that the
polynomial must look like,
P(x) = axn +…
We don’t know if there are any other terms in the polynomial, but we
do know that the first term will have to be the one listed since it has degree n.
We now have the following facts about the graph of P(x) at the ends of the
graph.

1. If a > 0 and n is even then the 3. If a < 0 and n is even then the
graph of P(x) will increase without graph of P(x) will decrease without
bound positively at both endpoints. bound positively at both endpoints.

ex: y = -x2

ex: y = x2

2. If a > 0 and n is odd then the 4. If a < 0 and n is odd then the
graph of P(x) will increase without graph of P(x) will increase without
bound positively at the right end bound positively at the right end
and decrease without bound at the and decrease without bound at the
left end. A good example of this is left end.
the graph of x3.
ex: y = -x3

ex: y = x3

Process for Graphing a Polynomial

1. Determine all the zeroes of the polynomial and their multiplicity to

determine the x-intercept that corresponds to each zero will cross the x-
axis or just touch it and if the x-intercept will flatten out or not.
2. Determine the y-intercept.
3. Use the leading coefficient test to determine the behavior of the
polynomial at the end of the graph.
4. Plot a few more points. The more points that you plot the better the
sketch. At the least you should plot at least one at either end of the graph
and at least one point between each pair of zeroes.
Examples:

52
(1) Graph the polynomial P(x) = (x - 3)(x + 2)(x + 5).

We first start by plotting the roots

or the x-intercepts which are 3, -2,
and – 5.

Since it is easy to substitute the

value x = 0, we see that there is
another point (0, - 30) that will help
Each of the roots have in the plotting of the graph. Using
multiplicity of 1 which means the this, we sketch the graph to be
graph will cross the x-axis. Now
we see if the coefficient in front of
the x3 is positive or negative. When
we expand it, we get: x3 + 4x2 - 11x
- 30 therefore it is positive which
implies the graph will go from
bottom left to upper right.

(2) Graph the polynomial P(x) = (–x + 2)(x2 + 5).

a. First we plot the real roots. In graph goes from upper left to
this case there is only one, it being lower right.
2.

c. Again by substituting the value x

b. When expand the polynomial we = 0, we get the point (0,10).
get -x3.+.2x2.-.5x.+.10. Therefore the Combining this bit of information,

53
we get a sketch of the graph to look
like

EXERCISES

I – Sketch the graph of the equations, and label the x- and y- intercepts.

1. y = 2x2 – 1
2. x = ¼ y2
3. y = – x3 + 1

II – Sketch the graph of the following equations.

1. f(x) = - x3 – x2 + 17x – 15
2. g(x) = x4 + 2x3 – 3x2
3. h(x) = (x + 2)2 (x + 4)(x + 6)
4. m(x) = x2 (x + 2)2 (x – 3)2

III - Solve the following system of equation to determine the intersections of

the curves/line and sketch the graphs in one Cartesian plane.

a. 4y = 9 – x2 and x2 + y2 = 5

b. y = x2 + 2x and y = - 3x – 6

c. y = 4 – x2 and y = 2 – x

54
Lesson 9

CONIC SECTIONS

Objectives:

1. To determine the different properties of conic sections.

2. To convert general equation of a conic section to standard
equation and vice versa.

What are the different

conic sections? What are
the equations involved in
each of them?

Conic Sections

A. CIRCLE

General Form. Ax2 + Ay2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0, A ≠ 0, or

x2 + y2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0.

Standard Form. (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r2 with center C(h,k) and radius r

x2 + y2 = r2 with center C(0,0) and radius r

Graph

55
B. PARABOLA

General Form. Ax2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0 (A and C are nonzero) or

By2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0 (B and C are nonzero)

Standard Form.

1) x2 = 4cy or x2 = -4cy, where c > 0

Graph

x2 = 4cy
directrix: y = c
Focus: (0,c)

Vertex: (0,0)
Vertex: (0,0)
directrix: y = -c
Focus: (0,-c)
x2 = -4cy

2) y2 = 4cx or y2 = -4cx, where c > 0

Graph

y2 = 4cx y2 = -4cx

Vertex: (0,0)
Focus: (c,0) Focus: (-c,0) Vertex: (0,0)

directrix: x = -c directrix: x = c

56
 3) (x-h)2 = 4c(y-k) or (x-h)2 = -4c(y-k), where c > 0

(x-h)2 = 4c(y-k)

directrix: y = (k + c )
F: (c+k,0)
V: (h,k)

V: (h,k)
F: (k – c,0)
directrix: y = (k – c )

(x-h)2 = -4c(y-k)

4) (y-k)2 = 4c(x-h) or (y-k)2 = -4c(x-h), where c > 0

(y-k)2 = 4c(x-h) (y-k)2 = -4c(x-h)

V: (h,k) F: (c+h,0) F: (h – c,0)

V: (h,k)

directrix: y = (h – c )

directrix: y = (h+ c )

3. ELLIPSE

𝑥2 𝑦2 (𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
1) + 𝑏2 = 1 2) + =1
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑏2

where: a > b and c = √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 where: a > b and c = √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

(0,b) (0,k+b)

(-a,0) (-c,0) (c,0) (a,0) (h-a,0) (h-c,0) (h+c,0) (h+a,0)

(0,-b) (0,k-b)

57
 𝑥2 𝑦2 (𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
3) + 𝑎2 = 1 4) + =1
𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑎2

(a,0) (k+a,0)

(c,0) (k+c,0)

(0,-b) (0,b) (0,h-b) (0,h+b)

(-c,0) (k-c,0)

(-a,0)
(k-a,0)

Exercises:

Part I - CIRCLE
Standard Equation General Equation Center Radius
1. (x – 3)2 + (y + 1)2 = 4
2. x2 + (y – 3)2 = 30
3. x2 + y2 + 2x – 4y = 44
4. C(-3, 4) 7
5. C(5, 6) 5

Part II - PARABOLA
Axis of
Standard Equation General Equation Vertex Focus Directrix
Symmetry
1. 2x2 – 8y = 0
2. (1, 9) (3, 9)
3. (y – 1) = - 4 (x + 2)
2

4. (x – 1)2 = y + 1
5. (7, 11) y=4

Part III - ELLIPSE

Vertices Foci Co-vertices
Standard Equation General Equation Center
V1 V2 F1 F2 W1 W2
𝑥2 𝑦2
1. + =1
4 16
2. (0, -3) (0, 3) (-2, 0) (2, 0)
3. 9x2 + 16y2 - 126x +
64y = 71
(𝑥−3)2 (𝑦−8)2
4. + =1
49 64
5. (3, 12) (4, 8) (10, 8)

58
Lesson 10

POLAR GRAPHS

Objectives:

1. To draw polar graphs

How can I draw a polar

graph?

Polar Graphs

The polar graph of an equation involving r and θ is the set of all points
with polar coordinates (r, θ) that satisfy the equation.

A brief review on Polar Coordinate System:

The polar
coordinate system is
composed of a fixed point
called the pole (which is
the origin in the Cartesian
coordinate system) and a
fixed ray called the polar
axis (which is the
nonnegative x-axis).

In the polar
coordinate system, a point
is described by the ordered
pair (r,θ), where the radial
coordinate r refers to the

59
directed distance of the point from the pole and the angular coordinate θ
refers to a directed angle (usually in radians) from the polar axis to the
segment joining the point and the pole. It is possible for the coordinates (r,θ)
to have a negative value of r. In this case, the point is |r| units from the pole in
the opposite direction of the terminal side of θ.

Important Notes:
1. For any θ, the polar coordinates (0, θ) represent the pole.
2. A point with polar coordinates (r, θ) can also be represented by (r,
θ+2kπ) or ( r, θ+π+2kπ) for any integer k.

Examples

1. Sketch the graph of r = 2 – 2 sin θ.

Step 1. Construct a table of values by inputting θ values in the
equation, thus getting the corresponding values of r. Make sure that your
calculator is in RADIAN Mode. If calculator is in DEGREE Mode, make sure to
(𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) 𝑥 180°
convert θ in degrees (Conversion: θ in degrees (°) = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

Step 2. Plot and connect the polar coordinates in the polar coordinate
system starting from θ=0 up to its last value.

60
2. The graph of the polar equation r = 2cos2θ is a four-petaled rose. Sketch its
graph.
Step 1. Construct a table of values by inputting θ values in the
equation, thus getting the corresponding values of r. Make sure that your
calculator is in RADIAN Mode. If calculator is in DEGREE Mode, make sure to
(𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) 𝑥 180°
convert θ in degrees (Conversion: θ in degrees (°) = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
π π π π 5π π 7π 2π 3π 5π 11π 13π 7π 5π 4π 17π 3π 19π 5π 7π 11π 23π
θ 0
12 6 4 3 12 2 12 3 4 6 12
π
12 6 4 3 12 2 12 3 4 6 12
2π

r 2 √3 1 0 -1 -√3 -2 -√3 -1 0 1 √3 2 √3 1 0 -1 -√3 -2 -√3 -1 0 1 √3 2

Step 2. Plot and connect the polar coordinates in the polar coordinate
system starting from θ=0 up to its last value. Take note that for negative value
of r, the point is |r| units from the pole in the opposite direction of the terminal
side of θ.

61
 2. The graph of the polar equation r = 1 – tan θ. Sketch its graph.
Step 1. Construct a table of values by inputting θ values in the
equation, thus getting the corresponding values of r. Make sure that your
calculator is in RADIAN Mode. If calculator is in DEGREE Mode, make sure to
(𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) 𝑥 180°
convert θ in degrees. Conversion: θ in degrees (°) = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
π π π π 5π π 7π 2π 3π 5π 11π 13π 7π 5π 4π 17π 3π 19π 5π 7π 11π 23π
θ 0
12 6 4 3 12 2 12 3 4 6 12
π
12 6 4 3 12 2 12 3 4 6 12
2π

r 1 0.732 0.423 0 -0.732 -2.732 error 4.732 2.732 2 1.577 1.268 1 0.732 0.423 0 -0.732 -2.732 error 4.732 2.732 2 1.577 1.268 1

Step 2. Plot and connect the polar coordinates in the polar coordinate
system starting from θ=0 up to its last value. Take note that for negative value
of r, the point is |r| units from the pole in the opposite direction of the terminal
side of θ. For error or undefined r values, this means the graph does not pass
at these θ values.

Exercises:
Draw the polar graphs:
15
1. r =
3−2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
6
2. r =
3+3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 sin 2𝜃
3. r =
𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝜃− 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

62
 Chapter 4

PLANE
TRIGONOMETRY

Lesson 11. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Lesson 12. Basic Concepts and Right Triangle

Lesson 13. Trigonometric Identities

63
Lesson 11

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Objectives:

1. To apply the laws on logarithms in simplifying and solving logarithmic

equations.
2. To understand the inverse relationship of the logarithmic and exponential
functions.

Is it possible to evaluate
34x + 7 = 272x + 1 ? I guess
not. Because the bases
are different.

A. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Definition

If b is any number such that 0 < b < 1 or b > 1 then an exponential

function is a function in the form,
f (x) = bx
where b is called the base and x can be any real number.

Properties of bx

1. The exponential function f (x) is one-to-one. Thus, the following equivalent

conditions are satisfied for real numbers x1 and x2:
(a) If x ≠ y, then bx ≠ by
(b) If x = y, then bx = by

Note: In this section we will not be discussing the graphs of the

exponential functions.

64
Example:

(1) Solve the equation 24x + 8 = 82x + 1.

Solution
24x + 8 = 82x + 2 given
24x + 8 = (23)2x + 2 express both sides with the same base
24x + 8 = 26x + 6 law of exponents
4x + 8 = 6x + 6 exponential functions are one-to-one
2x = 2 subtract 4x from 6x and 6 from 8
x = 1 divide by 2

The Number e

What? e is a number? Yes! It really is a number.

Approximation to
n 1 𝑛
൬1 + ൰
𝑛
1 2.00000000
10 2.59374246
100 2.70481383
1000 2.71692393
10,000 2.71814593
100,000 2.71826824
1,000,000 2.71828047
10,000,000 2.71828169
100,000,000 2.71828181
1,000,000,000 2.71828183

If n is a positive integer, then

1 𝑛
(1 + 𝑛) → e ≈ 2.718281828… as n → ∞

The Natural Exponential Function

This natural exponential function is defined by

f (x) = ex
for every real number x.

It is very important and arises naturally in many areas and used in

several equations, like continuously compounded interest formula, law of
growth (or decay) formula, equations involved in flexible cables and
radiotherapy and many others.

65
B. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Definition

If b is any number such that b > 0 and b ≠ 1 and x > 0 then,

y = logb x is equivalent to by = x

We usually read this as “log base b of x”.

In this definition logb y = x is called the logarithm form and by = x is

called the exponential form.

Looking closely, here is a diagram which will help you become an

expert in changing each form into the other.
exponent

y = logb x by = x

base
Examples:

(1) Find the exponential forms of the following

a. log6 u = 2 → 62 = u
b. logb 16 = 3 → b3 = 16
c. z = log3 (3y – 3) → 3z = 3y – 3

(2) log4 16

Solution log4 16 = x
Since we all know that value of x in 4x =16 is 2, such that 42 =16. This
becomes the exponential form, so we must have the following value of the
logarithm.
log4 16 = 2

(3) log7 1

Solution log7 1 = x
Since we all know that value of x in 7x = 1 is 0, since any number raised
to zero is always equal to 1, such that 40 =1. This becomes the exponential
form, so we must have the following value of the logarithm.
log7 1 = 0

(3) log3 (–2)

Solution log3 (–2) = y

This is not possible because 3y ≠ –2 for any real number y.

66
Property of logax

Property of logax Reason

(1) loga 1 = 0 a0 = 1
(2) loga a = 1 a1 = a
(3) loga ax = x ax = ax
(4) 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒙 = x if y = loga x, then x = ay,
or x = 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒙

More Properties of Logarithms

For these properties we will assume that u > 0 and w > 0.

Property Logarithms
5 logb (uw) = logb u + logb w
𝒖
6 logb (𝒘) = logb u – logb w
7 logb (uc) = c logb u
8 logb u = logb w then u = w

Examples:

(1) Solve the logarithmic equation log6 (4x – 5) = log6 (2x + 1)

Solution
log6 (4x – 5) = log6 (2x + 1) given
4x – 5 = 2x + 1 logarithmic functions are one-to-one
x=3 solve for x
Check: x=3 log6 (4x – 5) = log6 (4 ∙ 3 – 5) = log6 7
log6 (2x + 1) = log6 (2 ∙ 3 +1) = log6 7
Therefore, x = 3 is a solution.

(2) Simplify log5 (x2 y3)

log5 (x2 y3) = log5 x2 + log5 y3 property 5

= 2 log5 x + 3log5 y property 7
𝒙𝟓 𝒚𝟐
(3) Simplify log3 ( )
𝒛𝟑

𝑥5 𝑦2
log3 ( ) = log3 (x5 y2) – log3 z3 property 6
𝑧3
= log3 x5 + log3 y2 – log3 z3 property 5
= 5log3 x5 + 2log3 y – 3log3 z property 7

67
COMMON LOGARITHM

Definition
Logarithms with base 10 are called common logarithms. The symbol
log x is used as an abbreviation of log10 x, just as √ is used as an
2
abbreviation for √ .
log x = log10 x for every x>0
Note that the properties mentioned in the previous topic are also
applicable for common logarithms.

NATURAL LOGARITHM

Definition
The natural exponential function is given by f(x) = ex. The logarithmic
function with base e is called the natural logarithmic function. The ln x (read
“ell-en of x”) is an abbreviation for loge x, and we refer to it as the natural
logarithm of x. Thus, the natural logarithmic function and the natural exponential
function are inverse functions of each other.

ln x = log e x for every x>0

Examples: Equivalent Forms

Logarithmic form Exponential form
log x = 2 102 = x
log z = y + 3 10 y + 3 = z
ln x = 2 e2 = x
ln z = y + 3 e y+3 = z

Common and Natural Logarithms

Logarithms with base a Common logarithms Natural logarithms
loga 1 = 0 log 1 = 0 ln 1 = 0
loga = 1 log 10 = 1 ln e = 1
loga a = x
x log 10x = x ln ex = x
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 = x 10log 𝑥 = x 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = x

Properties of Natural Logarithms

Law Natural Logarithms
1 ln (uw) = ln u + ln w
𝒖
2 ln (𝒘) = ln u – ln w
3 ln (uc) = c ln u

WARNINGS!
lna (u + w) ≠ lna u + lna w
lna (u – w) ≠ lna u – lna w

68
Examples:

(1) Express as one logarithm:

𝟏
𝐥𝐧(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏) − 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 − 𝟒 𝐥𝐧 𝒛
𝟑

Solution
We apply the laws of natural logarithms as follows:
1
ln(𝑥 2 − 1) − ln 𝑦 − 4 ln 𝑧
3
= ln (𝑥 2 − 1)1/3 − ln 𝑦 − ln 𝑧 4 law 3
3
= ln √(𝑥 2 − 1) – (ln 𝑦 + ln 𝑧 4 ) algebra
3
= ln √(𝑥 2 − 1) – ln(𝑦𝑧 4 ) law 1
𝟑
√(𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)
= ln law 2
𝒚𝒛𝟒

(2) Solve the equation ln (x + 6) – ln 10 = ln (x – 1) – ln 2

Solution
ln (x + 6) – ln (x – 1) = ln 10 – ln 2 rearrange
𝑥+6 10
ln ( ) = ln ( ) law 2
𝑥−1 2
𝑥+6
(𝑥 − 1) = 5 ln is one-to-one
x+6 = 5x – 5 multiply by x – 1
𝟏𝟏
x = solve for x
𝟒

11
Check: Since both ln (x + 6) and ln (x – 1) are defined at x = 4 (they are
logarithms of positive real numbers) and since our algebraic steps are correct,
11
it follows that is a solution of the given equation.
4

(3) Simplify ln √𝒙𝒚

Solution
ln √𝑥𝑦 = ln (xy)1/2 rewrite
= ½ ln (xy) law 3
= ½ (ln x + ln y) law 1
Notice the parenthesis in this the answer. The ½ multiplies the original
logarithm and so it will also need to multiply the whole “simplified” logarithm.
Therefore, we need to have a set of parenthesis there to make sure that this is taken
care of correctly.

69
(3) Simplify into a single logarithm

5ln (x + y) − 2ln y −8ln x

Solution
5ln (x + y) − 2ln y −8ln x = ln (x + y)5 − (ln y2 + ln x8) law 3
= ln (x + y)5 − ln ( y2x8) law 1
(𝒙+𝒚)𝟓
= ln [ ] law 2
𝒚 𝟐 𝒙𝟖

EXERCISES
I – Write the expression in logarithmic form.
1
1. 12–3 = = _____________________________________
1728

2. 37 = 2187 = _____________________________________
II – Write the expression in exponential form
3. log1/6 6 = - 2 = __________________________________________
5
4. log9 243 = = __________________________________________
2
III – Write each of the following in terms of simpler logarithms.
5. log4 (5x2y5z–8) = __________________________________________
3
𝑤 3 √𝑡
6. ln ൬
√𝑡 +𝑤
൰ = __________________________________________

IV – Combine each of the following into a single logarithm.

7. 6 ln x – 4 ln y + 3 ln z = _____________________________________
8. 2 log (x + 1) – 3 log y – 5 log z – 3 log x = ___________________________
V. Solve each of the following equations.
9. 214 + x = 217 – 10x = _____________________________________

10. 21 – x = 22 – 3x = __________________________________________

Therefore, it is possible to
evaluate 34x + 7 = 272x + 1.
27 can be transformed into 33.
So that, 34x + 7 = 33(2x + 1).
4x + 7 = 3(2x + 1)
x=2
70
Lesson 12

BASIC CONCEPTS AND RIGHT TRIANGLE

Objectives:

1. To review the basic concepts in trigonometry.

2. To understand the properties of a right triangle and the equations involved
with it.

ANGLES

An angle is the union of two rays meeting at a common point called

vertex. The two rays are called the terminal and the initial sides of an angle as
shown in figure below.

Vertex
Initial side

Usually the right ray of the horizontal line (x-axis) is the initial side. The
terminal side of the angle may lie on any of the four quadrants.

Angles between 0o - 90o is said to terminate in quadrant I; 90o – 180o in

quadrant II; 180o – 270o in quadrant III; and 270o- 360o in quadrant IV.

An angle with its vertex at the origin of the rectangular coordinate system
and one of its sides in the positive position of the x-axis is said to be in the
standard position.

-x +x

An angle in the standard position belongs to the quadrant where its

terminal side is located.

An angle is usually named by three letters, such as angle ABC shown in

the figure below, where A and C are points on the initial and the terminal sides of
the angle respectively, while B is the vertex. An angle may be also named by a
single letter, usually the vertex. The angle ABC may be referred to as angle B.
C

∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 or ∠𝐵
B A

71
Generation of an Angle

In trigonometry, an angle is mathematically defined as the amount of

rotation that the generating ray makes around the vertex, starting from the
initial side to the terminal side.
C

45°
A
B

The complete revolution or rotation of the generating ray makes an angle

of 360o.
360°

If the rotation of the generating ray is counterclockwise, the angle is

positive (+). If the rotation of the generating ray is clockwise, the angle is
negative (-). Counter-clockwise

Clockwise

The rotating ray may turn any number of times about the vertex and
generate an angle greater than one revolution (360o or -360o).

855°

Generally, angles will have different terminal sides though they may have
the same initial side. However, angles in the standard position having the same
terminal sides are called coterminal angles.

∠𝐴
∠𝐶

72 ∠𝐵
 Kinds of Angles

There are several kinds of angles according to angular

measure, as follows:

a. Acute Angle – an angle measuring between 0o and 90o.

0° < ∠𝑨 < 90°

b. Right Angle – an angle measuring exactly 90o.

∠𝑨 = 90°

c. Obtuse Angle – an angle measuring between 90o and 180o.

90° < ∠𝑨 < 180°

d. Straight Angle – an angle measuring exactly 180o.

∠𝑨 = 180°

e. Reflex Angle – an angle measuring between 180o and 360o.

180° < ∠𝑨 < 360°

Units of Angular Measure

There are two most commonly used system of angular measurement: the
sexagesimal and radian system.

73
 In the sexagesimal system, the fundamental unit of measure is the
degree (o). A degree is defined as the measure of a central angle that subtends
an arc equal to 1/360 of the circumference of a circle wherein one circumference
of a circle (revolution or rotation) is equal to 360o. For greater accuracy of
measurement one degree is divided into 60 minutes (60’) and one minute is
divided into 60 seconds (60”). A summary of the relationships of these units is
presented below :

1 revolution (1 rev) = 360 degrees (360o)

1 degree (1o) = 60 minutes (60’)
1 minute (1’) = 60 seconds (60”)

In the radian system, one circumference of a circle (revolution) equals

2 radians. A radian (rad) is the measure of a central angle of a circle which
subtends on the circumference an arc length equal to the length of its radius.

1 rev = 2π rad

Based on the definition of the radian, the measure of a central angle (in
radians) is equal to the quotient of the subtended arc length divided by the
radius of the circle.

Arc Length
Angle (in rad) =
Radius (of circle)

By actual experimentation, the circumference (arc length) of a unit circle

(a circle with radius of 1 unit) has been found to be 2 units. Hence, the angle (in
radians) generated by one revolution (1 rev) is:

1 rev = 2 units / 1 unit = 2 rad

From the foregoing, the sexagesimal and radian systems of angular

measure are related by the following :

1 rev = 2 rad = 360o

 rad = 180o
1 rad = 180o /  = 57.2958o
1o = /180 rad = 0.01745 rad

These relations are used in the conversion of angle measure from degrees
to radians or radians to degrees.

74
Length of a Circular Arc

Based on the relationship between the central angle (in radian measure),
the radius of the circle and the length of arc subtended by said central angle, the
length of arc (s) can be determined by the equation:

s=r

wherein “r” is the radius of the circle and “” is the central angle opposite the
length of arc.

The formula above can be manipulated into:

r=s/

to solve for the radius of the circle or arc when the length of arc (s) and the
central angle ( in radians) are given.

The formula above can be manipulated into:

=s/r

to solve for the central angle ( in radians) when the length of arc (s) and the
radius of the circle or arc are given and are expressed in the same unit.

Algebraic Operations with Angles

1. Addition, subtraction, and division can be performed between angles

provided they have same units (all in degrees or radians). However,
addition and subtraction cannot be performed between an angle and a
number.
2. The addition and subtraction of angles are quite different from the simple
addition and subtraction of numbers, especially when the angles are
expressed in a combination of the three different units of the sexagesimal
system – degrees, minutes and seconds. Addition and subtraction are
performed between the same unit of angle measure, that is degree ± degree,
minutes ± minutes, and seconds ± seconds.
3. In the addition of angles, after the minutes and the seconds are added, the
resulting sum is adjusted so that the numerical values for the minutes and
seconds do not exceed 59.
4. In the subtraction of angles, when the minutes and seconds of the minuend
is less than that of the subtrahend, 1 degree (60 minutes) and 1 minute (60
seconds) is borrowed from the numerical values of the degrees and minutes
and added to the numerical values of the minutes and seconds and then the
operation is performed.
5. Multiplication and division can be performed between an angle and a
number. However, multiplication cannot be performed between angles and
division cannot be performed between a number and an angle.

75
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

A. Sketch the given angle in the standard position and give two coterminal
angles (one positive and one negative).
1. 30o 2. - 45o
390°
315°
-330° 30° -405°

-45°

3. 150o 150° 4. - 120o

510° 240° -480°

-210°
-120°

5. 195o 6. - 210o
195° 150°
555°

-570°
-165° -210°
7. 315o 8. - 330o
315°
675° 30°

-45° -330° -690°

9. 3/8 rad 10. - 5/6 rad

3π/8 7π/6 rad
-13π/8 19π/8
rad
rad
rad

-17π/6
rad
- 5π/6
B. Convert each degree measure to radians, correct to three (3) decimal places: rad

1. 60o 2. - 150o
Solution: Solution:
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝝅 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝟓𝝅
60° x = radians - 150° x =- radians
180° 𝟑 180° 𝟔
or 1.047 radians or -2.618 radians

3. 255o 4. - 350o
Solution: Solution:
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝟏𝟕𝝅 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝟑𝟓𝝅
255° x = radians - 350° x = -
180° 𝟏𝟐 180° 𝟏𝟖
radians
or 4.451 radians or -6.109 radians

76
 5. 32o 16’ 6. - 110o 10”

Solution: Solution:
1° 10" 𝑥 1°
32°16’ = 32°+ (16’ x ′ ) = 32.267° -110°10”= − [110° + ( )]=-
60 3600′′
110.003°
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
32.267° x = 0.563 radians - 110.003° x = - 1.920 radians
180° 180°

7. 222° 33’ 44”

Solution:
1° 1°
222° 33’ 44” = 222° + (33’ x ) + (44" x )= 222.562°
60′ 3600′′
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
222.562° x = 3.884 radians
180°

8. - 345° 54’ 43”

Solution:
1° 1°
- 345° 54’ 43” = − [345° + (54’ x ) + (43" x )]= - 345.912°
60′ 3600′′
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
- 345.912° x = 6.037 radians
180°

C. Convert each radian measure to degrees, minutes and seconds:

1. 7/6 rad 2. - 19/18 rad

Solution: Solution:
7 rad 180° −19 rad 180°
x = 210° x = - 190°
6 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 18 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑

3. 8/7 rad

Solution:
8 rad 180°
x = 205.714°
7 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
60′
205° + (0.714° x ) = 205° 42.857’
1°
60′′
205° 42’ + (0.857′ x ) = 205° 42’ 51.43”
1′

4. - 2/11 rad

Solution:
−2 rad 180°
x = - 32.727°
11 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
60′
− [32° + (0.727° x )] = - 32° 43.64’
1°
60′′
− [32° 43′ + (0.64′ x )] = - 32° 43’ 38.18”
1′

5. 1.2345 rad

Solution:
180°
1.2345 rad x = 70.732°
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
60′
70° + (0.732° x ) = 70° 43.90’
1°
60′′
70° 43’ + (0.90′ x ) = 70° 43’ 53.90”
1′

77
 6. - 0.777 rad

Solution:
180°
−0.777 rad x = - 139.86°
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
60′
− [139° + (0.86° x )] = - 139° 51.6’
1°
60′′
− [139° 51′ + (0.6′ x )] = - 139° 51’ 36”
1′

D. Find the result of the indicated operation:

1. 105° 47’ + 87° 26’

Solution:
105° + 47’
+ 87° + 26’
192° + 73’ = 192° + (60’ + 13’) = 192° + 1° + 13’ = 193° 13’

2. 2° 59’ 49” + 3° 49’ 49”

Solution:
2° + 59’ + 49”
+ 3° + 49’ + 49”
5° + 108’ + 98” = 5° + (60’ + 48’) + (60” + 38”) = 5° + (1° + 48’) + (1’ + 38”)
= 6° 49’ 38”

3. - 4° 8’ 16” + (- 10° 25’ 50”)

Solution:
- (4° + 8’ + 16”)
+ - (10° + 25’ + 50”)
- (14° + 33’ + 66”) = - [14° + 33’ + (60” + 6”)] = - 14° 34’ 6”

4. - 30° 40’ 50” + 18° 36’ 54”

Solution:
- 30° - 40’ - 50” = - (30° + 39’ + 60” + 50”) = - (30° + 39’ + 110”)
+ 18° + 36’ + 54” = = 18° + 36’ + 54”
= - (12° + 3’ + 56”)
= - 12° 3’ 56”

5. 231° 15’ - 127° 38’

Solution:
231° + 15’ = 230° + 60’ + 15’ = 230° + 75’
– 127° + 38’ = = 127° + 38’
= 103° + 37’
= 103° 37’

6. 30° 40’ 50” – 60° 50’ 40”

Solution:
30° + 40’ + 50” = = 30° + 40’ + 50”
– 60° + 50’ + 40” = 60° + 49’ + 60” + 40” = 60° + 49’ + 100”
= - (30°+ 9’ + 50”)
= - 30° 9’ 50”

78
 7. - 34° 45’ 56” + (- 43° 32’ 21”)

Solution:
- (34° + 45’ + 56”) = - (34° + 45’ + 56”)
+ [- (43° + 32’ + 21”)] = - (43° + 32’ + 21”)
= - (77° + 77’ + 77”) = - (77° + 60’ + 17’ + 60” + 17”)
= - 78° 18’ 17”

8. - 34° 45’ 56” – (- 43° 32’ 21”)

Solution:
- (34° + 45’ + 56”) = = - (34° + 45’ + 56”)
– [-(43° + 32’ + 21”) = - (42° + 60’ + 31’ + 60” + 21”) = - (42° + 91’ + 81”)
= 8°+ 46’ + 25”
= 8° 46’ 25”

9. 2 (33° 44’ 55”)

Solution:
2 (33° + 44’ + 55”) = 66° + 88’ + 110” = 66° + 60’ + 28’ + 60” + 50”
= 66° + 1° + 28’ + 1’ + 50”
= 67° + 29’ + 50”
= 67° 29’ 50”

10. 3 (- 11° 22’ 33”)

Solution:
3 [-(11° + 22’ + 33”)] = - (33° + 66’ + 99”) = -(33° + 60’ + 6’ + 60” + 39”)
= - (33° + 1° + 6’ + 1’ + 39”)
= - (34° + 7’ + 39”)
= - 34° 7’ 39”

11. (44° 33’ 22”) / 2

Solution:
60′′
(44° + 33’ + 22”)/2 = 22° + 16.5’ + 11” = 22° + 16’ + .5’( ) + 11”
1′
= 22° + 16’ + 30” + 11”
= 22° + 16’ + 41”
= 22° 16’ 41”

12. (58° 59’ 59”) / 3

Solution:
(58° + 59’ + 59”)/3 = 19 1⁄3° + 19 2⁄3’ + 19 2⁄3”
1° 60′ 2′ 60′′
= 19° + ( )+ 19’ + ( ′ ) + 19 2⁄3”
3 1° 3 1
= 19° + 20’ + 19’ + 40” + 19.667”
= 19° + 39’ + 59.667”
= 19° 39’ 59.667”

13. 132° / 12°

Solution:
132° / 12° = 11°

79
 14. (- 90°) / (22° 30’)

Solution:
1°
- 90° / (22° 30’) = - 90° / [22° + (30’ x )]
60′
= - 90° / [22° + 0.5°]
= - 90° / 22.5°
= - 4°

EXERCISES

A. Sketch the given angle in the standard position and give two coterminal angles (one
positive and one negative):

1. 15o 2. - 135o

3. 205o 4. - 290o

5. 5/8 rad

B. Convert each degree measure to radians, correct to two (2) decimal places:

1. - 450o 2. 195o

3. - 65o 43’ 4. 111o 22”

5. 321o 32’ 21”

C. Convert each radian measure to degrees, minutes and seconds:

1. - 25/18 rad 2. 19/12 rad

3. - 0.125 rad 4. 3.69 rad

5. 1.3579 rad

D. Find the result of the indicated operations:

1. 86o24’ + 69o 16’ 2. 123o 45’ 56” + 59o 59”

3. 143o 43’ – 134o 54’ 4. 90o – 66o 55’ 44”

5. 3 ( 36o 24’ 12”)

TRIANGLES

Trigonometry literally means triangle measurement. A triangle is a plane

figure which has three (3) vertex angles, the opposite of which are three (3)
sides. The sum of the three angles is always 180o.

The triangle is the polygon having the least number of sides. It is

considered the most stable polygon. Further, the triangle is said to be a special
polygon because it has the most number of practical applications.

Generally, there are two (2) types of triangles, namely:

80
 1. Right Triangle – a triangle with a right angle. The sides which are
perpendicular to each other are called legs and the third side is the
hypotenuse.

2. Oblique Triangle – a triangle without a right triangle.

There are two (2) special right triangles, which are:

1. 30o-60o-90o Triangle
60°

90° 30°

2. 45o-45o-90o Triangle
45°

90°
45°

There are two (2) kinds of oblique triangles, namely:

1. Acute Triangle – an oblique triangle whose angles are all acute angles.

2. Obtuse Triangle – an oblique triangle having one (1) obtuse angle.

Triangles are also classified according to number of congruent (equal)

sides or angles, as follows:

81
 1. Scalene Triangle – a triangle having no congruent sides or
congruent angles.

2. Isosceles Triangle – a triangle having two congruent sides or

angles. The congruent sides are called the legs while the third side
is called the base. The angles opposite the legs are called base
angles while the angle between the legs is called the vertex angle.

3. Equilateral or Equiangular Triangle – a triangle having three

congruent or equal sides or angles.

Triangles have three special segments, as follows:

1. Median – is a segment that connects a vertex and the midpoint of

the opposite side. A triangle has three (3) median segments which
intersect at the center of the triangle.

2. Altitude – is a segment from one vertex to the opposite, in such a

way that this segment is perpendicular to the opposite side.

82
 3. Angle Bisector – is a segment from a vertex to a point on the
opposite side, such that this segment divides the vertex angle into
two congruent angles.
θ
θ/2 θ/2

THE RIGHT TRIANGLE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The right triangle is a triangle with a 90o (right) angle. It has six (6)
principal parts – three angles (α or A, β or B, and γ or C) and their opposite sides
(a, b and c), respectively. The angle “γ or C” is usually the right angle and, hence,
its opposite side “c” is the longest side, technically termed as hypotenuse. On the
other hand, the angles “α or A” and “β or B” are acute angles whose sum is
always 180o and their opposite sides “a” and “b”, respectively, are technically
termed as legs of the right triangle.
B

c
a

γ
α
C A
b

If any two sides of the triangle are given, the third side can be found by
the Pythagorean Theorem as follows:
a2 + b2 = c2

To find the hypotenuse (side c), use the formula :

c = √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

and to find the two legs, sides b and a, use the formula :
b = √𝒄𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 a = √𝒄𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐

If one of the two acute angles of the right triangle is given, the other acute
angle can be found since the two acute angles are complementary angles,
which means that:
α + β = 90o or A + B = 90o

83
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF AN ACUTE ANGLE OF A RIGHT TRIANGLE

The trigonometric functions of any acute angle, θ, are defined as follows:

Opposite Side of θ
sin θ =
Hypotenuse

Adjacent Side of θ
cos θ =
Hypotenuse

a = opposite side
Opposite Side of θ
tan θ =
Adjacent Side of θ

Adjacent Side of θ θ
cot θ = b = adjacent side
Opposite Side of θ

Hypotenuse
sec θ =
Adjacent Side of θ

Hypotenuse
csc θ =
Opposite Side of θ

These definitions are not general because they apply only to an acute
angle of a right triangle. But it is rather very important to internalize them
because of the many applications of the right triangle in trigonometry.

Applying the definitions to angle “α” whose opposite side is “a”, adjacent
side is “b” and the hypotenuse is “c”, the trigonometric functions of “α” are as
follows:
sin α = a / c cos α = b / c tan α = a / b

cot α = b / a sec α = c / b csc α = c / a

Applying the same definitions to angle “β” whose opposite side is “b”,
adjacent side is “a”, and the hypotenuse “c”, the trigonometric functions of angle
“β” are as follows:

sin β = b / c cos β = a / c tan β = b / a

cot β = a / b sec β = c / a csc β = c / b

84
 A closer look into the trigonometric functions of the two
(complementary) acute angles (α and β) of the right triangle would reveal the
following relationships:

sin α = a / c = cos β cot α = b / a = tan β

cos α = b / c = sin β sec α = c / b = csc β

tan α = a / b = cot β csc α = c / a = sec β

Since α and β are complementary angles (α + β = 90o), then β = 90o – α.

Substituting this expression in the relationships presented above, then:

sin α = cos (90o – α) cot α = tan (90o – α)

cos α = sin (90o – α) sec α = csc (90o – α)

tan α = cot (90o – α) csc α = sec (90o – α)

On the other hand,  = 90o – β. Substituting this expression in the

relationships presented above, then:

sin β = cos (90o – β) cot β = tan (90o – β)

cos β = sin (90o – β) sec β = csc (90o – β)

tan β = cot (90o – β) csc β = sec (90o – β)

These relations express the co-functions of the trigonometric functions of

the acute angles. Two trigonometric functions are said to be co-functions when
the value of the trigonometric function of an acute angle is equal to the value of
another trigonometric function of the complement of the given acute angle.
From the above relationships, it can be deduced that sine and cosine, tangent
and cotangent, and secant and cosecant are co-functions. This means further
that either function of each pair is called the co-function of the other.

FINDING THE MEASURE OF THE ACUTE ANGLES OF THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

The measure of the acute angle/s of a right triangle can be found by

applying the inverse trigonometric functions as follows:

 = Arcsin (a / c) = sin-1 (a / c) β = Arcsin (b / c) = sin-1 (b / c)

 = Arccos (b / c) = cos-1 (b / c) β = Arccos (a / c) = cos-1 (a / c)

 = Arctan (a / b) = tan-1 (a / b) β = Arctan (b / a) = tan-1 (b / a)

85
 If two sides of the right triangle are given, then use the above inverse
trigonometric functions to solve for either angle “” or “β”, as follows:

a. When sides “a” and “c” are given, use:

 = Arcsin (a / c) = sin-1 (a / c)
β = Arccos (a / c) = cos-1 (a / c)

b. When sides “b” and “c’ are given, use:

 = Arccos (b / c) = cos-1 (b / c)
β = Arcsin (b / c) = sin-1 (b / c)

c. When sides “a” and “b” are given, use:

 = Arctan (a / b) = tan-1 (a / b)
β = Arctan (b / a) = tan-1 (b / a)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

A. By the Pythagorean Theorem, find the value of the unknown side of the right
triangle and then write all the trigonometric functions of angles  or A and β
or B.

1. a = 5, b = 12 2. a = 0.257, c = 0.856
β β

a = 0.257
c
a=5

Solution: Solution:

c = √52 + 122 = 13 α b = √(0.856)2 − (0.257)2 α

b = 12 = 0.817
b

sin α = a/c sin β = b/c

= 5/13 = 12/13 sin α = a/c sin β = b/c
= 0.300 = 0.954
cos α = b/c cos β= a/c
= 12/13 = 5/13 cos α = b/c cos β= a/c
= 0.954 = 0.300
tan α = a/b tan β = b/a
= 5/12 = 12/5 tan α = a/b tan β = b/a
= 0.315 = 3.179
cot α = b/a cot β = a/b
= 12/5 = 5/12 cot α = b/a cot β = a/b
= 3.179 = 0.315
sec α = c/b sec β = c/a
= 13/12 = 13/5 sec α = c/b sec β = c/a
= 1.048 = 3.331
csc α = c/a csc β = c/b
= 13/5 = 13/12 csc α = c/a csc β = c/b
= 3.331 = 1.048

3. b = 2, c = √𝟏𝟑 4. a = 1/3, c = 5/7

β
β
a = 1/3

Solution: Solution
a

α α
a = √13 − 22 = 3 b = √(5/7)2 − (1/3)2
= 4√𝟏𝟏 /21 b
b =2

sin α = a/c sin β = b/c

= 3/√𝟏𝟑 = 2/√𝟏𝟑 sin α = a/c sin β = b/c
= 7/15 = 4√𝟏𝟏/15
cos α = b/c cos β= a/c
= 2/√𝟏𝟑 = 3/√𝟏𝟑 cos α= b/c cos β= a/c
= 4√𝟏𝟏/15 = 7/15
tan α = a/b = 3/2tan β = b/a = 2/3 tan α = a/b tan β = b/a
= 7√𝟏𝟏/44 = 4√𝟏𝟏/7
cot α = b/a = 2/3cot β = a/b = 3/2 cot α = b/a cot β = a/b
= 4√𝟏𝟏/7 = 7√𝟏𝟏/44
sec α = c/b sec β = c/a
=√𝟏𝟑/2 = √𝟏𝟑/3 sec α = c/b sec β = c/a
= 15√𝟏𝟏/44 = 15/7
csc α = c/a csc β = c/b
= √𝟏𝟑/3 = √𝟏𝟑/2 csc α = c/a csc β = c/b
= 15/7 = 5√𝟏𝟏/44
86
5. a = 18.5, b = 37.2
sin α = a/c = 0.446 sin β = b/c = 0.896
Solution: β cos α = b/c = 0.896 cos β= a/c = 0.446

a = 18.5
tan α = a/b = 0.497 tan β = b/a = 2.011
c = √(18.5)2 + (37.2)2 cot α = b/a = 2.011 cot β = a/b = 0.497
= 41.5 sec α = c/b = 1.116 sec β = c/a = 2.243
α csc β = c/b = 1.116
csc α = c/a = 2.243
b =37.2

B. Express each function as the trigonometric function of the complementary angle

(co-function) and find the value of the function:

1. sin 38o 2. sin 69o59’59”

Solution: Solution:
sin 38° = cos (90° - 38°) sin 69°59’59” = cos (90°-69°59’59”)
= cos 52° = 0.616 = cos (20° 00’ 1”)
= 0.940

3. cos 85o 4. cos 66o55’44”

Solution: Solution:
cos 85°= sin (90° - 85°) cos 66°55’44” = sin (90°-66°55’44”)
= sin 5° = 0.087 = sin (23° 04’ 16”)
= 0.392

5. tan 72° 6. tan 12°32’56”

Solution: Solution:
tan 72°= cot (90° - 72°) tan 12°32’56” = cot (90°-12°32’56”)
= cot 18° = 3.078 = cot (77° 27’ 4”)
= 0.223

7. cot 64°42’ 8. cot /4

Solution: Solution:
180°
cot 64°42’= tan (90° - 64°42’) cot (/4 x )
𝜋
= tan 25°18’ = 0.473 = cot (45°) = tan (90° - 45°)
= tan 45° = 1

9. sec 84°58’ 10. sec 4/9

Solution: Solution:
180°
sec 84°58’= csc (90° - 84°58’) sec (4/9 x )
𝜋
= csc 5°02’ = 11.398 = sec (80°) = csc (90° - 80°)
= csc 10° = 5.759

11. csc 53°48’ 12. csc 11/36

Solution: Solution:
180°
csc 53°48’= sec (90° - 53°48’) csc (11/36 x )
𝜋
= sec 36°12’ = 1.239 = csc (55°) = sec (90° - 55°)
= sec 35° = 1.221

87
C. Find the measure of the acute angles (α and β) of the right triangle given the
following sides:

1. a = 5, b = 12
β
Solution:

a=5
tan α = a / b = 5 / 12
α
α = Arc tan (5/12) = 22° 37’ 12”
b = 12
β = 180° - 90° - 22°37’12” = 67° 22’ 48”

2. a = 0.257, c = 0.85

Solution: β

a = 0.257
sin α = a / c = 0.257 / 0.85
α = Arc sin (0.257 / 0.85) = 17° 35’ 56”
α
β = 180° - 90° - 17°35’56” = 72° 24’ 4” b

3. b = 2, c = √𝟏𝟑

Solution: β

a
cos α = b / c = 2 / √13
α = Arc cos (2/√13) = 56° 18’ 36”
α
β = 180° - 90° - 56° 18’ 36” = 33° 41’ 24” b=2

4. a = 1/3, c = 5/7

Solution: β
a = 1/3

sin α = a / c = 7 / 15
α = Arc sin (7/15) = 27° 49’ 5”
α
β = 180° - 90° - 27°49’5” = 62° 10’ 55” b

5. a = 18.5, b = 37.2

Solution: β
a = 18.5

tan α = a / b = 18.5 / 37.2

α = Arc tan (18.5 / 37.2) = 26° 26’ 30”
α
β = 180° - 90° - 26°26’30” = 63° 33’ 30” b = 37.2

88
EXERCISES

A. By the Pythagorean Theorem, find the value of the unknown side of the right triangle and
then write ALL the trigonometric functions of angles  and β.

1. a = 23, b = 17

2. a = 6.84, c = 20

3. b = 3, c = √15

4. a = ¼, c = 5/6

5. a = 0.345, b = 0.567

6. b = 4, c = 7

7. a = 0.916, b = 0.241

8. a = √7, c = √30

9. b = 130, c = 437

10. a = 9, b = 3

B. Express each function as the trigonometric function of the complementary angle (co-
function) and find the value of the trigonometric function:

1. cos 38° 6. cos 69°59’59”

2. sin 85° 7. sin 4/9

3. cot 72° 8. cot 3/7

4. tan 64°42’ 9. tan /5

5. csc 84°58’ 10. csc 2/9

C. Find the measure of the acute angles of the right triangle given the following sides:

1. a = 25, b = 24

2. a = 8.64, c = 12

FINDING THE OTHER FUNCTIONS, GIVEN ONE FUNCTION OF AN ACUTE ANGLE OF

THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

 When a function of an acute angle of the right triangle is given, it is possible to find
the other five functions because the given function is a ratio of two sides of a right
triangle.

GIVEN GIVEN THIRD SIDE

FUNCTION SIDES TO SOLVE
sin α a, c b
cos α b, c a
tan α a, b c

89
 cot α b, a c
sec α b, c a
csc α a, c b
sin β b, c a
cos β a, c b
tan β a, b c
cot β a, b c
sec β a, c b
csc β b, c a

 The third side is found by the Pythagorean Theorem.

c = √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 b = √𝒄𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 a = √𝒄𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐

 The other five functions can be obtained by using the definitions of the
trigonometric functions.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

A. Find the functions of the acute angles of the right triangle given that:

2. tan α = 3/4

Solution: β

a=3
tan α = a / b = 3 / 4
α = Arc tan (3/4) = 36° 52’ 11.63”
α
c = √(3)2 + (4)2 = 5
b=4
tan 36° 52’ 11.63” = a/b = ¾ sin 36° 52’ 11.63” = a/c = 3/5
cos 36° 52’ 11.63” = b/c = 4/5 cot 36° 52’ 11.63” = b/a = 4/3
sec 36° 52’ 11.63” = c/b = 5/4 csc 36° 52’ 11.63” = c/a = 5/3

2. tan β = 1.25

Solution: β
a=1

tan β = b / a = 1.25
β = Arc tan (1.25) = 51° 20’ 24.69”
α
c = √(1.25)2 + (1)2 = 1.6
b = 1.25
tan 51° 20’ 24.69” = b/a = 1.25 sin 51° 20’ 24.69” = b/c = 0.781
cos 51° 20’ 24.69” = a/c = 0.625 cot 51° 20’ 24.69” = a/b = 0.8
sec 51° 20’ 24.69” = c/a = 1.600 csc 51° 20’ 24.69” = c/b = 1.28

3. cos α = 5/√𝟑𝟒

Solution:
β
cos α = b / c = 5/√34
α = Arc cos (5/√34) = 30° 57’ 49.52”
a

α
a = √34 − (5)2 = 3 b=5
cos 30° 57’ 49.52” = b/c = 5/√34 sin 30° 57’ 49.52” = a/c = 3/√𝟑𝟒
tan 30° 57’ 49.52” = a/b = 3/5 cot 30° 57’ 49.52” = b/a = 5/3
sec 30° 57’ 49.52” = c/b = √𝟑𝟒/5 csc 30° 57’ 49.52” = c/a = √𝟑𝟒/3

90
 4. sec β = 3√𝟓

Solution: β

a=1
sec β = c / a = 3√5
β = Arc sec (3√5) = 81° 25’ 36.82” α
b = √9(5) − (1)2 = √44 b

sec 81° 25’ 36.82” = c/a = 3√5 sin 81° 25’ 36.82” = b/c = 0.989
cos 81° 25’ 36.82” = a/c = 0.149 tan 81° 25’ 36.82” = b/a = √𝟒𝟒
cot 81° 25’ 36.82” = a/b = 1/√𝟒𝟒 csc 81° 25’ 36.82” = c/b = 1.011

5. sin α = 0.75

Solution:
β
sin α = a / c = 0.75 = 3/4

a=3
α = Arc sin (3/4) = 48° 35’ 25.36”
α
b = √(4)2 − (3)2 = √𝟕
b
sin 48° 35’ 25.36” = a/c = 3/4 cos 48° 35’ 25.36” = b/c = √𝟕/4
tan 48° 35’ 25.36” = a/b = 3/√𝟕 cot 48° 35’ 25.36” = b/a = √𝟕/3
sec 48° 35’ 25.36” = c/b = 𝟒/√𝟕 csc 48° 35’ 25.36” = c/a = 4/3

6. csc β = (x + 1)/x
β
Solution: a

a = √(𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥)2 = √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 2

α
= √𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏
b=x
csc β = c/b = 𝑥 + 1⁄𝑥 sin β = b/c 𝒙
= ⁄𝒙 + 𝟏
cos β = a/c = √𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏⁄𝒙 + 𝟏 tan β = b/a = 𝒙⁄
√𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏
cot β = a/b = √𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏⁄𝒙 sec β = c/a = 𝒙 + 𝟏⁄
√𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏

EXERCISES

Direction : Find the functions of the acute angles of the right triangle given that:

1. tan α = √2 / 15 6. csc β = 2.5

2. cos α = 3 / 11 7. tan α = 5/√6

3. sin α = 0.375 8. cos α = 0.794

4. cot β = 5 / 2√3 9. sin α = 4 / 9

5. sec β = x + 1 10. cot β = √3 / 5

91
SOLVING RIGHT TRIANGLES

 To solve a right triangle is to find the measure of the unknown parts using those
that are known or given. There are two cases in which a right triangle can be
solved:

Case 1 Two sides are given

Case 2: One side and one acute angle are given

 In both cases, the right triangle can be solved by using the trigonometric functions:

sin α = a/c cos α = b/c tan α = a/b

sin β = b/c cos β = a/c tan β = b/a

and the relations:

a2 + b2 = c2
α + β = 90o

 The suggested steps in solving a right triangle are:

 Make a reasonably accurate sketch of the triangle. Label it properly, and

indicate the known and the unknown parts.

 Choose one of the trigonometric functions that involves two of the known parts
and one unknown part.

 Solve for the other unknown parts using the given data. Avoid the use of
previously computed values to prevent the occurrence of continuing error.

 Check the answers by using one of the trigonometric functions not used in the
computation. Substitute the given and the computed values in the formula,
evaluate each side independently, and compare the results. If they are
identical, the answers are correct.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Solve the right triangle whose given parts are:

1. c = 8, α = 38o10’

Solution:
sin α = a / c
sin 38°10’ = a / 8 β
a = 8 sin 38°10’ = 4.94
a

b = √82 − 4.942 = 6.29 α = 38°10’

b
β = 180° - 90° - 38°10’ = 51° 50’
2. b = 10, β = 54o17’

Solution: β = 54°17’
sin β = b / c
sin 54°17’ = 10 / c
c = 10 / sin 54°17’ = 12.32
a

a = √12.322 − 102 = 7.20 α

b = 10
α = 180° - 90° - 54°17’ = 35° 43’

92
 3. a = 7, c = 25.8

Solution: β
b = √25.82 − 72 = 24.83

a=7
cos α = a / c
cos α = 7 / 25.8 = 0.271
α = arc cos (0.271) = 74° 15’ 26” α
b
β = 180° - 90° - 74°15’26” = 15° 44’ 34”

4. a = 8.2, b = 6.7

Solution:
c = √8.22 + 6.72 = 10.59 β
tan α = a / b

a = 8.2
tan α = 8.2 / 6.7 = 1.224
α = arc tan (1.224) = 50° 44’ 55”
α
β = 180° - 90° - 50°44’55” = 39° 15’ 5”
b = 6.7

5. b = 9.5, c = 15.3

Solution: β
a = √15.32 − 9.52 = 11.99

cos α = b / c
a

cos α = 9.5 / 15.3 = 0.621

α = arc cos (0.621) = 51° 37’ 1” α
b = 9.5
β = 180° - 90° - 51°37’1” = 38° 22’ 59”

EXERCISES

Direction : Solve the right triangle whose given parts are:

1. a = 24.2, b = 7.8
9. a = 18.7, β = 35°15’
2. b = 12.3, c = 42.6
10. b = 15.6, α = 67°8’
3. a = 12.9, c = 35.2
11. b = 10, α = 45°
4. a = 15.8, β = 51°44’
12. a = √35, b = √13
5. b = 35.5, α = 44°18’
13. b = 17, c = 25
6. a = 13.5, b = 17.6
14. a = 0.569, c = 2.155
7. b = 0.888, c = 1
15. a = 20, β = 39°14’
8. a = 9, c = 12

93
Lesson 13

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Objectives:

1. To understand the application of trigonometric identities.

𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝒙)
Is = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐?
𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙)

FORMULAS

Pythagorean Identities Reciprocal Identities

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ

Odd/Even Identities Ratio Identities

sin (–x) = –sin x

cos (–x) = cos x

tan (–x) = –tan x

93
 Cofunction Identities, radians Cofunction Identities, degrees

sin (90° – x) = cos x cos (90° – x) = sin x

tan (90° – x) = cot x cot (90° – x) = tan x

sec (90° – x) = csc x csc (90° – x) = sec x

Periodicity Identities, radians Periodicity Identities, degrees

sin (x + 2π) = sin x csc (x + 2π) = csc x sin (x + 360°) = sin x csc (x + 360°) = csc x
cos (x + 2π) = cos x sec (x + 2π) = sec x cos (x + 360°) = cos x sec (x + 360°) = sec x
tan (x + π) = tan x cot (x + π) = cot x tan (x + 180°) = tan x cot (x + 180°) = cot x

Sum/Difference Identities Double Angle Identities

Half Angle Identities

or

or

or or

94
Product to Sum Identities Sum to Product Identities

MEASURES OF ANGLE

Degree

A unit of angle measure equal to of a complete revolution. There

are 360 degrees in a circle. Degrees are indicated by the ° symbol, so 35°
means 35 degrees.

Radian

A unit for measuring angles. 180° = π radians, and 360° = 2π radians.

The number of radians in an angle equals the number of radii it takes to
measure a circular arc described by that angle.

Note: 360° equals 2π radians because a complete circular arc has length equal
to 2π times the radius.

Formula: θ = s/r

θ = measure of the central angle in

radians
s = arc length
r = radius of the circle

95
 Example:

s = 10
r=5

θ = 10/5 = 2 radians

Commonly used angles in degrees and radians

Degrees Radians Degrees Radians

0° 0 180° π
30° π/6 210° 7π/6
45° π/4 225° 5π/4
60° π/3 240° 4π/3
90° π/2 270° 3π/2
120° 2π/3 300° 5π/3
135° 3π/4 315° 7π/4
150° 5π/6 330° 11π/6
180° π 360° 2π

Trig Values of Special Angles and Exact Values of Trig Functions

Certain angles have trig values that may be computed exactly. Of

these, the angles listed below are some of the angles most commonly used in
math classes.

degrees radians sin θ cos θ tan θ csc θ sec θ cot θ

0° 0 0 1 0 - 1 -
30° π/6 ½ √3⁄
2
√3⁄
3 2 2√3⁄
3 √3
45° π/4 √2⁄
2
√2⁄
2 1 √2 √2 1
60° π/3 √3⁄
2 ½ √3 2√3⁄
3 2 √3⁄
3
90° π/2 1 0 - 1 - 0

COMMON ERRORS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

1) Simplify the following:

The Error: Students tend to misinterpret cos(2x) as cos2(x) and make the
wrong move of cancelling.

96
The Correct Solution:

2. Simplify the expression:

The Errors:

a. Like in example 1, the error here is misinterpreting sin(2x) as sin2(x)

and cos(2x) as cos2(x) and made the wrong move of cancelling.

b. The error is using half angle formulas overlooking sin(2x) as sin2(x)

and cos(2x) as cos2(x) and made wrong cancellations.

c. The error here is disregarding cos (x) in the denominator of the

second term in the next step of the solution.

The Correct Solution:

3. Solve the following equation for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π:

The Error: Cancelling the 2 (a common factor) from the equation.

97
The Correct Answer:

4. Solve the following equation

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
The Error: Factoring out 2 as if it is not part of the angle of the function.
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
= 2 tan x
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
The Correct Answer: Use the necessary trigonometric identities to transform
the given function and perform the operation.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
= = 2 sin x
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

EXERCISES:

I - Prove the identities:

1. = _____________________________________

2. = _____________________________________

3. = _____________________________________

4. = _____________________________________

5. = _____________________________________

II - Simplify the fractions:

1. = _____________________________________

2. = _____________________________________

3. = _____________________________________

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III - Prove the identities:
1. = _________________________

2. = _____________________________________

IV - Simplify the fractions:

1. = _____________________________________

2. = _____________________________________

3. = _____________________________________

𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝒙)
Therefore,
𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙)
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝒙)−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝒙)
=
𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙)
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙)𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙)

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 REFERENCES

Alex McAlpine (www.BrainLubeOnline.com)

Fuller, Gordon. College Algebra (4th Edition). JC Press, Inc.

http://www.themathpage.com

http://www.mesacc.edu

http://www.mathwords.com/t/trig_identities.htm

http://www.mathmistakes.info/mistakes/trig/Examples/4/ctm.html

http://www.math.brown.edu/UTRA/trigderivs.html

https://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~kouba/CalcOneDIRECTORY/trigderivsol
dir
ectory/TrigDerivSol.html#SOLUTION 1

http://www.pleacher.com/mp/mlessons/calculus/deriv2.html

Paul’s Online Math Notes

(http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/Alg/PartialFractions.aspx)

Swokowski, Earl W and Cole, Jeffery A., Fundamentals of College Algebra,

Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Ninth Edition, 1997

Teaching Guide for Senior High School Pre-Calculus Core Subject, Published
by the Commission on Higher Education, 2016

Workbook in College Algebra by Benjamin D. Varela (June 2016), Chapter 2

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