Design Guide 36

Design Considerations
for Camber
Design Guide 36

Design Considerations
for Camber
Lawrence A. Kloiber, PE
Susan B. Burmeister, PE

American Institute of Steel Construction

 © AISC 2020

by

American Institute of Steel Construction

All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced
in any form without the written permission of the publisher.
The AISC logo is a registered trademark of AISC.

The information presented in this publication has been prepared following recognized principles of design
and construction. While it is believed to be accurate, this information should not be used or relied upon
for any specific application without competent professional examination and verification of its accuracy,
suitability and applicability by a licensed engineer or architect. The publication of this information is not a
representation or warranty on the part of the American Institute of Steel Construction, its officers, agents,
employees or committee members, or of any other person named herein, that this information is suitable
for any general or particular use, or of freedom from infringement of any patent or patents. All represen-
tations or warranties, express or implied, other than as stated above, are specifically disclaimed. Anyone
making use of the information presented in this publication assumes all liability arising from such use.

Caution must be exercised when relying upon standards and guidelines developed by other bodies and
incorporated by reference herein since such material may be modified or amended from time to time sub-
sequent to the printing of this edition. The American Institute of Steel Construction bears no responsibility
for such material other than to refer to it and incorporate it by reference at the time of the initial publication
of this edition.

Printed in the United States of America

 Authors
Lawrence A. Kloiber, PE, is a structural steel design and fabrication consultant to LeJeune Steel Co. He is a member Emeritus
of the AISC Committee on Specifications, the AISC Committee on the Code of Standard Practice, and the ASCE/SEI Committee
on the Design of Steel Building Structures. He also currently serves on the AWS D1.1 Subcommittee D1Q on Steel.

Susan B. Burmeister, PE, is the owner of S2B Structural Consultants, PLLC. Her background includes the structural design of
composite steel structures for a variety of building types, including commercial offices, hospitals and medical venues, academic
structures, and industrial facilities. Ms. Burmeister is a member of the AISC Committee on Specifications and its Task Commit-
tee 5 on Composite Design.

Acknowledgments
Many people contributed to this Design Guide. The members of the AISC Committee on the Code of Standard Practice saw the
need for this type of publication and provided early guidelines for the content. The members of the ASCE/SEI Committee on
the Design of Steel Building Structures also provided guidance. Numerous structural engineers shared their design experiences.
Ronald Johnson, SE, and John Lewis, SE, discussed their design methods and provided field survey information. Helen McKay,
SE, assisted with drafting construction figures. The reviewers listed here were very helpful and their comments appreciated:

Allen Adams Lou Geschwindner Viji Kuruvilla Jim Stori

Farid Alfawakhiri Ramon Gilsanz Carlo Lini Jim Thompson
Abbas Aminmansour Larry Griffis Margaret Matthew Eldon Tipping
Jon Andrews Kirk Harman Pat McManus Jennifer Traut-Todaro
Bill Andrews Tony Hazel Scott Metzger Bill Treharne
Barry Barger Chris Hewitt J.R. Mujagic Gary Violette
Eric Bolin Mark Holland Davis Parsons Wayne Walker
Cynthia Duncan Ronald Johnson Dave Ruby David Weaver
Steven Fenves Benjamin Kaan Victor Shneur Ron Yeager

The late David Ricker, PE, was not part of this project, but he wrote the first practical paper on cambering steel beams 30 years
ago. His example of sharing his knowledge in that paper and numerous others that followed set an example of professional
responsibility that should inspire all of us.

Preface
This Design Guide has been developed to educate the industry on the advantages, disadvantages, and potential problems associ-
ated with specifying camber for steel floor or roof members in an effort to enable a practicing engineer to make informed deci-
sions in evaluating the best solution with regard to camber for their specific project. Camber of members other than composite
floor beams, such as transfer girders, plate girders, cantilever beams, and various types of trusses, will also be discussed.

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 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4.2 CALCULATING PRECOMPOSITE
BEAM DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.3 LOAD TO OFFSET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2 DEFINING CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.3.1 Compounded Deflections . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3 PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF CAMBER . . . . 2
4.3.2 Floor Plan Framing Considerations . . . . 29
CHAPTER 2 MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . 5
CHAPTER 5 CAMBER FOR SPECIAL
2.1 ELASTIC-PLASTIC STRAINS . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Example 2.1.1 Geometric Evaluation of Camber
5.1 ROOF MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Radius of Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2 TRANSFER GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Example 2.1.2 Determine the Maximum Strain
5.3 CANTILEVER BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Factor for the Beam in
5.4 TRUSSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Example 2.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.5 JOISTS, JOIST GIRDERS, AND
2.2 RESIDUAL STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
COMPOSITE JOISTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 CAMBER LOSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.6 CRANE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.7 MEMBERS OF LATERAL
CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
LOAD-RESISTING SYSTEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1 ASTM A6/A6M BEAM TOLERANCE 5.8 SPANDREL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
(NATURAL OR MILL CAMBER) . . . . . . . . . 11 5.9 MEMBERS WITH NONUNIFORM
3.2 COLD (MECHANICAL) CAMBER . . . . . . . . 11 CROSS SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 HEAT-INDUCED CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Physical Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 APPENDIX A FLOOR LEVELNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.2 Heat Cambering Procedure . . . . . . . . . 18
A.1 DEFINING LEVEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.3 Special Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
A.2 UTILIZING CAMBER WITH
FLOOR LEVELNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CHAPTER 4 DESIGNING CAMBER FOR
A.3 LEVEL FLOOR CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . 40
COMPOSITE BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A.4 STRUCTURAL STEEL
4.1 CAMBER DESIGN VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . 21 FRAME TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.1 Concrete Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.2 Connection Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 APPENDIX B RULES OF THUMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1.3 Welded Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.4 Fabrication Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.5 Concrete Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.6 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.7 Span at Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 FURTHER READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

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 Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE curvature that was introduced as camber is negated by the
member deflection, and the final member geometry will be
Advances in technology and analysis methods over the last
relatively flat or slightly deflected downward. However, if
few decades have led to more efficient structural designs
the designer desires a positive camber after loading, that
and an expectation by clients that most members within the
alternative is left to the designer’s judgment. The curvature
building system will be optimized. However, there is not
associated with camber is typically not expected to be vis-
always a single or obvious “optimal” solution. In steel build-
ible once all the structural components are installed in the
ing structures, it can be as much art as science, balancing the
building.
demands of strength against the demands of serviceability
Camber is different from member curving. Member curv-
and economy. When designing horizontal members that sup-
ing, also commonly referred to as member bending, entails
port gravity loads from floors or roofs, one of the tools in the
modifying the member geometry by introducing an in-plane
structural engineer’s toolbox for dealing with these conflict-
arch or an out-of-plane sweep for architectural appearance
ing demands is incorporating camber into their designs.
or function and is not addressed in this document. This spec-
Unlike many situations engineers encounter, there is
ified horizontal or vertical curvature is intended to exist in
no specific right or wrong answer dictating how to incor-
the member at the completion of construction and is typi-
porate camber into member designs. The intention behind
cally large enough in magnitude to create a visual effect.
the development of this Design Guide is to educate the
AISC Design Guide 33, Curved Member Design (Dow-
industry on some of the pros, cons, and pitfalls associated
swell, 2018), provides more information and guidance for
with specifying camber for steel floor or roof members to
the design of curved steel members.
enable a practicing engineer to make informed decisions in
The term camber is also used in the provisions of ASTM
evaluating the best solution for their specific project. There
A6/A6M (ASTM, 2019) when referring to the permissible
are already several published articles that address vari-
out-of-straightness of steel shapes in the major or x-x axis.
ous aspects of cambering beams (Kloiber, 1989; Winters-
This tolerance is given as 8  in. for each 10  ft of length,
Downey, 2006; Criste, 2009); the objective of this Design
except for certain sections ordered as columns that have spe-
Guide, therefore, is to collate this knowledge into a single
cial maximum limits. This allowable out-of-straightness can
resource and expand past discussions where appropriate. By
occur anywhere along the member length, and the maximum
addressing the influence of camber on the design of differ-
out-of-straightness may not always coincide with the mem-
ent member types, such as beams or trusses, and explaining
ber midspan. Most members are typically manufactured with
the fabrication and erection processes utilized to achieve the
less natural camber than this maximum limitation. The 2016
design requirements, engineers can make smarter and more
AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and
cost-effective choices in optimizing building designs.
Bridges (AISC, 2016a), hereafter referred to as the AISC
Camber design, especially for composite floor systems, is
Code of Standard Practice, states that it is important to ori-
a complex steel design problem. The successful use of cam-
ent this out-of-straightness (natural camber) resulting from
bered steel beams requires the proper placement of concrete
the member manufacturing process in the positive (upward)
on the structure. An appendix, Floor Levelness, has been
direction for non-cambered members. For members with
included in this Guide to provide an overview of the interac-
designed or induced camber, this slight out-of-straightness
tion of the steel structure with current concrete placement
can be ignored.
practices.
For the purposes of this Design Guide, unless specifically
identified as natural or mill camber, any time the authors
1.2 DEFINING CAMBER
refer to camber within the document, it will mean the speci-
Engineers have historically used camber to compensate for fied camber imposed on the member by the design engineer
deflection due to anticipated loads. The design objective through the steel fabrication process.
when cambering a horizontal framing member is to inten- Camber has become more prevalent in the last couple
tionally induce an upward curvature in the member such that of decades for numerous reasons. Advances in fabrication
when the member is subject to full loading, the member’s processes have made it easier and more economical for fab-
final deflected shape stays within a desired deflection crite- ricators to introduce camber into members. An increase in
rion. Generally, when construction is complete, the upward structural steel material strength has resulted in the use of

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 lighter and more efficient sections. Additionally, signifi- add-on option during material purchasing. Unfortunately,
cant research in the last few decades has allowed design- ordering pre-cambered beams from the mills could often
ers greater utilization of this strength. The evolution of steel be a scheduling issue. Additionally, there was some ques-
member design away from a restrictive allowable stress limi- tion about the accuracy of the camber based on statements
tation methodology toward an approach that more explicitly in earlier editions of the AISC Manual of Steel Construction
recognizes the impacts of elastic and plastic member behav- (AISC, 1989) about possible camber loss in shipment.
iors has also contributed to more efficient structural steel Shoring was an economical option in the early days of
designs. The result is that serviceability, not strength, is just composite construction. However, bottom flange bracing
as important in specifying member sizes and, in many cases, was required, and working around the shores often cre-
will control the final design selection. ated onsite schedule problems. From a serviceability per-
Members, such as composite and noncomposite beams, spective, another concern was that when the shores were
transfer girders, and various types of trusses and steel joists, removed, some deflection still occurred and significant
are frequently cambered. Camber design may be based on cracking tended to occur over the supporting girders. Dur-
some portion of the dead load only, dead load plus partial ing unshored construction, deflections due to the structure
live load, or full dead and live load, depending on the design self-weight occurred while the concrete was still plastic and
requirements. This Design Guide will discuss each type of no tension stresses developed in the concrete. But in shored
member, but will focus on the design, fabrication, and qual- construction, the post-composite deflections due to the struc-
ity control and quality assurance requirements for composite ture dead loads stress the hardened concrete when the shores
beams. were removed. Mild reinforcing steel helps to reduce the
cracks and control their width, but they still tend to occur.
1.3 PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF CAMBER Large double-ram hydraulic cambering presses became
commercially available in fabrication shops in the 1980s.
Camber is frequently associated with design of composite
Once fabricators were able to mechanically camber beams
beams because it can provide so much benefit to those mem-
in-house, cambering became the obvious economical choice
bers. Composite beam construction has evolved over the last
for most composite floor systems. There remained concerns
half century from a special method to achieve increased floor
about the best procedure to calculate the optimal camber and
loadings to an essential element in many types of building
concerns about possible camber loss, both of which will be
construction. Designers have three basic options on how to
addressed in this Design Guide.
approach the design of composite beams.
ASCE/SEI 7, Minimum Design Loads and Associated
1. The beams can be sized with the stiffness required Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE, 2016),
to support the weight of the wet concrete with mini- Appendix C, addresses the issue of serviceability, which
mum deflection to avoid ponding. Deflection limits includes camber. However, information in the Appendix is
must be carefully maintained during the precomposite considered cautionary, not mandatory, so there is no obliga-
construction phase and the final post-composite con- tion on the part of designers to follow it explicitly. Appendix
dition. This results in relatively large or heavy steel Section C.4, Camber, states: “Special camber requirements
members. that are necessary to bring a loaded member into proper rela-
2. The beams can be cambered to compensate for all or tionship with the work of other trades shall be set forth in the
part of the deflection caused by placing the concrete, design documents. Beams detailed without specified camber
which results in smaller or lighter steel members. shall be positioned during erection so that any minor cam-
3. The beams can be shored until the concrete achieves ber is upward. If camber involves erection of any member
the strength required to act compositely with the beam under preload, this shall be noted in the design documents.”
and all deflections are considered using the post- The associated Commentary Section CC.4, Camber, states:
composite member properties. “When required, camber should be built into horizontal
structural members to give proper appearance and drainage
Cambering has always been recognized as the more eco- and to counteract anticipated deflection from loading and
nomical material option over upsizing the beams and adding potential ponding.”
more concrete to compensate for deflection. However, in the The Commentary in ASCE/SEI 7, Section CC.2.1, Ver-
1960s and 1970s, many fabricators did not have equipment tical Deflections, discusses appropriate limiting values
to mechanically camber beams. The process of heat camber- of deformation and notes that they depend on the type of
ing was in its infancy and was slow; therefore, it was expen- structure, detailing, and intended use. The deformations and
sive. The steel mills did offer mechanical cambering as an limits discussed are based on service loads applied to the

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 completed structure. Deformations such as those that occur anticipated deflections, it is natural that they would explore
in composite beams during construction are not specifically options of applying this concept to other types of structural
covered, but if they exceed specified cambers, that variance members as well. Camber of members other than composite
should be added to the service load deformations when eval- floor beams, such as transfer girders, plate girders, cantilever
uating the serviceability of the structure. beams, and various types of trusses, will also be discussed in
As designers have become more comfortable designing this Design Guide.
and specifying members utilizing camber as a tool to offset

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 Chapter 2
Mechanical Principles
2.1 ELASTIC-PLASTIC STRAINS When calculating the required strain to camber a beam, the
typical elastic moment curvature equations do not apply in
Cambering beams is a simple process that requires local
the inelastic region, and it is necessary to go to the strain cur-
plasticization of a relatively small length of the steel member
vature relationship shown in Figure 2-2 (Bjorhovde, 2006).
to achieve the required shape. This is accomplished mechan-
This assumes that plane sections remain plane, which is suf-
ically by force using special presses or by use of local heats
ficiently accurate for the behavior of cambered members.
applied to sections of the member to upset and shorten part
For doubly symmetric shapes for a given radius of cur-
of the section. Mechanical cambering is by far the most
vature, R, the maximum strain, εmax, in the cross section is:
economical and common method of cambering beams, and
the principles are the same as those used to curve members, d 2 d
as discussed in AISC Design Guide 33, Curved Member ε max = = (2-1)
R 2R
Design (Dowswell, 2018). The magnitude of the inelastic
strains required to achieve the permanent deformation asso- and the yield strain, εy, is:
ciated with camber, however, is significantly less than for
curving a member because the radius of curvature required Fy
for camber is substantially larger than that required for most εy = (2-2)
E
architectural bending.
When mechanically cambering, the elastic-inelastic where
behavior of the steel, as shown in Figure 2-1, must be con- E = modulus of elasticity, ksi
sidered. If steel is strained into the plastic or yielding range R = radius of curvature, in.
but less than the strain hardening range, the mechanical d = depth of the section, in.
properties after unloading will be approximately the same
as the virgin material (Brockenbrough and Merritt, 2006). The maximum strain can also be expressed as a multiple
The relatively large radius of curvatures for typical design of yield strain (Bjorhovde, 2006):
cambers requires inelastic strains that are significantly less
than the strain hardening level. εmax = α ε y (2-3)

Fig. 2-1.  Stress-strain curve for typical mild structural steel.

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 where the maximum strain factor, α, is: very small angles, the sine and tangent are approximately
equal, and their values are approximately equal to the size
⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ E⎞ of the angle, θ. The dimensions shown in Figure 2-4 are as
α=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (2-4)
⎝ 2R⎠ ⎝ Fy ⎠ follows:

Strain hardening for ASTM A992/A992M material begins c2
R= (2-5)
at approximately α  = 10, as shown in Figure  2-3. When sin (θ 2)
cambering beams, typically all of the curving occurs in the
The vertical rise, y, for the straight tangent leg is:
center of the beam over a beam segment approximately 4
to 3 of the overall member length, while the outside tan-
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎡ ( )⎤
gent segments remain straight. This is a result of both the y= L tan θ 2 ⎦ (2-6)
⎝8 ⎠ ⎣
machine setup and the most efficient method of achieving
the design camber. Depending on the member length and the
1
magnitude of camber, the fabricator may impose multiple Because tan (θ 4) ≅ ⎛ ⎞ ⎡⎣tan ( θ 2 )⎤,
⎦ the vertical offset with­in
⎝ 2⎠
iterations of low-level strain at intervals within this center
portion of the member to achieve the desired curvature out- the curved beam segment, b, is:
come. This results in a member geometry that approximates
a parabola like the theoretical deflection curve. The range of ⎛ c ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎡ ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎤
b= tan = tan
strains induced in the steel material during cambering is well ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦⎥ (2-7)

below the range where strain hardening occurs. The material
properties therefore are approximately the same as the origi- The total camber, Δ c, is equal to the sum of y + b:
nal specified material.
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ θ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎤
Figure  2-4 is an example of the typical geometry for a Δc = y + b = L tan + tan
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
cambered beam. A simple approximate solution for the
radius of the required curve is possible by noting that for (2-8)

Example 2.1.1—Geometric Evaluation of Camber Radius of Curvature

Given:
Determine the specific radius of curvature for a W21×44 beam spanning 40 ft with a specified camber of 2 in. The beam is ASTM
A992 material. The beam geometry is illustrated in Figure 2-4.

Solution:
From AISC Steel Construction Manual (AISC, 2017), hereafter referred to as the AISC Manual, Table 2-4, the material proper-
ties are as follows:

    

Fig. 2-2.  Typical stress and strain diagrams for steel members.

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 ASTM A992/A992M
Fy = 50 ksi
Fu = 65 ksi
Use the given beam camber, Δ c, and span length, L, to solve for the unknown variables.
Δ c = 2 in.

L = (40 ft)(12 in./ft)

= 480 in.

εy = F
y
ε
E

d
2R

Fig. 2-3.  Idealized stress-strain curve—showing loading and unloading.

(a)L (8)L (8)L (a)L

Fig. 2-4.  Example of cambered beam geometry.

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 From Figure 2-4:
1
c = L
4
1
= ( 480 in.)
4
= 120 in.

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ θ⎞ ⎤
Δc = L tan + tan (2-8)
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ 3⎞ ( ⎡ ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 120 in.⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎤
2 in. = 480 in.) ⎢tan ⎥+ ⎢tan ⎥
⎝ 8⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦

Solving for θ/ 2:
θ/ 2 = 0.546°

And the radius of curvature, R, is:

c2
R= (2-5)
θ
sin ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 2⎠
120 in. 2
=
sin 0.546°
= ( 6,300 in.) (1 ft/12 in.)
= 525 ft 

Example 2.1.2—Determine the Maximum Strain Factor for the Beam in Example 2.1.1

Given:
Determine the maximum strain factor for the cambered beam given in Example 2.1.1.
E = 29,000 ksi

Solution:
From AISC Manual Table 2-4, the material properties are as follows:
ASTM A992/A992M
Fy = 50 ksi
Fu = 65 ksi
From AISC Manual Table 1-1, the geometric properties are as follows:
W21×44
d = 20.7 in.
From Example 2.1.1:
R = 6,300 in.
The maximum strain factor, α, is calculated using Equation 2-4.

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 d E
α=⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ (2–4)
⎝ 2R⎠ ⎝ Fy⎠
⎡ 20.7 in. ⎤ ⎛ 29,000 ksi⎞
= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ( 6,300 in.) ⎦ ⎝ 50 ksi ⎠
= 0.953 

The radius of curvature for a beam spanning 40 ft with a 2-in. camber results in a maximum strain factor, α, close to 1. This
confirms that the residual strain required to achieve the specified camber is substantially less than the strain at α = 10, which is
the value associated with strain hardening. When the bending force is removed, the material will recover elastically along a slope
parallel to the original stress-strain curve and have material properties similar to those prior to cambering as shown in Figure 2-3.
The residual strain calculation shown here assumes a uniform circular curve. The double-press cambering machine shown in
Figure 3-2 applied at multiple locations will produce a similar curve. A single-press machine, as shown in Figure 3-4, produces
a segmented curve with larger strains localized at the load points. These strains are still well below the strain hardening region
(Gergess and Sen, 2007) and can be reduced by increasing the number of segments.
Residual strains will vary depending on the camber required, the method of cambering, and the depth of section. But for typical
cambers and beam sizes, the strains will always be well below the strain hardening point.

2.2 RESIDUAL STRESSES to member depending on the specific rolling process and the
rate of cooling, which will vary based on material thickness.
The 9th Edition of the AISC Manual of Steel Construction
The forces equilibrate across the flanges with tension (+) in
(AISC, l989) contained guidance on standard mill practice
the center and compression (−) at the edges.
for cambering of rolled steel beams. Recommended maxi-
There has been limited study of residual stresses result-
mum and minimum cambers for various beam depths and
ing from cold cambering of wide-flange sections. The
spans were given for beams cold cambered by gagging at
the mill as shown in Figure 2-5. Also included was the fol-
lowing statement: “Camber is measured at the mill and will
not necessarily be present in the same amount in the section
of beam as received due to release of stress induced during
the cambering operation. In general, 75% of the specified
camber is likely to remain.” When the 1992 AISC Code of
Standard Practice (AISC, 1992) added provisions for cam-
ber tolerances in Section 6.4.5, it included a similar provi-
sion stating, “Members received from the rolling mill with
75% of the specified camber require no further cambering.”
The rationale for this loss of camber is the release of
the residual stresses induced in cambering. There was no
research or data provided to verify this. Residual stresses are
brought into the members because of manufacturing and fab-
rication operations; they are self-equilibrating stresses that
are thermally and/or mechanically induced into the mem-
ber. Thermally induced stresses in rolled shapes are caused
by uneven cooling of the material after hot rolling. These
stresses can be modified mechanically by roller straighten-
ing and/or gagging the section at the mill. Gagging is similar
to cambering where a shape is loaded to yield by a large
hydraulic ram centered between two supports. They can be
further modified by fabrication operations such as welding
and cold bending.
Figure 2-6 shows idealized residual stresses due to the mill
rolling processes. The actual stresses will vary from member
Fig. 2-5.  Wide-flange section in gagging press.

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 residual stresses that result from cold bending will modify Vibration of the members in shipping has been mentioned
the residual stresses that exist due to hot rolling at the mill. in the past as a possible reason for loss of camber. The loss
Figure  2-7 illustrates the expected modified residual stress of camber due to vibration should not occur with cambered
due to combining the hot-rolled residual stress of 0.35Fy beams based on a study of effectiveness of vibratory stress
with the residual stress of 0.35Fy from cold bending for the relief (Dawson and Moffat, 1980). The report states that
curvature range shown (Spoorenberg et al., 2011). The beam the vibratory stress amplitude needs to be more than the
in the previous camber example has an R/ d ≈ 300 and would 0.2% proof stress to be effective. Below this strain level, no
require less strain; however, Spoorenberg et al. indicates that residual stress relief can be achieved. The member must be
with an increase in the bending ratio, R/ d, the reduction in loaded to strain into the plastic region and free to deform to
residual stresses will probably be slight. change residual stresses.
The residual stresses are self-equilibrating stresses that A limited study of the possible loss in camber in beams
do not change the ultimate strength of the beam, and except cambered at the mill before being received by the fabrica-
for a slight effect on the buckling strength of compression tor was done by Larson and Huzzard (2003). A total of 18
members, they are not considered in member design. AISC beams, W24×55 and W16×31, 30 ft long, were cambered
Design Guide 33 contains further discussion of residual s  in. and d  in., respectively, at the mill, then shipped to
stress. a fabricator. The differences in camber measured in the
mill and after being unloaded at the fabricator varied from
2.3 CAMBER LOSS 0 to −8  in. Measurements were taken using a string line
and foot rule to the nearest z in. Considering the accuracy
Possible camber loss caused by residual stress modification
of the measurement procedure using a string line, it is rea-
due to handling and shipping has been a concern over the
sonable to assume there was no appreciable loss in camber.
years, and the 2016 AISC Code of Standard Practice has
What is more important is that in this study, the members
commentary about the release of stresses in members over
received by the fabricator had cambers that averaged more
time.
than x in. larger than the specified design camber.
If we conservatively assume that the peak residual tensile
Normal handling, blocking, and shipping by trucks of typ-
stress after cambering is approximately 0.7Fy, as shown in
ical cambered beams to the project site should not impose the
Figure 2-7, then the camber in Example 2.1.1 would require
magnitude of load, either mechanical or vibratory, required
a concentrated load at the center of approximately 10 kips to
to plastically strain the member and cause a loss of camber.
reach yield at the theoretical peak stress location, while most
Cambers measured in the shop can be expected to remain
of the flange would remain elastic. Additional load would be
when received on site. Members that are slender may, how-
required to strain the tension flange into yield and change
ever, require special handling and blocking to prevent dam-
the camber.
age in shipment.

F b

h
> 1.2
b
/
Fig. 2-7.  Residual stresses due to cold bending (10 ≤ R d ≤ 40)
Fig. 2-6.  Residual stresses due to hot rolling a wide flange. (Spoorenberg et al., 2011).

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 Chapter 3
Types of Camber
3.1 ASTM A6/A6M BEAM TOLERANCE is not a concern when cambering because those initial out-
(NATURAL OR MILL CAMBER) of-straightness variations will be superseded by the imposed
camber. To achieve the specified camber, the fabricators will
When beams are formed at a steel mill, steel material is first
utilize either a cold (mechanical) process or a heat-inducing
cast into a slab with thickened edges that resembles a dog
process, both of which will be discussed in detail in the fol-
bone. These near-shape castings are heated and run through
lowing sections.
a rolling press that flattens and molds the malleable steel
The AISC Code of Standard Practice Section 6 identi-
material into the desired cross-sectional shape. After the
fies permissible tolerances applicable to induced cambers of
rolling process is complete and the material has cooled, the
−0 in. to +2 in. for beams equal to or less than 50 ft, with
steel shape is straightened to ensure the member curvature
another +8  in. allowed for each additional 10  ft in length
does not exceed the out-of-straightness tolerances required
for beams over 50 ft. Designers should be cognizant of these
by ASTM A6/A6M (ASTM, 2019). ASTM A6/A6M permits
tolerances when specifying cambers, especially when select-
an out-of-straightness for wide-flange beams of 8 in. times
ing slab thickness and finishing requirements for concrete
the member length in feet divided by 10, and this allowable
floor systems.
out-of-straightness is referred to as natural or mill camber.
3.2 COLD (MECHANICAL) CAMBER
Δ max = 8 ( number of feet of total length 10 ) (3-1)
The 1949 AISC Specification (AISC, 1949) Section 30(c)
There are a few things to note when discussing natural stated “Specified Camber for rolled beams over 15  inches
camber. The greatest deviation from a theoretically straight in depth shall be only that offered as cold cambered at the
beam centerline may not coincide precisely with the midspan mill.” The 5th Edition of the AISC Manual (AISC, 1946),
of the member but could occur anywhere along the member however, indicated that mills limited camber to wide-flange
length. The beam geometry may not be as simple as shown sections 21-in. deep and greater and prohibited reverse or
in Figure  3-1(a), but could have multiple slopes along the compound cambers. The mills would utilize gagging presses,
member length, as shown in Figure 3-1(b). This is accept- such as the one shown in Figure 2-5, to impose discrete point
able if it does not exceed the tolerance envelope. While it is loads to achieve the camber. The introduction of composite
possible for a beam to have a natural camber present with an design in the 1961 AISC Specification (AISC, 1961) made
out-of-straightness on only one side of the beam centerline, cambering much more common and increased the need for
it is also possible to have a beam with out-of-straightness fabricators to camber more efficiently. Due to demand, the
altering from side-to-side along the member length as shown mills did adjust their limits to accommodate all of the com-
in Figure 3-1(c). posite beam sizes, but the process was still inefficient.
When a steel beam arrives from the mill at the steel fabri- The first cambering presses in fabricating and bender
cator’s shop and no beam camber is specified for the mem- shops were similar in concept to the gagging presses used by
ber, the fabricator will examine the beam and decide which the mills to camber. They consisted of a heavy steel frame
direction has the predominant out-of-straightness and desig- with a large hydraulic ram positioned midway between two
nate the top flange of the beam to correspond to that direc- reaction points. The beam was positioned horizontally and
tion. When the beam is oriented with the web vertical, any loaded by the ram so that a plastic hinge formed at the load
out-of-straightness should be an upward, or positive, devia- point. Depending on the travel of the ram, the beam was
tion from a straight line. Provided the magnitude of the out- strained into the plastic region until the required permanent
of-straightness is within the tolerance limits established by set was achieved. The plastically strained area was localized
ASTM A6/A6M, these natural cambers, both positive and at the load point, which required imposing larger strains than
negative, are acceptable and can be neglected in the beam would have been required for a continuously curved member
design and fabrication processes. to achieve the required camber. Typically, it was necessary
When a designer imposes a specific initial camber into the to move the beam and use multiple load points to achieve
member to counterbalance some portion of the anticipated the required camber curve while keeping strain levels well
structural deflections, the desired camber must be indicated below strain hardening. The size of the ram required to yield
on the contract documents in accordance with the AISC the member often limited the size of the beam that could be
Code of Standard Practice. Any natural camber that exists cambered.
in the member upon delivery to the fabricator from the mill

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 Bob Matlock, a fabrication engineer, in Houston, Texas, the limitations of the equipment used by their local fabrica-
patented a double-ram cambering machine that revolution- tors. There are single-press machines as shown in Figure 3-4
ized mechanical cambering in the fabrication shop in 1984. that have the ability to camber varying length members. If it
The Cambco machine shown in Figure  3-2 used a similar is necessary to camber a short member that cannot fit in the
frame to the earlier camber presses, but had two rams located available cold-bending machinery, heat cambering, which
at approximately the 3 points between the reaction points. will be discussed further in the following section, may be an
This had the advantage of increasing the bending capacity alternative. However, heat cambering is costlier, and in many
of the machinery and increasing the length of the beam’s cases, it would be more economical to increase the beam
strained area to the distance between the two rams. This size as opposed to specifying heat camber for a beam span-
resulted in a smoother curve and a reduction in the required ning a short distance. A rule of thumb for the heat cambering
strain. cost of a 20-ft-long beam would be the equivalent of adding
Since the introduction of the Cambco type machine 10 lb/ft in beam weight.
shown in Figure  3-2, other manufacturers have developed Both single-ram and double-ram presses include restrain-
similar pieces of cambering machinery utilizing the double- ing devices at load points to control lateral-torsional buck-
ram concept. Figure  3-3 is a generic illustration of a typi- ling, and care must be taken with the member to prevent
cal double-ram cambering machine. The rams that apply web crippling at the load points due to the high shear loads
the load are spaced 6 to 8  ft apart, and the frame reaction combined with bending. The bending loads required for the
points are typically 20 to 24  ft apart. To ensure the beam double-ram system are lower, and therefore web crippling
is securely anchored in the equipment frame, some nominal is less likely. Crippling can still be a concern for very thin
overhang beyond the center of the reaction point is required. webs, especially for machines with large capacity rams. It is
Because of the physical parameters of most typical camber- recommended that beams with webs less than 4 in. thick not
ing machines, short beams cannot be cambered using the be cambered or be cambered using heat. It is typically more
cold bending, or mechanical, method. Therefore, it is rec- cost effective to use a larger beam than requiring camber
ommended that designers do not specify beam cambers for in these thin-web members. A detailed comparison of the
members that are less than 25 ft long without determining two methods, including a procedure for calculating required
Δ max

(a) Maximum out-of-straightness off-center

Δ max

(b) Out-of-straightness offset to one side of beam axis

Δ max

(c) Out-of-straightness offset to both sides of beam axis—reverse curvature

Fig. 3-1.  Acceptable natural camber profiles.

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 Fig. 3-2.  Cambco cambering machine with conveyor (Hydradyne, LLC – Parker Fluid Products).

Overhang

Fig. 3-3.  Generic cambering machinery proportions.

Fig. 3-4.  Single-press cambering machine (Stierli-Bieger AG).

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 loads and strains along with a numerical example, can be Observations in the shop indicate that for a double-press
found in a paper by Gergess and Sen (2007). Cambco-style machine, the top or tension flange will strain
It is important that any holes that are required in the flange slightly more than the bottom or compression flange. This
in the areas that are plastically strained in tension should be could be due to the longitudinal restraint between the fixed
made after cambering to prevent a fracture of the net section, position of the two rams that are bearing against the member.
examples of which can be seen in Figure  3-5 (Bjorhovde, Most beams have connection holes (except critical flange
2008). When digitally modeling members, the hole-making holes as discussed previously) made before cambering to
instructions are typically downloaded directly to the shop accommodate the shop computer numerical control (CNC)
equipment, meaning that these holes will automatically be material handling and hole-making equipment. The resulting
made before cambering. When this occurs, the holes should slope of the holes shown in Figure 3-6 is due to camber and
be carefully inspected for any sign of fracture. If possible, differential straining and can be a fit-up concern. For long-
the design should avoid holes in the center third of the top span members with cambers of approximately 3 in., this can
flange length for beams to be cambered. amount to a difference of 2 in. or more over the depth of the
Mechanical/cold cambering in the fabrication shop is typ- connection. Experience has shown that this end slope can be
ically a trial-and-error process where the machine operator accommodated in erection by use of short-slotted holes or
uses judgment to advance the ram or rams a trial distance flexible-angle connections. This end slope is the reason that
and then releases the pressure and checks the permanent set. it is not recommended to camber beams that require vertical
The machine operator will then either reapply the load or ends for moment, torsional, or brace connections that require
move the piece to a new load application. Most cambering connecting to the flanges.
machines are now equipped with roller conveyors to facili- While machines are now made that are capable of camber-
tate loading, unloading, and positioning the load point. Some ing heavy steel beams, such as a W36×300, machines with
newer models have incorporated measuring devices to check capacities to camber beams up to approximately a W24×84
the camber, but typically this is still done with a string line are more typically found in fabrication shops. Where cam-
and tape. The accuracy of the measurement is approximately bers are required for members larger than the available
±8 in. The measurement should be recorded to show com- machine capacity of a shop, fabricators may have to ship the
pliance with the specified tolerances. beam to another shop for cambering, which adds cost, or in
The paper by Ricker (1989) cautioned against immedi- special cases, heat cambering can be used.
ately reversing the member in the machine to reduce the
camber in a case where the member exceeded the ±2-in. tol- 3.3 HEAT-INDUCED CAMBER
erance allowed. The authors of this Guide can find no basis
for this restriction. If strains are on the lower portion of the 3.3.1 Physical Principles
yield plateau, reversal to reduce camber should not change
The physical factors involved in heat cambering have been
the material properties nor produce work hardening. There is
known for some time, but because the successful application
also the option of using heat to reduce the camber, as will be
depends on the know-how and technique of the craftsperson,
discussed further in the following section.

   

Fig. 3-5.  Net section fractures due to camber strain.

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 it is often considered more art than science. The early uses There are a number of modulus of elasticity curves that vary
of heat cambering or bending primarily involved straight- from this curve depending on testing procedure and the addi-
ening members during the fabrication process. Early papers tion of a creep factor. The reduction in modulus of elasticity
by Holt (1955), Holt (1965, 1971), Blodgett (1966), and with heat indicated by this curve is a reasonable guide when
others dealt with distortion and straightening and outlined planning heat cambering. The yield stress also decreases at
the basic principles involved in flame or heat cambering. a significant rate at temperatures above 800°F as shown in
Gradually, as more experience was gained, the process Figure 3-9.
was applied to straightening members damaged in use. The The elastic strain or the amount of deformation that can be
theoretical knowledge of material properties of the mem- applied without causing permanent deformation of the mate-
ber subject to heat straightening or bending was expanded rial is shown in Figure 3-10 as a function of temperature for
through research by Roeder (1985, 1986) and Avent et al. a material that is fully restrained in one axis. The intersec-
(2001). Avent authored numerous papers on the effect of tion of the plastic flow with the elastic strain is the point at
heat straightening on material properties, along with a tech- which permanent deformation takes place. While the condi-
nical guide for the FHWA, Heat-Straightening Repairs of tion of perfect restraint is not usually present during heat
Damaged Steel Bridges: A Technical Guide and Manual of cambering, the figure does indicate how the thermal expan-
Practice (Avent and Mukai, 1998). The paper “What You sion of the material combined with the reduction in modulus
Should Know about Heat Straightening Repair of Damaged of elasticity and yield strength combine to cause plastic flow
Steel” (Avent and Mukai, 2001) provides a summary of this or upsetting in the material.
work. Another summary of heat straightening is “Synthe- Steel, when heated, tries to expand uniformly in all direc-
sis Study: Heat Treatment and Its Effects on Rehabilitating tions. If it is restrained in one or more directions, according
Steel Bridges in Indiana” (Lackowski and Varma, 2007). to the Poisson ratio, it will expand more in the free direction.
Heat cambering uses the basic material properties of struc- This will result in a thickening of the material transversely
tural steel to upset portions of the web and bottom flange of if it is restrained longitudinally. When cooled, the material
a beam resulting in camber. If you know the thermal coef- will reduce proportionally in all three dimensions result-
ficient of expansion and the variation of the modulus of elas- ing in a reduction in the longitudinal length as illustrated in
ticity with temperature and combine these with a knowledge Figure 3-11.
of the metallurgic phases and a method of applying restraint, When straightening members with heat, several different
it is possible to safely upset a portion of a beam resulting heating patterns are used. These patterns are shown in detail
in camber. In Figure 3-7, Roeder shows structural steel will in the FHWA guide Heat-straightening Repairs of Damaged
expand proportionally to its temperature up to 1,200°F. Steel Bridges: A Technical Guide and Manual of Practice
Additionally, Roeder shows in Figure 3-8 that the modulus (Avent and Mukai, 1998) along with recommendations for
of elasticity will decrease by approximately half at 1,200°F. equipment and procedures for heating. When cambering

Δ8 +

A°
= 0.544°
2

Fig. 3-6.  End connection slope.

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 beams, a vee heat pattern in the web combined with a strip The temperature of the heated metal and the rate at which
heat in the flange is most commonly used. It is also possible the temperature rises are the most important factors in the
on some lighter members to use only a line-type heat. These heat straightening/cambering process and is one of the most
patterns will be discussed in more detail in later sections. difficult parameters to control. This not only effects the rate
The amount of permanent strain that will occur with heat of strain, it also effects the restraint. Factors affecting the
is dependent on the temperature of the heated metal and the temperature change include the fuel gas, the size and type
restraint that is applied. It is obvious from the previous fig- of torch orifice, the speed of movement, and the thickness
ures that as the material reaches temperatures near 1,200°F, of metal.
the amount of permanent strain greatly increases and the AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (AISC,
yield strength of the material decreases, making the restraint 2016b), hereafter referred to as the AISC Specification,
more effective.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (1/°F)

Temperature (°F)

Fig. 3-7.  Variation of coefficient of thermal expansion vs. temperature (Roeder, 1986).
Modulus of Elasticity (ksi)

Temperature (°F)

Fig. 3-8.  Variation of the modulus of elasticity vs. temperature (Roeder, 1986).

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 Section M2.1, “Cambering, Curving and Straightening,” critical temperature, around 1,500° to 1,700°F, the change
limits the temperatures of heated areas to 1,200°F for struc- is complete. If the temperature is slowly lowered in a con-
tural steels other than ASTM A514/A514M (ASTM, 2018) trolled manner, the steel will assume its original molecular
and ASTM A852/A852M (ASTM, 2007), which are limited shape and properties. The required cooling is difficult to
to 1,100°F. The reason for this is that carbon and low-alloy control in the fabrication shop, so most specifications limit
structural steel at temperatures greater than 1,340°F begin to the temperature during heat straightening and cambering to
undergo a phase change from a body-centered cubic struc- temperatures below the lower critical temperature. The tem-
ture to a face-centered cubic structure. This is known as the perature can vary significantly across a member as the heat is
lower critical temperature where the ferritic and pearlite applied. A measured temperature limit of 1,200°F was set to
crystal structure begins to change to austenite. At the upper allow a variation of up to 100°F and still limit the possibility

Fig. 3-9.  Variation in yield stress vs. temperature (Roeder, 1986).

Fig. 3-10.  Plastic flow of ASTM A36/A36M confined in one axis (Holt, 1965).

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 of detrimental material changes due to any local overheating metal adjacent to the heat pattern to restrain the expansion.
in the process. If the material is accidently heated to a tem- If the beam is allowed to cool between heats, the heats can
perature above 1,300°F, surface damage may start to show be adjacent to each other, or the same area can be reheated
but, if the member is slowly cooled, the material properties as is often done in straightening damaged steel. A typical
should not change. heat cambering setup is shown in Figure  3-12. Depending
on the camber required, heats 1, 2, and 3 would be made, the
3.3.2 Heat Cambering Procedure member allowed to cool, and the camber checked. If more
camber is required, additional heats located at 4 and 5 would
The primary restraint in heat cambering comes from the
be applied until the specified camber is achieved.
unheated material that surrounds the heated material resist-
The typical heating patterns used for cambering a wide-
ing the expansion. To maximize this restraint, it is impor-
flange beam are shown in Figure 3-13. The vee heat pattern
tant to apply the heat as rapidly as possible in a precise area
in the web shown in Figure 3-13(a) typically starts at an apex
and manner. Additional restraint may be provided by posi-
somewhere between the k dimension from the lower flange
tioning the member to use the weight of the member along
and q the depth of the member. For heavy members with
with added load from weights or jacking with special load-
thick webs, the vee should extend close to the k dimension.
limiting jacks.
For members with very thin webs (less than a in.), it may be
When heat cambering, the beam is placed with the top
necessary to reduce the vee to 2 the depth of the member to
flange down and supported as close to the ends as possible
prevent out-of-plane distortion of the web. The angle at the
to maximize the dead load restraint. Additional weights or a
apex of the vee will typically vary from 20° to 30° depend-
limited jack force may be applied to increase restraint. Spe-
ing on the thickness of the web. The larger the vee, the more
cial care should be taken to ensure that the entire assembly is
movement the heat will produce, but too wide an area may
stable when the beam starts to move as heat is applied.
cause the web to distort out-of-plane. The heated area should
A series of heating patterns located near the centerline of
be limited to what can be heated quickly to limit heat trans-
the span are used to induce camber. The amount of camber
fer to the adjacent areas and a reduction in restraint. The strip
resulting from a heat at the centerline will be twice that from
heat used on the flange shown in Figure 3-13(b) should be
a similar heat at the quarter point. Usually several heats will
located directly over the open end of the vee web heat and
be required to achieve the design camber, and these can be
match the width of the vee where it intersects the flange.
grouped in the center at 2- or 3-ft spaces, depending on the
When two torches are used for strip heat, the typical torch
depth of the member and size of the vee. The space should
pattern is shown in Figure 3-13(c).
be large enough so there is adequate room temperature

Fig. 3-11.  Shortening of steel bar heated while axially restrained.

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 Table 3-1.  Recommended Torch Tips for Various Thicknesses of Material
(Avent and Mukai, 1998)
Steel Thickness, in. Orifice Type Size
<4 Single 3
a Single 4
2 Single 5
s Single 7
w Single 8
Single 8
1
Rosebud 3
Single 8
2
Rosebud 4
3 Rosebud 5
>4 Rosebud 5

The pattern should be heated as rapidly as possible to limit heat crayon. In addition to marking the perimeter of the vee,
the transfer of heat to the areas adjacent to the pattern. This it is recommended that a series of horizontal bands about
will maximize the restraint and increase the movement. A 3  in. wide should also be marked to aid in controlling the
fuel gas with a high heat content, such as propane, or one heat application. On heavy members where two torches may
of the proprietary fuel gases, rather than natural gas, is pre- be used, both sides of the web should be marked. The strip
ferred. The fuel is mixed with oxygen using a heating torch. heat at the top should also be marked in segments.
Selection of the proper type of torch head is important. This The heat should be applied starting at the apex of the vee
can be a single- or multiple-orifice head, and the size will by slowly moving the torch in a circular pattern in each area
be determined by the type of fuel gas and the thickness of until the thermal marking starts to melt. The torch should
the material. A list of recommended torch sizes from Heat- move slowly, progressing across each band, never stopping
Straightening Repairs of Damaged Steel Bridges: A Techni- or moving back over any already heated area. When heat-
cal Guide and Manual of Practice (Avent and Mukai, 1998) ing from both sides, it is helpful to number the areas so that
is shown in Table 3-1. A No. 8 single-orifice heating tip can the craftsperson can call out the area being worked on. This
be used for most work. It provides a concentrated heat area allows the heating to progress uniformly.
that can be controlled and will heat rapidly. The larger rose- The strip heat on the flange progresses from the center
bud type torch heads can be used for 1-in. or greater thick- out, but can be done either in a transverse back and forth
nesses. On these thicker materials, it is recommended that pattern or a circular longitudinal pattern moving from the
heating be done simultaneously from both sides. centerline out. The transverse pattern is more typically used.
After the size and location of the vee heat is determined, it The heated area should be cooled to about 600°F in still
should be marked on the beam using a 1,200°F temperature air before using dry compressed air to cool to ambient

Fig. 3-12. Typical heat cambering setup.

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 temperature. Studies by Roeder (1985) and Avent et al. cambers typically require a relatively large change in cur-
(2001) indicate peak residual stresses in both flanges will vature, which require more heats and will increase the cost.
be in compression and on the heated flange may approach It may be cost effective to provide a larger section to reduce
the yield level. The other material properties will not change or eliminate the camber required. If deflection of the con-
significantly and thus the beam will perform as designed. tinuous cantilever is still a concern, provide camber for the
cantilever only and avoid the use of reverse camber.
3.3.3 Special Cases
Heat cambering can be used to provide reverse or compound
cambers, and special camber profiles if required. Reverse

(q)d

Apex
origin

(a) Vee heat

(b) Strip heat

(c) Two torches

Fig. 3-13.  Typical heat patterns for cambering wide-flange beams.

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 Chapter 4
Designing Camber for Composite Beams
The reason most engineers utilize camber in their member performance of the beams and the levelness of the concrete
designs is to provide the least weight steel member that can floors. To complicate matters even further, we cannot simply
support the anticipated loads while still meeting the spe- assign a conservative value because there are potential issues
cific project constraints. This philosophy corresponds to the associated with both over-specifying and under-specifying
assumption that least weight also means least cost for the the amount of camber for a given beam size. Fortunately, by
project. There has been some concern in the past that the examining the different variables and understanding the role
least weight assumption might be offset by the cost of cam- each plays in influencing the beam deflections, it is possible
bering. The advances in cambering equipment have greatly to select a camber value for a beam design that will result in
reduced the cost of cambering. A general guide is a beam an acceptable final product.
weight savings of 3 to 4 lb per lineal foot will offset the cost
of mechanically cambering typical floor beams. 4.1.1 Concrete Placement
It should be stated that a beam that is properly designed
In today’s construction industry, most floor slabs supported
for all the anticipated loads should have adequate strength
by steel beams use some type of steel deck as a form. The
regardless of what percentage of the expected deflections
steel deck manufacturers publish load tables for their prod-
are offset by camber. Introducing camber into a beam is a
ucts that provide design weights for standard slab thick-
mechanism to achieve a more economical beam design with
nesses for each deck configuration based on concrete unit
respect to the serviceability considerations. A stiffer beam
weights for lightweight and normal-weight concrete. These
with little or no camber can be just as valid a design solution
are air-dried weights for calculating design strengths; the
as a less stiff beam with camber induced. There are typically
wet-concrete weights can be several pounds per square foot
multiple combinations of beam size and specified camber
heavier. Additionally, the aggregates that are used in the
that can achieve a satisfactory performance with regard to
concrete mix vary across the country, causing the dry unit
both strength and serviceability; designers have the flexibil-
weight of the concrete to vary by as much as ±5% relative to
ity to select the combination that is most appropriate for their
what is shown in the published tables. While these published
situation.
load tables are useful in estimating the slab self-weight to
When selecting the amount of camber for their beam
use in the building design, the authors recommend designers
design, engineers need to understand the variables that influ-
check with concrete suppliers local to a project’s location if
ence beam deflection and the methods of placing the con-
they are unfamiliar with the concrete weights for that area.
crete slab.
For typical composite slab construction, no negative
moment reinforcing is provided in the slab over the beams.
4.1 CAMBER DESIGN VARIABLES
As such, it is assumed there will be some minor cracking,
The design of the camber required to produce a level floor is controlled by the slab temperature and shrinkage reinforc-
an inexact process due to the many variables that affect the ing, that allows the composite slab to perform as a simple
deflection of the beam. As previously noted in Chapter 1, the span beam with the steel decking serving the purpose of pos-
design objective of cambering a horizontal framing mem- itive moment reinforcing. In accordance with this assump-
ber is to ensure that the deflected shape of the member stays tion, designers typically assume the uniform slab loads are
within the desired deflection criteria. For a composite steel distributed equally to each beam supporting a slab segment,
floor member, this is typically L/ 360 for the post-composite as depicted in Figure 4-1(a). Most steel decks, however, are
applied live load and L/ 240 for the net total load, where L is installed in a multi-span condition. Steel deck manufacturers
the beam length, although these limits may vary depending and steel erectors prefer to install triple-span deck whenever
on project-specific requirements. There are, however, many possible, then double-span or single-span only where nec-
variables dependent on engineering judgment that affect essary. Multi-span deck arrangements are more efficient at
the deflection of a beam that make selecting the amount of supporting the wet weight of the concrete during the con-
camber an art rather than a science. Some of these variables, crete placement operations and allow the slab to be con-
such as the actual restraint provided by the member end con- structed with a lighter gage deck or to push the deck spans
nections, are difficult to evaluate precisely. Similarly, while further. As can be seen in Figures 4-1(b) and (c), the reaction
not often considered during the design phase, the method of to the supports will vary depending on the deck continuity.
concrete placement on the deck can also affect the deflection The reactions in Figure 4-1 are based on rigid supports rather

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 than flexible beam type supports. If we assume the beams of screeding the concrete is specified, the beams are typi-
have relatively similar stiffnesses, when the interior beams cally cambered for less than the calculated deflection due to
deflect due to the load, some of the difference in load will construction dead load. The deflection calculations should
be transferred to the beams at the deck splice. If the deck include an allowance for the weight of the extra concrete
layout is known, engineering judgment can be used to adjust needed in the middle to provide the required minimum thick-
the difference in reactions for flexible supports. In the final, ness at the supports. Typically, this allowance is based on the
post-composite configuration, the loads will redistribute and anticipated downward deflection under the design concrete
the loads to the supporting beams will be more consistent thickness. For a detailed method of calculating the addi-
with the simple-span configuration. Whether the deck is tional concrete load, see “Ponding of Concrete Deck Floors”
a single span or multi-span will not affect the analysis or (Ruddy, 1986). While Ruddy does state that deflection of the
design of the composite beam for ultimate loads. metal deck could be neglected, there may be cases where
The method specified for screeding of the concrete will slab thickness and spans would require this to be considered.
also affect the volume and weight of the concrete placed.
Practice in the industry is mixed, with some engineers pre- 4.1.2 Connection Restraint
ferring to require the concrete be screeded to provide a uni-
Connection restraint depends on stiffness of the connection,
form plane surface and other engineers preferring to require
the rotational stiffness of the supporting member, and the
the concrete be placed to a uniform slab thickness as shown
geometry of the connection. Typical floor and roof beams
in Figure 4-2. There are pros and cons to both methods that
that are not part of a lateral frame are designed with sim-
should be considered when selecting the amount of camber
ple shear connections, assuming no rotational restraint at
for a beam. These issues are discussed in greater detail in
the supports. AISC Specification Section B3.4a defines a
Appendix A, Section A.2. When the uniform plane method

(a) Simple-span condition

(b) Double-span condition

(c) Triple-span condition

Fig. 4-1.  Loading diagrams and support reactions (rigid supports).

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 simple connection as a connection that “transmits negligi- however, are based on the face of the connection and the
ble moment” and “may be assumed to allow unrestrained support being in the same vertical plane. Figure 3-6 shows
relative rotation between the framing elements being con- that connections of cambered beams are typically normal to
nected.” AISC Specification Section J1.2 requires that sim- the slope of the beam at the connection face. The studies also
ple connections accommodate rotation of the beam end to be assume that the supports are rigid. This assumption is valid
consistent with the assumption of flexibility. During analysis for beams framing into the strong axis of columns as shown
and design of simply supported beams, it is acceptable to in Figure 4-4(a) or beams framing into interior girders with
idealize simple shear connections as completely flexible. In balanced loads as shown in Figure  4-4(b). It is not valid
reality, some rotational restraint will exist. AISC Manual for beams framing into spandrel girders as shown in Fig-
Figure 10-1 (reproduced here as Figure 4-3) illustrates the ure 4-4(c) or girders with large unbalanced loads on either
general relationship between a simple shear connection, side of the girder as shown in Figure 4-4(d).
curve  A, and expected rotational restraint. Some restraint Within the connections themselves, short-slotted holes in
is almost invariably going to be present in most standard single-plate connections or in the outstanding leg of single-
simple shear connections, but determining the amount of the angle connections are frequently used to accommodate the
restraint and its effect on the beam deflection is very difficult slope of the beam connection, which may also reduce the
to quantify. The simple shear connection curve in Figure 4-3 restraint that can be expected. The amount of restraint for
is nonlinear and indicates the restraint moment does not sig- these connections will vary with the friction capacity of the
nificantly increase when the beam-end rotation/deflection bolts. The restraint of double-angle connections will vary
increases. with the geometry of the connection and the stiffness of the
By neglecting the connection restraint during beam design angle.
and treating the end connections as fully free to rotate, the These factors all combine to make it very difficult to
expected beam deflections will be overestimated. This is accurately estimate or quantify the magnitude of connection
generally considered a conservative design assumption as it restraint during the beam design process. To account for this
ensures the designer will select a member size for the beam unknown contribution of connection restraint on the beam
that can meet the deflection criteria based on the worst case deflection, designers typically specify camber amounts
expected beam deflection. However, when trying to balance based on engineering judgment that are less than the cal-
the amount of deflection with the amount of camber to be culated simple-span deflection from the fully applied dead
imposed, an overestimation of the anticipated beam deflec- load. It is reasonable to assume that connections of beams
tions can result in a beam that still has a positive, upward framing into spandrels or girders without balanced framing
curvature even after the dead loads are applied. on the opposite side will have little or no restraint due to the
There have been several studies of simple and/or partially rotation of these members. Connections of beams framing
restrained connections (Goverdhan, 1984; Geschwindner, into columns or girders with balanced connections as shown
1991; Ioannides, 1996) that have attempted to quantify the in Figure 4-4(b), however, will have restraint. If we assume
effect of connections on beam deflections. All these studies, that the restraint is a small portion of the fixed-end moment

Fig. 4-2.  Power screeding concrete to uniform thickness.

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 FR moment
connections

PR moment
connections

Fig. 4-3.  Illustration of typical moment rotation curve for simple shear connection.

(a) Beam-to-column (b) Beams-to-interior girder

(c) Beam-to-spandrel girder (d) Beams-to-interior unbalanced girder

Fig. 4-4.  Connection conditions.

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 restraint, it is possible to approximate the restraint effect on The AISC Code of Standard Practice camber tolerances
the calculated simple beam deflection. A reduction of simple only allow for fabricated camber to be equal to or greater
span deflection of 5 to 10% for one end restrained and 10 to than what is specified. The result is that most members fab-
15% for both ends restrained seems reasonable. These are ricated with camber will have more camber than was speci-
only approximate values; the actual restraint will vary with fied. The camber study discussed in Section 2.3 (Larson and
the specific connection details and the amount of deflection Huzzard, 2003) indicated that beams that were cambered to
of the member. AISC Code of Standard Practice allowable tolerances at the
mill arrived at the fabrication shop with an average of x in.
4.1.3 Welded Attachments more camber than specified in the design. Because the fab-
rication process results in beams that are likely over cam-
Spandrel beams and similar members with field-welded
bered, engineers should take this into consideration when
attachments may lose some camber depending on the weld
specifying beam camber.
details. Use of minimum-size stitch welds that are not
closely spaced will limit the negative heat effects that could
4.1.5 Concrete Shrinkage
reduce, or relax, the imposed camber. For example, the small
amount of welding required to fasten a bent-plate edge form Concrete shrinkage is typically not included in camber cal-
typically has a negligible impact on the final beam camber. culations because it occurs after the beam has achieved its
However, for a built-up member with more significant weld- composite strength level. It can be a serviceability concern,
ing required to make two or more steel shapes act together, though, especially on larger span-to-depth ratio beams. The
the amount of welding could be significant enough to cause a shrinkage of the concrete results in a positive moment in the
measurable loss in camber. Built-up members should, where beam and increases the service load deflection. AISC Speci-
possible, be shop fabricated so that any out-of-tolerance can fication Commentary Section I3.2 provides some guidance
be corrected. on shrinkage effects; see Figure 4-5. Studies by Viest et al.
There has been limited study of the effect of shear stud (1997), Leon (1990), Leon and Alsamsam (1993), and Kim
welding on loss of camber. Fabricators know from experi- (2014) indicate that accurate predictions are difficult because
ence that welding steel headed stud anchors to light mem- the effects vary with the slab reinforcement and the type of
bers such as long embedded angles can cause distortion. aggregate. The majority of the shrinkage effect occurs within
Welding steel headed stud anchors to the top flange of a the first 40 days, so it might be a design consideration for
beam is similar to applying a heat spot. A study by Lange certain spans and loadings. The Commentary also suggests
and Grages (2009) on the deflection behavior of cambered that long-term deformation due to shrinkage can be calcu-
beams investigated the effect of size and spacing of typical lated using the simplified model shown in Figure 4-5. The
steel headed studs welded on different Eurocode beam pro- effect of the shrinkage is taken as an equivalent set of end
files. The calculated loss of camber using Lange and Grage’s moments given by the shrinkage force (long-term restrained
proposed equation for the W21×44 example with the 40-ft
span in Chapter  2 is a loss of camber less than 8  in. It is
theoretically possible that for light members with a large
span/depth ratio and a large number of steel headed stud
anchors (high percentage of composite action), welding of
the stud anchors could cause a loss in camber; otherwise, the
loss is too small to be considered in typical designs.
Psh = esh Ec Ac
4.1.4 Fabrication Tolerance
As mentioned in Chapter 3, AISC Code of Standard Prac-
tice Section 6 identifies permissible tolerances for camber
resulting from the fabrication process. For beams less than
50 ft in length, the camber may vary by −0 in. to +2 in. from Msh = Psh e
what is specified, and for beams exceeding 50 ft, the toler-
ance is an additional +8 in. per 10 ft of beam length. From
a practical perspective, utilizing modern-day machinery to Psh eL2
∆ sh =
impose the camber makes it easy to achieve these tolerances 8EIt
in most cases. While theoretically two adjacent beams could
vary in camber by 2 in. when loaded, the resulting deflec-
tions will tend to equalize, provided the restraint conditions
are similar. Fig. 4-5.  Calculation of shrinkage effects (AISC, 2016b).

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 shrinkage strain multiplied by the modulus of concrete mul- columns and a 40-ft span, there would be approximately a
tiplied by the effective area of the concrete) multiplied by 9% reduction in deflection due to reduced span length. The
the eccentricity between the center of the slab and the elastic reduced deflection of members spanning to columns rela-
neutral axis. If the restrained shrinkage coefficient for the tive to those that frame to beams should be considered when
aggregate is not known, the shrinkage strain, esh, for these specifying camber.
calculations may be taken as 0.02%.
4.2 CALCULATING PRECOMPOSITE
4.1.6 Material Properties BEAM DEFLECTIONS
Residual stresses have been shown not to be a problem in A survey across the country indicates most designers when
either loss of camber in shipment or in the ultimate strength calculating beam deflections will use the beam weight and
capacity of the composite section. They may, however, con- the concrete load from the appropriate deck catalog on the
tribute slightly to the deflection of the beam at full service tributary area and apply the equation for a uniformly loaded,
loads. The variations in residual stress depend on mill rolling simple-span beam. A review of the design variables men-
stresses and the camber and cambering process. Because this tioned previously can be helpful in determining what, if any,
effect will be small, there has been no effort to quantify it. adjustment in the calculated deflection might be required
Strain softening has been cited in one paper (Lange and when using this approximate method to calculate deflection.
Grages, 2009) for its influence on the deflection behavior of We can start by neglecting the effects of any welded
composite beams. When members that have been strained to attachments, material properties, and, in most cases, concrete
yield in one direction by cambering and then unloaded and shrinkage effects. The fabrication tolerance effect should
finally loaded in the reverse direction, the stress-strain curve be considered when specifying the camber, but it does not
varies from a straight line to a slightly rounded curve. This affect the deflection calculation. The deflection of interior
is called the Bauschinger effect; at larger loads deformation beams should slightly increase because of the increased load
increases. Figure 4-6 shows that when the load is reversed, due to deck continuity and the possible increase in the wet
the yield stress, σ′s, is less than the original yield stress when unit weight of the concrete. There will also be a decrease in
first loaded, σs. This effect occurs only as the loads approach deflection due to connection restraint at the girder. It is rea-
yield. For camber design loads where the stresses have been sonable to assume that for typical interior beams, the increase
reduced by a safety factor, the Bauschinger effect is typically in load due to deck span and the decrease due to connection
not considered. restraint tend to offset each other, and little adjustment in the
simple-span deflection calculation is required.
4.1.7 Span at Columns The deflection of beams framing to columns, however,
will see a significant decrease in deflection due to the deck
When floor beams at the gridline frame to the column flange,
span effect and more connection restraint along with a span
the member size does not typically change, but the reduction
length reduction where appropriate. If the member framing
in effective span length can be significant. Assuming W14
to the column is the same size as the typical beams framing
to spandrels, the deflection at the column line may only be
75 to 90% of the deflection of beams that frame to spandrel
beams.

4.3 LOAD TO OFFSET

One of the most important decisions an engineer must make
in selecting the amount of camber to specify for a beam is
how much of the deflection due to the imposed loads they
want to offset. The authors surveyed several designers from
offices around the country, and most of the practicing engi-
neers surveyed responded that they offset 75 to 85% of the
precomposite simple-span dead load deflection when select-
ing the magnitude of beam camber with little deviation from
this rule of thumb. These designs are based on the concept
σs > σ′s that the concrete would be screeded to a uniform elevation.
The goal of this reduction in camber is to compensate for the
plus fabrication tolerance and any connection restraint, but
Fig. 4-6.  Bauschinger effect (Lange and Grages, 2009). still provide a net downward deflection. Firms that specified

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 constant thickness slabs specified cambers up to 90% of the calculated deflections vary from 1 in. to 2 in. to 3 in., respec-
calculated simple-span dead load deflection, the intent being tively. Using the 80% rule and rounding down in 4-in. incre-
to compensate for the plus camber tolerance and have a slab ments would result in camber reductions of 4 in., 2 in., and
that is approximately level. w in. The 4-in. reduction might result in over-cambering if
For both methods, the camber specified for beams at the actual camber is +2 in. over the specified camber. The
column lines varied from using the same camber as inte- w-in. reduction might result in significant extra concrete,
rior spans to using 70% of the interior span camber. Cam- resulting in additional deflections and even more concrete.
ber for beams framing into columns should be based on the Anecdotally, engineers and contractors have reported
reduction in simple-span deflections at columns lines dis- instances when beams supporting thin slabs have not fully
cussed previously, along with the effect of added connection deflected during construction and the beam remains curved
restraint. When screeding to a uniform elevation, specifying upward after the slab has been placed. Problems with steel
the same camber at column lines as that specified for inte- headed stud anchors projecting above the slab surface for
rior beams will result in an increase in concrete volume at thin-slab systems have been reported when screeding to con-
the interior beams to compensate for the high points at the stant elevation. Because of this known history, an engineer
column line beams. When screeding to a uniform thickness, designing a constant elevation composite slab using a thin,
specifying the same camber as the interior beams will result light slab might consider reducing the specified camber to
in noticeable high points at the column lines. a smaller percentage of the calculated dead load deflection,
Few designers specify camber for the full dead-load thereby increasing the probability that the beam will not
deflection because of the uncertainty of the actual camber retain any camber once the slab is placed. This is especially
due to the variables discussed previously and the fabrication important for members at the column lines where deflection
tolerance, with the exception of using the constant slab thick- is smaller. Conversely, when specifying camber for slabs
ness method when the goal is to provide positive camber to with large calculated dead load deflections, increasing the
compensate for any concrete shrinkage and/or a portion percentage of load offset will reduce the amount of extra
of the superimposed dead load. A procedure for designing concrete required when screeding to a uniform elevation.
floors with a positive camber can be found in “Camber—An The problem of steel headed stud anchors projecting
Art and a Science” (Lederle, 2003). This camber design pro- above the slab is generally only an issue for thin slabs. For
cedure uses the full precomposite dead load, adds approxi- thicker slabs, there is sufficient length between the minimum
mately half of the post-composite dead load, and specifies and maximum stud length permitted by the AISC Specifica-
the floor to be screeded to a constant thickness. It is impor- tion that a length can be specified that will allow extra toler-
tant to note that when using this method, the camber speci- ance for concrete cover.
fied for the beams at the column lines is about 75% of the
camber specified for the typical interior beams. 4.3.1 Compounded Deflections
While the goal when screeding to a uniform elevation is
A typical framing bay consists of beams connected to gird-
for the floor beam to be close to level once the precomposite
ers that connect to columns, as shown in Figure  4-7. The
dead load is imposed, the expectation is that there will be
beams and girders are typically designed as simple-span
some net negative deflection that is compensated for when
members unless they are also part of the lateral load-
the concrete is placed level. If a floor beam is cambered more
resisting system. During design and analysis of each member,
than the amount of deflection experienced when the wet con-
the member deflections are evaluated relative to the mem-
crete is placed on the deck, the beam will still retain a slight
ber end supports, assuming the member ends are restrained
upward, or positive, curvature. This is typically acceptable
from vertical movement. However, the total displacement of
when screeding to a uniform thickness, but when screed-
each member will also be dependent on whether the framing
ing to a uniform elevation, it may affect the floor finishing
supporting that member is also free to displace. For a beam
requirements and the design requirements. This will be dis-
framing into a girder, the total beam displacement is a super-
cussed in greater detail in Appendix A, Floor Levelness.
position of the beam deflections on top of the girder deflec-
The practice of offsetting 80% of the expected dead
tions. This superposition of deflections of multiple members
load—referred to here as the 80% rule—has been applied to
is referred to as compounded deflections.
a broad spectrum of projects and, in most cases, appears to
When calculating precomposite dead load deflections, the
result in typical interior beams that perform well for “aver-
amount of extra concrete that will be required to maintain a
age” projects. However, it might not be the best option for
constant floor elevation will correspond to the total floor dis-
all structures. A different percentage of dead load deflection
placement as depicted in Figure 4-8, not just the individual
to offset may be more appropriate for thin, lightweight slabs
member displacements. A ponding analogy can be used for
or thick, heavy slabs. Consider the beam deflections result-
analytically estimating the quantity of additional concrete
ing from three different hypothetical slab systems where
that will be required for a level floor (Ruddy, 1986).

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 Fig. 4-7.  Typical framing bay.

Fig. 4-8.  Single bay slab deflection.

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 4.3.2 Floor Plan Framing Considerations and deck support at the load bearing wall should all be nomi-
nally the same. However, during construction the elevation
Abrupt changes in the framing layout or stiffness between
of the cambered steel beams at midspan can be significantly
adjacent members can create conditions where specifying
higher than the adjacent framing. At these conditions, the
camber results in constructability challenges. The differ-
deck may not be able to flex enough to achieve a satisfactory
ences in the top of steel elevations before any load is applied
connection to the lower element. It may be possible to install
to the members may not be able to be accommodated by the
a single span of deck and warp the ends at the deck bearing
metal deck, especially if the cambers are large or the deck
if the specified camber relative to the deck span is not too
design is dependent on multi-span deck installation.
large as shown in the details. Alternatively, it may be more
Consider the partial framing plan shown in Figure 4-9(a)
appropriate to install a beam adjacent to the column line that
and the associated sections shown in Figures  4-9(b) and
requires only half of the typical specified camber.
4-9(c). Once all the loads are applied to the framing, the esti-
mated top of steel for the cambered beams, steel columns,

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 (a) Partial framing plan

(b) Section at load bearing wall

(c) Section at mid-span column

Fig. 4-9.  Floor plan framing considerations.

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 Chapter 5
Camber for Special Conditions
Camber may be specified for members other than composite drainage is attained through built-up roofing materials, the
beams. Although for some of these members the method of concept is the same. A nominally flat roof will typically be
cambering may be similar to that for composite beams, there pitched with a minimum slope of 4-in. per foot from the
may be other methods or alternatives to cambering that the high point to the low point. In this scenario, it is reason-
designer should consider. able to select beam camber that offsets the combined struc-
ture self-weight plus 100% of the expected superimposed
5.1 ROOF MEMBERS dead load. In the final installed condition, the beam may still
have a positive curvature, but that is not detrimental to the
When considering roof member design, the criteria for
structural performance and, unless it is unusually excessive,
selecting camber is slightly different. The design goal is still
should not impact the roof drainage, which is the main ser-
to offset the expected deflections due to the dead load, but
viceability consideration for the roof.
it is common to also offset 100% of the superimposed live
In Figure  5-1(b), drains are shown at the two B points
loads. This offset can be accomplished by camber, by pro-
located in the center of each bay. When the drains are not
viding enough slope to maintain positive drainage, or by a
located near columns, the framing is typically installed level
combination of these methods. Camber is typically required
with a constant specified top of steel elevation for the fram-
when there are large dead loads or very long spans. In decid-
ing. If the beams in this scenario retain a positive camber
ing how much camber to specify for a roof beam, design-
once the structure self-weight and the superimposed dead
ers should consider the roof drainage and the roof slopes.
loads are all present, then the low point in the roofing sur-
Figure  5-1 illustrates two different, yet common, drainage
face will occur at the beam supports along grids 1, 2, and 3
configurations.
away from the drains. To avoid creating a situation where
In Figure 5-1(a), drains are shown at the two A points near
ponding could occur due purely to the steel design, camber
the columns at grids A-1 and A-3. With a layout like this, the
specified for members configured in this manner should be
roof steel will frequently be sloped with low points along
selected to allow for a net negative curvature once all the
grids 1 and 3 and a high point along grid 2. However, even
dead loads are applied; only a fraction of the total dead load
if the steel is installed at a constant elevation and the roof

(a) Drainage at column lines (b) Drainage at mid-bay

Fig. 5-1.  Typical roof framing bay.

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 plus superimposed dead loads should be offset. That per- load line not be released until the cantilever is safely shored
centage is an engineering judgment decision that should take or an adequate connection is made. The AISC Code of Stan-
into consideration the magnitude of the loads, the member dard Practice Section 7.13.1.2(e) specifies the tolerance for
spans, and the net total deflection anticipated. the cantilever “is equal to or less than 1 500 of the distance
from the working point at the free end,” and the Commentary
5.2 TRANSFER GIRDERS states, “This tolerance is evaluated after the fixed end con-
dition is sufficient to stabilize the cantilever and before the
Transfer girders are typically noncomposite heavy members
temporary support is removed.”
designed to support large concentrated loads from columns
Cambering of cantilever beams that are continuous over
that may support multiple floors. Transfer girders are typi-
the support should be avoided. The reverse cambers are espe-
cally very conservatively designed to limit both dead load
cially difficult to fabricate and should be avoided because
deflections and some live load deflections. The girder will
the radius of curvature required is typically much smaller
not see all the dead load deflection until the steel and con-
than the typical camber curve radius. These types of mem-
crete is placed on all of the floors that are supported. The
bers usually require costly heat cambering. When camber is
designer will have to specify the camber that is expected to
specified for the cantilever portion of a continuous member,
remain in the girder as each floor is placed and adjust con-
the camber is checked in the shop using the camber diagram
crete elevations as necessary.
rather than using a preset elevation in the field.
Transfer girders may be built-up plate girders or heavy
rolled shapes possibly with cover plates. Welded plate gird-
5.4 TRUSSES
ers can be cambered by cutting the web plate to the speci-
fied camber curve and then fitting the flanges to the web. The types of trusses and their uses are so varied that it is
The camber should be checked after welding to verify there beyond the scope of this document to adequately discuss all
has been no change after fit-up. Camber adjustments can of the camber requirements and the methods used to provide
be made by planning the welding sequence. Welding the camber. The amount of camber to specify is a serviceability
bottom flange first will tend to add positive camber. Heat issue and varies from cambering for dead load only or inclu-
cambering can also be used to correct any small camber sion of partial or full live load. The advancement in analysis
change. Rolled wide-flange sections can be cambered using software has simplified the calculation of deflection; how-
mechanical cambering or heat cambering as described in ever, in most cases there will still be assumptions on connec-
Chapter 3, depending on the fabricator’s equipment capac- tion stiffness, support restraint, and actual loads so that the
ity. Cover-plated wide-flange sections should be cambered deflection will be a design approximation.
before welding the cover plates. The AISC Code of Standard Practice requirements for
A cost effective alternate when using either built-up or truss camber tolerances are as follows:
heavy rolled sections that the fabricator may want to con-
Section 6.4.5. For fabricated trusses that are specified
sider is to detail the girder without camber and adjust the
in the contract documents with camber, the variation in
column length and floor beam connections to the required
camber at each specified camber point shall be equal
camber elevations.
to or less than plus or minus 1 800 of the distance to that
point from the nearest point of support. For the purpose
5.3 CANTILEVER BEAMS
of inspection, camber shall be measured in the fabrica-
Cantilever beams and the cantilever portion of continuous tor’s shop in the unstressed condition. For fabricated
beams will be noncomposite and must be designed for the trusses that are specified in the contract documents
deflections of both dead and live loads. These members are without indication of camber, the foregoing require-
typically sized stiffly enough that camber is not required. ments shall be applied at each panel point of the truss
Long cantilever members, however, may be sloped and have with a zero camber ordinate.
a preset elevation specified for the free end. The AISC Code
Section 6.4.5 only addresses trusses that are assembled
of Standard Practice Section 3.1 requires that “Structural
in the shop as shown in Figure 5-2. Advances in fabrication
Design Documents shall clearly show or note the work that
technology—such as computer modeling with downloads to
is to be performed” and one of the items listed is: “The pre-
computer-controlled shop equipment, along with the use of
set elevation requirements, if any, at free ends of cantilevered
slip-critical bolted connections—have made it possible to
members relative to their fixed-end elevations.” When the
fabricate the individual members for large trusses and ship
cantilever beam has a moment connection at its support, this
them without costly shop assembly. When these trusses are
connection should be designed with enough adjustment that
field assembled, the camber is checked in the unstressed con-
the free end of the beam can be supported at the specified
dition in either the laydown position or when fully shored.
preset elevation before being fixed. It is important that the
Trusses that are fabricated in sections and field assembled

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 have the sections checked separately in the shop and the Figure  5-5 shows large, extra-long-span trusses being
camber rechecked in the field when spliced. erected in place on shoring using the provisions of AISC
AISC Code of Standard Practice Section 7.13.1.2 covers Code of Standard Practice Section 7.13.1.2. A special engi-
erection tolerances for members other than column ship- neered erection plan was used to control the deflection as
ping pieces. The following paragraphs address truss erection erection progressed across the span.
tolerances: Where truss camber is required, the camber diagram
is usually specified as a parabolic curve. For trusses with
(d) For a member that consists of an individual, straight
wide-flange chords, the curve is replicated by designating
shipping piece and that is a segment of a field assembled
the camber elevations required at specific panel points. The
unit containing field splices between points of support,
wide-flange chords are fabricated as straight members and
the plumbness, elevation and alignment shall be accept-
sloped as required to the splices at the camber points. The
able if the angular variation, vertically and horizontally,
length of the diagonals are adjusted as required to match the
of the working line from a straight line between points
slope.
of support is equal to or less than 1 500 of the distance
Lighter shop-welded trusses with WT chords, angle
between working points.
chords, and HSS chords are curved as required by using heat
(g) For a member that is fully assembled in the field in or by jacking lighter chords in a fixture to the required curve.
an unstressed condition, the same tolerances shall apply Where the diagonals are shop-welded double angles, the
as if fully assembled in the shop. lengths can be adjusted when fitting up the truss. It is impor-
tant when designing cambered trusses with HSS chords and
(h) For a member that is field-assembled, element-by-
direct-welded HSS web members as shown in Figure  5-6
element, in place, temporary support shall be used or an
that gapped type joints are specified. This provides some
alternative erection plan shall be submitted to the own-
room for the fabricator when fitting up diagonals to adjust
er’s designated representatives for design and construc-
for length.
tion. The tolerance in Section 7.13.1.2(d) shall be met
in the supported condition with working points taken at
5.5 JOISTS, JOIST GIRDERS, AND
the point(s) of temporary support.
COMPOSITE JOISTS
Figure  5-3 shows a truss assembled in accordance with
It is important to be aware that all open-web steel joists and
the provisions of AISC Code of Standard Practice Section
joist girders produced in accordance with the Steel Joist Insti-
7.13.1.2 (g) in the unstressed condition, which is the typical
tute (SJI) Standard Specification for K-Series, LH-Series,
method used when space is available.
and DLH-Series Open Web Steel Joists and for Joist Gird-
Figure 5-4 shows trusses being assembled in the stressed
ers (SJI, 2015) are provided with standard camber unless the
position while supported by special fixtures using the
specifying professional indicates otherwise. When joists or
provisions of AISC Code of Standard Practice Section
joist girders span 100 ft or less, the approximate fabricated
7.13.1.2(h). This method is used when there is limited space
standard camber provided is based on a radius of 3,600 ft.
for assembly and/or multiple trusses that make the special
See SJI Table 4.6-1 (SJI, 2015), shown here as Table 5-1.
fixtures cost effective.

Fig. 5-2.  Truss shop assembled to check fit-up and camber. Fig. 5-3.  Field-assembled truss in the unstressed condition.

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 For lengths that exceed 100  ft, the camber provided is can properly place the steel deck. The camber specified
approximately span/ 300. For either condition, this approxi- should consider the relative deflections that will take place
mate camber is fabricated into the joist or joist girder during during later design load application. For double-pitched top
placement of the chord and web members while in a rigging chord profiles with steeper pitch rates—that is, greater than
table. The camber measured after the joists are erected verti- 2 in./ft—or for an arched top chord profile, it may be desired
cally will be less than the camber provided while in a rigging to specify no camber where there is a need to match elevation
table because deflection is already taking place due to the with adjacent framing or a wall due to pitch rate or profile.
self-weight of the joist, other dead load present, the span, The SJI Code of Standard Practice for CJ-Series Com-
and the joist stiffness based on configuration and member posite Steel Joists (SJI, 2016), Section 2.6(b), states the
sizes. following:
The user note in Table  5-1 cautions about special con-
It is standard practice that the CJ-Series joists are fur-
siderations for camber that may be needed where the joist
nished with sufficient camber for 100 percent of the
elevations are to match up with adjacent framing or a wall.
non-composite dead load (joist, bridging, deck, and
Steel deck is often sized based on a three-span condition, so
concrete slab). Joist bearings act as pinned/pinned-end
the elevations may need to transition so the steel deck erector

Fig. 5-4.  Truss field assembled in supported condition—checking camber.

Fig. 5-5.  Trusses field assembled in place using an alternate erection plan.

Fig. 5-6.  HSS-to-HSS truss connections.

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 Table 5–1.  Fabricated Standard Camber (SJI, 2015)
Top Chord Length Approximate Camber, in.
20'-0" 4
30'-0" a
40'-0" s
50'-0" 1
60'-0" 12
70'-0" 2
80'-0" 2w
90'-0" 32
100'-0" 44
For lengths exceeding 100'-0", manufactured camber equal to span/ 300 shall be used.
User Note: The specifying professional shall give consideration to coordinating this approximate camber with
adjacent framing.

connections with negligible end rotation restraint pro- 5.7 MEMBERS OF LATERAL LOAD-
vided. Hence one will obtain 100 percent (100%) of RESISTING SYSTEMS
the predicted non-composite joist deflection when the
Beams or girders that are part of a lateral load-resisting
full non-composite dead load has been placed on the
system should not be cambered. For both moment frames
composite steel joist. With the composite steel joist
and braced frames, the special connection details required
cambered for 100 percent (100%) of the non-composite
for horizontal members connecting to columns are typi-
dead load and the floor slab placed to a uniform thick-
cally large and very stiff. To achieve proper fit-up most eco-
ness as suggested in Section 9, Concrete Placement, the
nomically, the members should intersect at a 90° angle. As
floor shall be approximately level after the concrete has
was shown previously in Figure 3-6, the end connection of
been placed.
a cambered beam will be sloped relative to the supporting
Should the specifying professional strive to achieve a member. Because camber is typically induced into a mem-
level floor after the composite dead and live loads are ber after the cutting and machine-based fabrication is com-
placed on the floor, joist camber can be specified on pleted, the geometry of the connection will vary and affect
the “Required Design Parameters,” see Appendix A. It the fit-up of the member.
is typical that the actual composite dead load and live
loads supported by the composite steel joist are less 5.8 SPANDREL MEMBERS
than the full design composite dead and live loads.
Spandrel members are beams or girders parallel to the exte-
The designer should be aware that like trusses, calculat- rior wall that support the perimeter edge of slab of a floor
ing the camber for joists, joist girders, and composite joists system. Because the exterior building façade system is
requires some assumptions on connection and member stiff- attached to and/or supported by the spandrel members, the
ness. This can result in the actual deflection varying from the deflection characteristics of spandrel members can have sig-
calculated deflection. nificant impact on nonstructural components.
The typical sequence of construction for a floor is to erect
5.6 CRANE GIRDERS the steel, install the metal decking, and cast the concrete for
the floor slab prior to attaching any of the nonsteel façade
The deflection of crane girders varies with the crane lifted
elements. Nonstructural steel façade framing elements that
load and the crane’s location on the span. Girders should
are installed after the floor slab concrete has been placed
be designed to limit deflections to industry standards; see
and camber has “come out,” such as cold-formed metal wall
AISC Design Guide 7, Industrial Building Design (Fisher,
studs or mullions for window wall systems, should not be
2019). When using built-up sections such as a wide-flange
impacted by whether or not a beam is cambered. For span-
beam with a cap channel, care should be taken to correct any
drel beams in buildings with these types of façade systems,
negative camber that might occur due to welding the channel
there can be an advantage to specifying a spandrel beam
to the beam.
with camber.

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 Steel façade support elements such as suspended brick- nonuniform cross sections, Figure 5-8 shows samples of two
relieving angles above ribbon windows, as shown in Fig- representative conditions—unsymmetrical about the y-y axis
ure 5-7, are often installed before the floor slab concrete is and unsymmetrical about the x-x axis.
placed. For these types of structures, the beams should not For members similar to what is shown in Figure 5-8(a),
be cambered. Spandrel beams with supplemental steel fram- it is possible to camber the member with bending about the
ing to support the façade need to be carefully coordinated x-x axis, but it may not be possible to fit the member in a
with the architectural façade details and the façade system cold-cambering machine due to the nonuniform cross sec-
joint limitations. Often, especially when considering a brittle tion. The fabricator would likely be required to use heat to
façade material such as masonry, the spandrel beams need to camber a member such as this, which can be costly relative
be designed for a more stringent deflection criterion than the to installing a stiffer member.
typical interior beam or girder. For members similar to what is shown in Figure 5-8(b),
attempting to camber about the x-x axis is likely to result
5.9 MEMBERS WITH NONUNIFORM in warping of the cross-sectional shape. Therefore, it is not
CROSS SECTIONS advisable to try to impose camber on members that are not
symmetric about the y-y axis.
Camber is difficult to achieve for members with nonuniform
cross sections. While there are many possible geometries of

Fig. 5-7.  Façade support attached to spandrel members.

(a) Unsymmetrical about the x-x axis (b) Unsymmetrical about the y-y axis
Fig. 5-8.  Examples of nonuniform cross sections.

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 Appendix A
Floor Levelness
A.1 DEFINING LEVEL ACI 117, Specifications for Tolerances for Concrete Con-
struction and Material (ACI, 2010), has provisions for mea-
Elevated structural floors are never perfectly level regard-
suring flatness and levelness along with recommended floor
less of whether they are precast concrete, flat slab concrete
flatness, FF, and floor levelness, FL , values. The levelness
(reinforced or post tensioned), or composite steel construc-
standards, FL , are applicable only to slabs on grade or shored
tion. Most engineers realize that floors are cast unevenly,
slabs and not to unshored suspended structural slabs. Some
beams and girders deflect, columns and concrete cores
consultants specify these values for unshored floors anyway,
shorten, foundations may settle, and there are construction
contrary to the ACI 117 provisions, and this may lead to dis-
tolerances. The real question is what is acceptable and how
putes. Special levelness requirements will increase the cost
do you achieve and measure it? Levelness is a serviceability
of the structure, and if they are not required for serviceabil-
consideration that will vary with the use and finish of the
ity, they do not increase the value to the owner.
space. It is almost never a structural safety issue, except pos-
Levelness as stated previously depends on the strike-off
sibly in a case such as ponding, where so much additional
accuracy when placing the concrete and the deflection of the
concrete has been placed to level the floor that the live load
structure. There are three primary methods of controlling the
capacity of the structure has been reduced.
accuracy of the strike-off when placing concrete:
Most floors are designed and constructed to an accept-
able levelness using standard design and construction indus- • The wet-screed guide uses a section of wet concrete
try practices. The “problem,” when it occurs, is the result that is struck-off to elevation.
of divergent expectations of the owner, architect, struc- • The dry screed uses a metal screed guide that is set to
tural engineer, and the contractors involved. It starts with control the strike-off.
a failure to understand what the levelness requirements • The laser-screed method uses a machine that adjusts
should be and, if there are special requirements, where they to maintain a constant elevation from a target.
should apply. Next there is a need to clearly convey what
the expected performance of the structural system will be ACI 302.1R, Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Con-
in order for the contractor to properly plan the work. Con- struction (ACI, 2015), addresses the methods used for con-
struction procedures must be developed that can be used to crete strike-off. Section 10.3.2 states that “wet-screed guides
achieve the required levelness. This includes a plan to take should be used only for surfaces where floor levelness is not
measurements and make adjustments that might be needed critical.” It goes on to state, “For suspended-slab construc-
to achieve the required levelness. tion the desirability of using dry-screed guides on both sides
An early report entitled “Design & Construction Issues of each placement strip is diminished by the damage done
for Achieving Floors of Acceptable Flatness and Levelness” when the contractor retrieves the guide system.” For this rea-
by the Structural Engineers Association of Texas (SEAoT, son, as shown in Figure A-1, a combination of dry-screed
1994) provides a summary of the many issues involved. As and wet-screed guide techniques is typically employed on
the title indicates, this involves design and construction, as suspended slabs. The wet-screed guide in this case is the top
well as defining what is acceptable. of the previously placed slab. ACI 302.1R is a guide, not a
There is a difference between level and levelness. Level specification, and these are only recommendations; the wet-
implies a surface with a tolerance to a horizontal plane. Lev- screeding method is still used by some contractors as noted
elness implies a tolerance to a plane surface that may or may in Concrete Construction Magazine (Leiferman, 2009).
not be level. Flatness characterizes the degree to which a There are also self-propelled screeding machines, such
surface conforms to a plane that may or may not be level. as those shown in Figure A-2, that can be laser guided to
Flatness can be thought of as smoothness and is primarily elevation or adapted to gage off the steel deck. ACI 302.1R,
controlled by the contractor’s finishing operations. The key Section 3.3.5, cautions that when using a laser or similar
to this is to re-straighten the surface with a bull float or the instrument for the purpose of establishing uniform elevation
use of a riding trowel with float dishes. Levelness—which for strike-off, the frame must be preloaded to allow deflec-
is an average change in elevation over a longer distance— tion to take place before strike-off.
depends on the strike-off accuracy, as defined in the follow-
ing, and the deflection of the structure.

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 A.2 UTILIZING CAMBER WITH beam weight), the theoretical floor elevation will be approxi-
FLOOR LEVELNESS mately level once concrete placement is complete. The bal-
ance of the allowable deflection is then evaluated against
There are two different methods of construction that are
the post-composite loads, resulting in a more efficient steel
typically used to place the structural floor slab for unshored
system design than would be achievable without the use of
construction—placing the concrete to a constant thickness
camber.
or placing the concrete to a constant elevation, as shown in
The design variables listed in Chapter  4 will affect the
Figure A-3. Both approaches are used throughout the indus-
actual beam deflection relative to the anticipated deflection
try and are structurally acceptable. Beam camber is com-
used to determine the amount of camber. The variables that
monly used with both methods to optimize the beam size
are expected to have the most impact on the beam perfor-
while still conforming to the project-specific deflection
mance are the connection restraint, variation in deck reaction
requirements. By cambering the beams to offset a portion of
based on span condition, fabrication tolerance, and possible
the structure dead load (slab self-weight, deck weight, and
span length reduction at column lines.

Fig. A-1.  Dry screed guide and wet screed guide.

Fig. A-2.  Laser screed.

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 Beam camber where concrete is specified to be placed to occur because the dead load deflection of beams with this
a constant thickness are designed to achieve a uniform top of type of slab is relatively small, and it is common practice to
slab that is approximately level under the precomposite load, specify a camber that is a standard percentage of calculated
as shown in Figure A-3(a). The design variables can cause dead-load deflection. Chapter 4 discusses how the deflection
the in-place beam deflection to vary from the design, and will vary with the type of slab and span and thus using the
as a result, the finished top surface of the floor surface will same set percentage of camber for all designs can result in
also vary. Any variation that does occur should be accept- substantial variation in the net midspan deflection. A more
able for standard interior finishes. When using this method uniform method is to specify a camber that will provide the
of concrete placement, the dry-screed guides are set to the net beam deflection at midspan under precomposite dead
specified slab thickness so regardless of any difference in load that the designer wants to achieve.
actual beam deflection and the camber provided, the slab When specifying beam cambers less than the calculated
will have the specified thickness. If a field survey of the first precomposite dead load deflections, the deflection calcu-
slabs placed shows significant variation in deflection from lation should include the effect of the additional concrete
the specified camber, it is possible when using adjustable required to achieve floor levelness. Because the deflection
dry-screed guides to compensate for this variation in similar calculation is an inexact process, engineering judgment is
areas when placing the concrete. often used to approximate this effect. The need for this addi-
Alternatively, designers may use the second method, tional concrete should be communicated to the contractor
shown in Figure A-3(b), and specify that concrete be placed in the contract documents to allow for the added concrete
to a constant elevation. The goal is to place a level slab sur- in the bid.
face even if the actual deflections of the beams vary from When the constant elevation method for concrete plac-
the theoretical calculated deflections. There are several key ing is specified, it is important as noted in ACI 302.1R that
design and construction issues that should be addressed beams are fully deflected before the concrete in the area is
when using this approach to ensure a level slab. screeded. This will require the entire bay plus the adjacent
It is important when using the constant elevation method bay be loaded to ensure both the beams and the supporting
of concrete placement that the specified camber be less than girder are fully deflected. Figure A-4 shows the floor being
the actual in-place deflection of the beams. If the in-place preloaded while laser screeding takes place in the back-
beams still have an upward curvature after concrete place- ground. While there have been anecdotal reports that the
ment, the slab thickness at midspan may be less than speci- deflection may be time dependent, screeding usually starts
fied. For many structures the specified slab thickness is the as soon as the area is properly loaded. The screed guide or
thickness needed to achieve the required fire rating. If this laser screed control is set to an elevation that will provide
thickness is not achieved, costly fireproofing may have to be the specified minimum slab thickness over the high point of
added to the underside of the deck to achieve the required the deflected steel that is typically adjacent to a column. It
fire rating. In extreme cases, the strength of the composite is good practice to check slab depths at key points to verify
floor system might be reduced. There can be another prob- that the beams have deflected approximately as expected
lem with thin slabs when the steel headed studs project per plan.
above the top of the finished floor. This problem tends to

(a) Place concrete to a constant thickness

(b) Place concrete to a constant elevation

Fig. A-3.  Concrete placement options.

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 When specifying camber for either method, it is impor- specifies the camber along with determining the levelness
tant when calculating the theoretical deflection of beams requirements for the floor. The contractor controls the place-
at the column lines to consider how the effect of increased ment and finish of the concrete, but the supporting structure
connection restraint, possible deck span effect, and possible will vary in elevation and move as the concrete is placed.
span length reduction discussed in Chapter 4 may combine The contractor needs to know what the anticipated deflection
to reduce deflection. The deflection at the column line may will be and how his proposed method of placement might
vary from 75 to 90% of the typical interior beam deflection, affect the levelness specified. Special conditions, such as
depending on the magnitude and presence of each of these floor beams adjacent to moment frames or chevron braced
variables. Even though the member size specified is the same bays, need to be noted. As construction progresses, both par-
as the interior beam, engineering judgment should be used to ties need to know how the structure is performing and jointly
reduce the specified camber at column lines. determine if changes in concrete placement might be needed
The constant slab thickness method is typically the most to achieve the required levelness.
economical method from a concrete cost standpoint. It can This exchange of information can be facilitated by having
also be designed to provide some positive camber to offset a preconstruction meeting prior to concrete placement where
the concrete shrinkage effect that will occur. The constant the important design information and the planned concrete
elevation method theoretically should provide a more level placement method can be discussed. A survey of the eleva-
floor, especially when struck-off with special screed guides tion of the in-place steel will help with this planning. The
such as a laser-guided screed. The constant elevation method survey is not to verify the fabricated camber, which must
does, however, require additional concrete and special place- be verified in the shop in accordance with the AISC Code
ment procedures. Either method can produce a serviceable of Standard Practice (AISC, 2016a), but to compare the in-
floor. place camber of each beam and their support elevations to
the concrete placement plan. This can be used to help antici-
A.3 LEVEL FLOOR CONSTRUCTION pate how much deflection will occur when the concrete is
placed. After the initial concrete placement, another survey
The traditional strict division of responsibilities where the
can be made to determine if any changes in the concrete
structural engineer is responsible for design and the contrac-
placement procedure should be made in the following areas
tor is responsible for the means and methods of construct-
based on the actual deflections of the structure.
ing the work can hinder the process of constructing a level
Where exceptionally level floors are needed, the engineer
floor. The engineer is the party that sizes the members and

Fig. A-4.  Floor preloading.

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 might consider increasing the size and/or depth of the typical acceptable for serviceable floor construction. For low-rise
floor beam to reduce the camber required. The reduction in structures less than 10 stories, these elevation differences
the amount of camber required will make it somewhat easier will probably not require column adjustments. There may be
to adjust for deflection when placing concrete. For special special framing conditions such as complete-joint-penetra-
cases, it may be necessary to specify a topping slab; how- tion (CJP) groove welded moment frames or lightly loaded
ever, this will not only increase the cost but will also impact mullion columns where some adjustment should be made.
the schedule. AISC Design Guide 21, Welded Connections—A Primer
for Engineers (Miller, 2018), discusses weld shrinkage and
A.4 STRUCTURAL STEEL how to compensate for it when detailing CJP groove welded
FRAME TOLERANCES joints.
Design practice for concrete core buildings up to 30 sto-
When specifying floor levelness, the designer should be
ries has been to neglect column shortening because it tends
aware that structural steel frame tolerances may affect the
to compensate for the concrete core shrinkage. Some proj-
elevation of the floor members. This is typically not a prob-
ects now set core elevations to compensate for shrinkage,
lem for most low-rise structures. Structural steel frame toler-
and it is important to match this with increased column
ances are established in the AISC Code of Standard Practice.
lengths to offset the column shortening effects. Where dead
The horizontal floor beams that connect to a column are not
load stresses in columns, such as moment frames or mul-
set to a specific elevation but are set a specified distance
lion columns, are low, the column shortening effects will
from the top of the column piece to which they frame with
be reduced. The design drawings should provide special
a tolerance of +x  in. to −c  in. The elevation at the top
instructions for detailing the lengths of all of these members.
of the column may vary from theoretical plan elevation due
The tops of all columns should be surveyed when erected to
to fabrication and erection tolerances along with foundation
determine actual elevations and to properly plan the work.
settlement and the effect of column shortening. The top of
For high-rise buildings, provisions can be made to adjust
floor elevations will then vary from the actual beam eleva-
column elevations at splices by shimming or adjusting the
tions, which will vary based on the previously mentioned
root gap as permitted by AWS D1.1/ D1.1M (AWS, 2020).
tolerances. The actual in-place beam elevations are typically

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 Appendix B
Rules of Thumb
Rules of thumb are principles with broad application that 7. Do not camber members with webs less than 4 in.
are not intended to be strictly accurate or reliable for every thick.
situation. These are quick guidelines to be applied generally, Thin webs tend to cripple when the beam flanges are
but with due consideration, may be violated. Each of these loaded to yield.
items has been discussed in greater detail in the preceding
sections, providing some additional insight as to why these 8. Do not camber members with moment connec-
rules of thumb exist and when they may not be applicable. tions, bracing connections, or special connections
They are summarized here as a convenience. for torsional restraint.
Camber will make connection fit-up difficult. Use a
1. Show required camber for each member on the larger member to eliminate the need for camber if
framing plans or in the model. necessary.
This will clearly show any variation in cambers at spe-
cial framing conditions. 9. Do not camber members with nonuniform cross
sections.
2. Reduce camber for members framing into
These members tend to twist when strained to yield
columns.
without special procedures.
Consider the effect of reduced clear span, increased
connection restraint, and reduced concrete weight 10. Do not camber crane beams or crane girders.
associated with the deck-span end reaction when These members should be sized with adequate stiff-
specifying camber at column lines. ness according to crane design requirements.
3. Require that camber be verified in the fabrication 11. Do not camber spandrel members that support
shop by quality control and/or quality assurance. brittle façade materials.
This is the safest, most reliable, and most cost effec- These members should be sized for stiffness rather
tive way to inspect camber. than using camber to compensate for dead load
4. Avoid putting holes in the top flange near the mid- deflections.
dle third segment of the beam. 12. Do not camber cantilever beams.
The cambering process will yield the beam and pos- Provide adjustable connections and preset tip eleva-
sibly cause net section rupture at the holes. tions using the AISC Code of Standard Practice rec-
5. Do not specify camber less than w in. ommendations instead of camber.
This slight variation in deflection should not have a
significant effect on overall floor levelness.

6. Do not camber members with spans less than 25 ft.

Beams less than 25 ft may require special procedures
due to machine limitations. It may be more cost effi-
cient to use a larger beam that eliminates the need for
camber.

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 Further Reading

Connor, R.J., Urban, M.J., and Kaufmann, E.J. (2008), Sumner, E.A. (2003), “North Carolina State Research Report
“Heat-Straightening Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge on Single Plate Shear Connections,” Report to the Ameri-
Girders: Fatigue and Fracture Performance,” NCHRP can Institute of Steel Construction, AISC.
Report 604. Viest, I., Fountain, R.S., and Singleton, R.C. (1958), Com-
Gergess, A. and Sen, R. (2004), “Fabrication Aids for Cold posite Construction in Steel and Concrete Buildings and
Straightening I-Girders,” Engineering Journal, AISC, Bridges, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.
Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 74–84. West, M., Fisher, J., and Griffis, L. (2003), Serviceability
Hadjioannou, M., Douthe, C., and Gantes, C.J. (2013), Design Considerations for Steel Buildings, Design Guide
“Influence of Cold Bending on the Resistance of Wide 3, AISC, Chicago, Ill.
Flange Members,” International Journal of Steel Struc- Winters-Downey, E. and Ericksen, J. (2006), “Tolerances
tures, Vol. 13, No. 2, p. 14. Illustrated,” Modern Steel Construction, October.
SEAoC (2008), “Considerations for Steel Framed Floors,”
Structural Engineers Association of Colorado, RMSCA
Steel Liaison Committee Report, September.

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@CivilMethod
 Smarter. Stronger. Steel.
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