What is Geochemistry?

 Geochemistry studies the origin, evolution and distribution of chemical

elements on Earth which are contained in the rock-forming minerals and
the products derived from it, as well as in living beings, water and
atmosphere.

 One of the goals of geochemistry is to determine the abundance of

elements in nature, as this information is essential to hypotheses
development about the origin and structure of our planet and the universe.

https://www.gob.mx/sgm

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
What is Geochemistry?
 Geochemistry uses chemistry to understand various processes on Earth

 Geochemistry = Chemistry of the Earth’s materials — Minerals and rocks:

 Study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other planets:

 The chemical processes and reactions that govern the

composition of rocks, water, and soils.

 The cycles of matter and energy that transport the Earth's

chemical components in time and space, and their interaction
with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere.
The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemistry of the Earth’s Minerals and Rocks
 Earth’s Geo-Chemistry
Earth’s Interior
 The upper mantle is made up of iron and
magnesium silicates.

 The lower mantle is mostly silicon and

magnesium sulfides and oxides.

 The core is mostly iron, with little nickel

and traces of sulfur, carbon, oxygen and
potassium. The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemistry of the Earth’s Minerals and Rocks
 Earth’s Geo-Chemistry
Earth’s Interior
 The outer core is so hot (4500°C -
6000°C) that it is always molten.

 The inner core is even hotter (up to

7000°C) but it stays solid because the
pressure is 6000 times greater than on
the surface.

The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
The Goldschmidt Classification of Elements
 In Goldschmidt’s classification, elements are divided on how they partition
between coexisting silicate liquid, sulfide liquid, metallic liquid, and gas phase:
Gas Phase Atmophile H, He, N, Noble gases

Alkalis, Alkaline Earths,

Halogens, B, O, Al, Si, Sc, Ti,
Silicate Liquid Lithophile V, Cr, Mn, Y, Zr, Nb,
Lanthanides, Hf, Ta, Th, U

Sulfide Liquid Cu, Zn, Ga, Ag, Cd, In, Hg,

Chalcophile Tl, As, S, Sb, Se, Pb, Bi, Te

Metallic Liquid
Siderophile Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os,
Ir, Pt, Mo, Re, Au, C, P, Ge, Sn

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Lithophile Elements: Concentrated in the Crust
 Lithophile (rock loving) elements
are found:

 Close to the Earth’s surface

 They combine readily with

oxygen

 Form compounds that do

not sink into the core Goldschmidt System - eduqas

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Lithophile Elements: Concentrated in the Crust
 Lithophile elements include:

 Aluminium
 Calcium
 Potassium
 Magnesium
 Sodium
 Oxygen
 Silicon
 Titanium

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Lithophile Elements: Concentrated in the Crust
 Lithophile are found in the silicate minerals
which make up 93% of the crust by mass and
constitute the common rock-forming
minerals:
 Quartz
 Orthoclase Feldspar
 Plagioclase Feldspar
 Biotite Mica
 Muscovite Mica
 Hornblende (Amphibole)
 Augite (Pyroxene)
 Olivine
 Garnet
 Clay Minerals (Kaolinite)
Goldschmidt System - eduqas
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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Siderophile Elements: Concentrated in the Core
 Siderophile (iron-loving) elements:

 High density metals

 Sink into the Earth’s core

 Do not combine with oxygen

 Dissolve in iron as solid

solutions or in the molten Goldschmidt System - eduqas

state

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Siderophile Elements: Concentrated in the Core
 Siderophile elements include:

 Gold
 Iridium
 Iron
 Molybdenum
 Nickel
 Platinum

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Chalcophile Elements: Trace amounts in the Crust

 Chalcophile (ore-loving) elements:

 Combine readily with sulfur

 Form compounds that do

not sink to the core

 Make up just 0.046% of crust

by mass:
• Concentrated in mineral Goldschmidt System - eduqas

veins

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Chalcophile Elements: Trace amounts in the Crust
 Chalcophile elements include:

 Arsenic
 Cadmium
 Copper
 Lead
 Silver
 Sulphur
 Tin
 Zinc

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Atmophile Elements: Concentrated in the Atmosphere & Hydrosphere

 Atmophile (atmosphere-loving)
elements:

 Known as volatile elements

 Occur in gases and liquids

close to the Earth’s surface

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Atmophile Elements: Concentrated in the Atmosphere & Hydrosphere

 Atmophile elements include:

 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Argon
 Helium
 Neon
 Krypton
 Xenon

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Geological Exploration Objectives
 Geochemistry exploration applied to mining has three main purposes:

 Search for metals in different adjacent parts to a known deposit,

defining its limits, reiterate and new mineral bodies.

 Finding deposits in unexplored areas.

 Definition and delimitation of mineralized belts and/or metallogenic

provinces.

https://www.gob.mx/sgm

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Geological Exploration Objectives
How do I explore for a mineral system?  Geochemistry has a
direct connection to
the commodity that is
sought:
 Geophysics, though
indisputably useful,
cannot make the
same claim.
 Geochemical responses
are often larger than
the target itself:
 Which makes it easier
(and cheaper) to
detect
CSIRO, 2013, James S. Cleverley 37
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Geological Exploration Objectives
How do I explore for a mineral system?
The Why Question

Why is the ore body there?

Inputs from:
Data Integration
New technology
3D Analytics

The Where Question

Where is the next ore body?

CSIRO, 2013, James S. Cleverley 38

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Overview of Geochemical Exploration Methods

Regional Prospecting ...

1850

Goldoz.com.au

CSIRO, 2013, James S. Cleverley 46

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Why Use Geochemical Exploration Methods?
 Until 20 years ago, geological exploration was restricted to easily detectable
outcropping mineralized bodies, however, today exploration has led to
deposits that are not exposed to the surface and therefore are difficult to
locate:
 The purpose is the possible discovery of a geochemical "anomaly" or area where the
chemical pattern indicates the presence of ore in the vicinity.

 As a result, geochemical exploration focuses on the determination of the

elements of the ore or elements associated with the ore that are dispersed,
called respectively indicator elements and guide elements:
 For example, in a deposit of lead-zinc (Pb-Zn) sulfide:
 The indicator elements are lead and zinc
 A possible guide element will be mercury (Hg)
https://www.gob.mx/sgm
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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 The different types of studies performed by sampling elements are:

 Lake and stream-sediment and water geochemistry

 Soil geochemistry
 Till geochemistry
 Rock geochemistry
 Gas geochemistry
 Vegetation geochemistry

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Lake and stream-sediment and water geochemistry:
 The method of sampling lake sediments and waters is ideally suited to
large-scale regional projects that only a government or large company
could undertake, although some prospectors carry out lake surveys of
more limited scope, particularly in winter when access is easier.

There are also large online Coverage of lake-sediment and

databases of lake data collected water sample collection by
by both the Provincial and Geological Survey of Canada
Federal governments (GSC).
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Lake and stream-sediment and water geochemistry:
 Lake water samples are collected in Nalgene bottles; normally before
collecting sediment samples, so that disturbed sediment does not get
into the sampled water.
 Lake and stream sampling
should be considered as a first-
pass method that can be used
to identify targets prior to
more detailed geochemical
work (soil or till sampling) or
prospecting.
Collecting lake-water samples in
Nalgene bottles.
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor
Retrieving a lake-sediment sample
from a “Hornbrook bomb”
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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Soil geochemistry:
 The soils are mainly humoferric and ferrohumic podzols, both consist of
an:
 Organic-rich Ah horizon and an ash-grey leached Ae horizon:
• Neither of which should be sampled
 Underlain by a rusty brown B horizon:
• The preferred sample medium for many prospectors as it is
enriched in metals leached from the A horizons
 The base of the soil profile is the C horizon:
• Consisting of the relatively unweathered source material of
the soil
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Sampling the Soil Profile
Top Layer = 0 to 5cm. Organic debris with
little mineral matter.

Oxidized, bioturbated and organic debris,

extensive weathering of mineral matter.

Effects of groundwater, vegetation, oxidation.

weathering
(not sampled)

Unweathered mineral matter.

Progressive weathering of mineral matter up the profile.

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Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Soil geochemistry:
 Soil sampling may be a second-stage prospecting procedure used to follow up a
drainage anomaly OR may also constitute the first geochemical work to be carried
out, if mineralization is already known to occur nearby.
 Soil samples are laid out on a grid, normally in the form of regularly spaced cut lines
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor
 Sampling lines are spaced so that any important feature
should be cut by at least two of them

 Samples are spaced so the key feature is sampled in at

least two adjacent samples

 Normally, this means that the spacing between the

samples is much less than the spacing between the lines:
 Samples are spaced at intervals of 10 to 25 metres
Selection of line and sample spacing should reflect  Lines are 100 to 200 metres apart.
the size of the expected target.
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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Till geochemistry:
 Till (sometimes called drift) is the sediment from the movement of glacier ice over
the land surface and the plucking and grinding of bedrock.
 Typically unsorted, meaning that fragments of all sizes are intimately mixed together

Typical rocky till, exposed in a road cut

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor 54
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Till geochemistry:
 The interpretation of till geochemistry requires
knowledge of the glacial history of the area; in
particular, the direction(s) of ice movement.

 Usually, ice-movement direction is generally towards Striations directions map

the coast, but large- and small-scale deviations from this
rule are not uncommon.

 Several field methods are used to determine the

direction of ice movement:
 Most common is to measure the direction of
striations on glaciated rock surfaces.
 Downloadable database of striation
measurements exist
Striations on a flat rock
surface

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor 55

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Till geochemistry:

Glacial dispersion of
beryllium (Be) from the
Strange Lake rare earth-rare
metal deposit, Labrador
(Batterson 1989).

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor 56

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 Till geochemistry:
 Schematic sections and
plan of glacial dispersion
from an ore zone
(from Miller, 1984)
 Assuming a single till-
depositing event:
 Distance “up-ice” to
the bedrock source of a
geochemical anomaly,
or mineralized boulder,
detected at surface is
dependent on the till
thickness.
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor
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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Select the geochemical survey study area:

 The main purpose of this stage is to select areas or regions that have
good mineral potential and that can be prospected effectively.

 Initial selection of areas should be based on a most thorough review of

the known geology and records of past mining and prospecting activity:

 “To get some idea of background for an area of interest, prospectors should
examine regional and local historical survey data with respect to their area of
interest” CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor

 Based on recorded mineralization and on the geological environment.

H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.
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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Define the geochemical survey scale:

Continental Scale – > 1:500,000 & < 1:1,000,000

Mapping large crustal blocks/tectonic assemblages

Regional Scale - > 1:50,000 & < 1:500,000

Regional geological mapping

Local/Camp Scale < 1:50,000

Exploration scale studies and detailed geologic mapping

Eric Grunsky, 2015

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Characterize the target size and geometry:

 Some features of ore environment, such as favorable host rocks,

geological structures, or geochemical provinces, are related to the
genesis and localization.

 Each geological, geophysical, and geochemical features of the ore

environment defines a target area of characteristic size, shape, and
relationship to the ore.

H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Choose the exploration technique:
 For greatest overall effectiveness, an optimum balance must be struck
between the various geological, geophysical, and geochemical methods
that are known to be applicable.

 The choice must be based on relevant previous experience and case-

history data.

 Fit with the chosen scale of the study area.

 Selection of methods is also strongly influenced by the size of the target

and by property control.
H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Rely on the chosen geochemical survey method:

 Reliability depends not only on how effective the exploration method is

in locating the target, but also extent to which an anomaly is specifically
related to ore and the abundance of non-significance anomalies that
may confuse interpretation and require fallow-up survey.

H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Link the cost of the method based on the value of the expected ore:

 The expected value of the ore body being sought and the chances of
success may have an appreciable bearing on the applicability of a given
method.

 Thus a high-cost survey is justified for large ore bodies are expected and
there is relatively little chances of overlooking a deposit.

 Conversely, a low cost-survey is justified in areas of small targets.

H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Assure high quality control for geochemical surveys:

 Geochemical methods of exploration constitutes an important

tool in the investigation of the economic mineral deposits.

 Any geochemical investigation to be effective, must take into

consideration several aspects of the ore body, including genesis
and cost at various stages of exploration.

H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Justify the role of geochemistry in an exploration program:

 Geochemistry is an essential component in most modern integrated

mineral exploration programs, for the following reasons:
1. Economic mineral deposits are commonly characterized by their low grade and
large tonnage. Discovery, assessment and development are highly dependent
upon geochemical methods and analyses.
2. Exploration activity is mostly carried out in tropical and subtropical
environments where chemical weathering has predominated and where
geochemical prospecting techniques have proven most effective.

 Recent estimates suggest that between 10 and 25% of exploration budgets

are allocated to geochemistry.
H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Choose the elements to analyze:

 “Primary Targets”:
 Metal elements that are most commonly sought by prospectors

 “Secondary Targets”:
 Metals (except fluorine) which may be sought under special geological and
economic circumstances

 “Pathfinders”:
 Uneconomic elements useful in discovering a deposit of an element other than
themselves:
• Usually, the target have sampling or analytical challenges that the pathfinders do not.

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Reduce ‘nugget’ effects:

 Gold analyses in geochemical samples are subject to the “nugget effect”

which can cause an anomaly to be missed, or alternately for an
unrealistically high value to be returned; the outcome depends very much
on chance  “Nugget” or “particle sparsity” effect illustration:
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor  Gold’s sample material represented by the smaller
square will return a very low assay
 If the scoop picks up the single gold particle
(represented by the larger dot), the assay will be
very high.
 As indicators of the bulk gold composition of the
sample, neither will be correct (Harris, 1981).
 A pathfinder element like arsenic is more evenly
distributed and not subject to this problem.

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Understand analytical certificates:

 Analyses preceded by the “less than” (<) sign:

 Means there is so little of the element in question in the sample that
the analytical method is not sensitive enough to measure it.
 The < sign is sometimes replaced by a minus sign (-)
 Rarely (though it may turn up in old assessment documents) the
words “ND” meaning “Not detected”.

 “Greater than” (>) sign:

 Indicates an analysis that exceeds the method’s upper range

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor 69

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Field Cartography

A long tradition
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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Helicopter Outcrop Stripping

In compliance with all the regulations

71
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Outcrop Stripping

In compliance with all the regulations

72
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Trenching and Sampling

Experienced and efficient

73
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Sampling of Lake Sediments

More than 50,000 lakes to our credit

74
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Sampling and Characterization

Surface Water

Lake Sediments

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Till Sampling

Quaternary Geology
76
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Soil Sampling

Highly skilled experience

77
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Soil Sampling and Characterization

Trenching Sampling Drill Hole Sampling

Collecting soil samples Drilling tailings within abandoned sites

78
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Pedogeochemistry:
LiftIndex, Double-normalization and Probabilism

Beyond statistics
79
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
 Preparation of Soil Samples

Super-clean work by reducing all risk of contamination

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 Problems
 80% OF QUALITY PROBLEMS ARE FROM SAMPLING *
 Numbering errors
 Localization errors
 Bad material
 No description of the material
 No description of the environment
 Contamination problem
 Poorly trained staff
 Not very robust working method
 *Project Manager

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 Numbering
 MOST SERIOUS ERRORS
 If there is an anomaly, the tracking takes place in
the wrong place
 SIMPLE, DIGITAL SYSTEM
 Avoid letters
 Avoid complexities (i.e. no line)
• Example: 92951125, project 929, 5 for soils,
sample 1125
 CUSTOM COUPON BOOKS
 With barcode
 REDUNDANCY
 Bag, coupon, aluminum ticket, ribbon

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 Location
 GPS with external antenna (± 1 m)
 Pay attention to the coordinate system (NAD27
and NAD83)
 Planning traverses
 Digital transfer AND handwritten notes
 Watch out for numbering shifts
 GPS corroborated with line / station numbers
 GPS inaccuracy causes zigzags in the lines

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 Material selection
 The meaning of the geochemical signature depends on
the study area and therefore on its environment
 The sample environment must be adequately
described (expensive to do after).
 Topography, slope, drainage, hydrography, forest
cover, geomorphology, outcrops, etc.
 Soil profile
 Anthropogenic influence
 Eliminate false anomalies

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Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 Describe the sample
 Necessary for interpretation
 Required for QCQA (Redundancy)
 Granulometry, color, humidity, cohesion, etc.
 Constituents:
 Silt, sand, gravel
 Type of pebbles
 Presence of a glaze
 Organic matter:
 Humus, twigs, fibers, sphagnum, etc.
 Crusts:
• Ferrochelate, calcrete, gypsum, etc.

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 Describe the color
 MUNSELL'S CHART
 Required for QCQA (Redundancy)
 Too subjective to be just descriptive
 Ex.: Red brown, Goose poo brown, chocolate brown
 Cannot be used in a database
 TVC (perception) versus RGB (measurement)
 Tint (Base color)
• R: red; Y: yellow, V: green, B: cyan, P: purple
• YR, GY, BG, PB, RP
• 5: pure, 10: hybridized
 Value (tint brightness)
 1: white, 10: black
 Chromaticity (Purity of perceived color)
 1: gray, 12: saturated color

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 Sample size
 CATIONIC METHODS
 300-1000 grams wet
 CHEMISTRY OF DETRITICAL FRACTIONS
 300 gr for the fines
 1-5 kg for BLEG
 10 kg for heavy minerals
 MINERALOGICAL METHODS
 10 kg for nugget gold
 20-30 kg for the tills
 20-50 kg for eskers

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 SAMPLING PATTERNS
 OPTIMAL SCALES OF SURVEYS
MEDIUM TRANSPORT RESOLUTION

Regional RIVERS AND ESKERS 1 - 300 km > 10 km Detrital

LAKES 1-5 km > 1 km Cat> Det

TILLS 300 m-30 km > 500 m Detrital

STREAMS 0-5 km > 500 m Det or Cat

Local SOILS 0-1 km <100 m Cationic

Unusual methods (plants, water, termite mounds, etc.) are far less well precise

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 LAKES
 Mileage spacing
 Heavy logistics
 Gyttja in the darkest part of the lake
 Under the hypolimnion
 Avoid sampling near riverbanks, mouths, or in bog
lakes
 Helicopter torpedo sampling
 BLIND
 Tight sampling of the same lake: NOT USEFUL

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 RIVERS AND ESKERS
 Pluri-kilometric spacing
 Sifted and clean gravel
• Heart of the esker or swimming pool in the rapids
 Avoid shoulders or sandy dunes
 Rapid dilution of chemical signal
 Oxidizing system, no sulfide
 Heavy mineral studies only

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 STREAMS: DETRITAL
 Detrital material
 Sub-kilometer spacing
 Alluvial plain, meanders
 High energy zone
• Confluences, rapids, traps
 Concentration of heavy minerals
 Mineralogy or chemistry
 Oxidizing medium: destroyed sulfides

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 STREAMS: ORGANIC
 Organic banks
 Flood zones
 Organic material
 Adsorption of water cations
 Restricted watershed influx

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 GLACIAL SEDIMENTS: DETRITAL
 Bottom till and melting till
 Geomorphological study (specialist)
 Material availability
 Flow direction
 Complex stratigraphy, palimpsest
 Doesn't work everywhere
 Presence of wind glacis or runoff
 Mineralogical study (10-30 kg)
 Chemical analysis (0.5-2 kg)
 Fence 2-20 km, perpendicular to the dominant flow
 Spacing on fences: According to target

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS
 Only local grid method
 Line 100 - 400 meters
 Station 25 - 100 meters
 Different horizons do not have the same signature
 Humus "A": cationic
 Ferrochelate "B": cat + detrital
 Horizon "C": detrital

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS SAMPLING
Inverted plastic bag
used as a glove to
avoid contamination

Hole crossing the

target horizon

Kraft paper
bag Barcode label
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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS SAMPLING
 Fibrisol: Organic peaty soils

PEAT

Pierre-Luc
> 6 feet

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS PROFILES
L-F : Fibrous material
Ah : Humic matter
Ae : Leached area

B : Ferruginous zone

C : Non altered overburden

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS PROFILES: PODZOL
 Leached soil, poorly developed
 Typically thin
 Dominant on the tills
 Very acidic
 Cold climate
 Typical forest floor of the taiga
 Conifers
 Ericaceae
 Dominated by chelation
 Organic-iron-aluminum complex
 Horizon B poorly developed
 Easy to sample

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS PROFILES: BRUNISOL
 Very well drained soil
 Hardwoods, pine forests, etc.
 Permeable terrain (sand and gravel)
 Positive water balance, dominated by downward flow
 Oxidizing environment
 Intense ferrochelate
 Highly developed Horizon B
 Complex structure, can be thick
 No leached zone Ae

 Easy-to-sample humus
 Horizon B: can be difficult
 Presence of ferricrust
 Destroyed by forest fires

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS PROFILES: BRUNISOL
 FERRICRUST
 HARDSTEIN

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS PROFILES: GLEYSOL
 Continuously waterlogged soil
 Swamp, bog, sphagnum moss
 Poorly drained, waterproof land
 Anoxic, reducing
 No ferrochelate
 Horizon B absent
 Enrichment of clays
 Humus sits directly on the clay

 Can be deep
 Holes 1-2 meters
 Dutch Auger

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS PROFILES: LUVISOL
 Leaching soil
 Agricultural plains, herbaceous plants
 Good drainage
 Weathering and production of clays
 Positive water balance, dominated by downward
eluviation / illuviation
 Complex structure
 Easy to sample
 Can be thick and disturbed

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EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/

 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 SOILS PROFILES: OTHERS
 MOLLISOL: Accumulation of organic matter in herbaceous plains
 REGOSOL: Poorly developed profiles
 CRYOSOL: Developed on permafrost
 VERTISOL: Clay soils with poorly developed profiles and argilopedoturbation
 FIBRISOL: Organic peaty soils
https://soilweb.ca/

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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Data for major elements are generally reported in the form of oxides as weight
per cent (e.g. silica, SiO2 wt. percent) and trace elements in parts per million
(ppm) or micrograms per gram (μg g−1).

 An important consideration in the interpretation of data is analytical

uncertainty, particularly when evaluating the existence or significance of small
variations in composition.

 Some of the most common sources of uncertainty are sample contamination,

incomplete sample digestion (some minerals are extremely resistant to acids),
interferences between elements, and poor instrument calibration.
H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 The extent of these problems is best limited at the time of analysis by taking
necessary precautions and through discussion with experienced laboratory
staff.

 They are, however, impossible to eliminate completely and an indication of

analytical uncertainty should therefore be reported with the data, ideally as
‘error bars’ on geochemical diagrams.

 Uncertainties can be estimated from the regular analysis of reference

materials of known composition and from the analysis of two or more
samples.
H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 To help in interpretation, data are often imported into graphing and statistical
computer programs.

 A wide variety of diagrams can be produced to compare the data with those
from previous studies and to demonstrate trends or new interpretations.

H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.

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Geochemical Data Interpretation
1) 2D and 3D quantitative punctual data:
a) Added analyzes of cartographic surveys, compilation and drilling (DDH)

2) 2D and 3D qualitative punctual data:

b) Alteration and mineralization observed (in %)

2D and 3D Geochemistry
Fallara, Rabeau, Cheng and de Kemp (2008) 109
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Targeting Proximal and Distal Footprints

Fisher et al; 2013

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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Targeting Proximal and Distal Footprints
Paddington

Mt Pleasant

Kanowna Belle

Kundana
Golden Mile
Scott Halley
Minmap 10 km
Binduli

Fisher et al; 2013 111

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Targeting Proximal and Distal Footprints

<50 meters - Gas, hydrogeochemistry

biogeochemistry (trees/shrubs)

> 50-100 meters - Hydrogeochemistry

Immobile geochemistry / mineralogy,

mineral chemistry

Whole rock geochemistry / mineralogy,

mineral chemistry

Fisher et al; 2013 112

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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Real time integrated data while drilling

Fisher et al; 2013 113

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Real time integrated data while drilling

Geochemistry

114
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Linking geophysics and geochemistry

115
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys Fisher et al; 2013
Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Geochemical surveys are conducted to provide baseline information for:
 Mineral exploration
 Geologic mapping
 Baseline values for environment/land use purposes

 Geochemical survey data:

 Contains various information for geological, geochemical, environmental and
climatic processes.
 Uses more than 50 elements can be analyzed at sufficiently low detection
limits.
 Reflects processes that form or affect mineralogy.
 Represents a multivariate data space over a two or three dimensional
geographic space and time.
E. C. Grunsky and P. de Caritat Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2019; Geochem2019-031
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Melville Peninsula Case Study

E. C. Grunsky and P. de Caritat Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2019; Geochem2019-031

117
Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Regional basement rock type map of Nunavut, Canada, showing the location
of the Melville Peninsula study area.

118
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Regional scale of geochemical surveys 1:250,000

1 site/13km2

119
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Geological map of the southern part of the Melville Peninsula, Nunavut,
Canada, with lake sediment sample sites (shown as black dots)

120
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Mineral occurrences obtained from NUMIN (2017)

121
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Map of the residual values of Au (ppb) estimated from a robust
interpretation of lake sediment geochemical data, Melville Peninsula.

122
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Map of the residual values of Ni (ppm) estimated from a robust
interpretation of lake sediment geochemical data, Melville Peninsula.

123
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Map of the residual values of Zn (ppm) estimated from a robust
interpretation of lake sediment geochemical data, Melville Peninsula.

124
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Map of the residual values of Cu (ppm) estimated from a robust
interpretation of lake sediment geochemical data, Melville Peninsula.

125
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 3D Spatial Interpretations and Geochemical Quantification:
 Used to identify and illustrate possible anomalies found within the
vicinity of known mineral deposits.

126
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Geochemical Data Interpretation
 3D Spatial Interpretations and Geochemical Quantification:
 Used to identify and illustrate possible anomalies found within the
vicinity of known mineral deposits.
Gold isosurfaces:
0.05,0.1, 0.5, 1.0 ppm

Fisher et al; 2013

127
Geochemical Data Interpretation
 3D Spatial Interpretations and Geochemical Quantification:
 Used to identify and illustrate possible anomalies found within the
vicinity of known mineral deposits.
Favorable Alteration
Isosurfaces (0.5, 0.6, 0.7)

Fisher et al; 2013

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