CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH INTRODUCTION with this object in view are known as descriptive

research studies).
RESEARCH: (iii) To determine the frequency with which something
A way of examining your practice… occurs or with which it is associated with
Research is undertaken within most professions. something else. (Studies with this object in view
More than a set of skills, research is a way of thinking: are known as diagnostic research studies).
examining critically the various aspects of your day-to-day (iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
professional work; understanding and formulating guiding principles between variables. (Such studies are known as
that govern a particular procedure; and developing and testing new hypothesis-testing research studies).
theories for the enhancement of your practice.
It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
examination of the observed information to find answers, with a view The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional through the application of scientific procedure. In order to be specific,
service. the research must be identified by taking the system requirements into
account. In the process of identifying the objectives of the research, the
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH researcher must finalize the following:
When you say that you are undertaking a research study to • To formulate, i.e., develop a study to understand the
find answers to a question, you are implying that the process: topic from all angles.
1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of • To be descriptive, I.e., to accurately picturize all the
philosophies (research approaches); characteristics of a particular process, individual, group,
2. uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been situation or institution
tested for their validity and reliability; • To diagnose, i.e., to analyst the frequency with which
3. is designed to be unbiased and objective. something occurs
Philosophies mean approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative • To test hypothesis of a causal relationship between
and the academic discipline in which you have been trained. variables, i.e., hypothesis based research studies.
Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to In social set up, research is carried out with the help of
find answers to a question. • Research questions,
Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure • Hypothesis, and
that provides repeatability and accuracy. • Boundary of the study.
Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step
in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your Research questions – Problems which are resolve till date or
ability and without introducing your own vested interest. not addressed by anyone else like, purpose of the research, place of the
(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight research, present state of the research and possible ways and means to
something). finding solution to the research problem under study.
Hypothesis – It is a presumption or assumption about
Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the population/situation under study drawn by researcher himself.
process to be called ‘research’. However, the degree to which these Boundary of the study – It is a limit set by research himself
criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline to restrict his work or to concentrate on specific area in given/available
and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline set-up and resources.
to another. The objectives of the study may be classified into qualitative
The difference between research and non-research activity is, or quantitative.
in the way one finds answers: the process must meet certain The quantitative objectives aim to optimize certain measure
requirements to be called research. One can identify these of performances of the system of the study, e.g., a study to estimate the
requirements by examining some definitions of research. demand of a product with a high precision.
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and The qualitative objectives aim to significance of hypotheses
search. re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again search is a of a study of importance, e.g., a study of impact of level of education
verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to of sales force of a company on its sales revenue.
probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic,
patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:
to establish facts or principles. Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and
Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research,
scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible,
that is generally applicable. Scientific methods consist of systematic be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
observation, classification and interpretation of data. critical.
Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the • Controlled - in real life there are many factors that affect an
difference between our casual day- today generalization and the outcome. The concept of control implies that, in exploring
conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your
of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting
latter. the relationship.
• Rigorous - you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant,
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies
through the application of scientific procedure. The main aim of markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been social sciences.
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific • Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake
purpose, some general objectives of research below: an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different
(i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must
achieve new insights into it. (Studies with this follow others.
object in view are termed as exploratory or • Valid and verifiable - this concept implies that whatever you
formative research studies).
conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be
(ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a verified by you and others.
particular individual, situation or a group. (Studies
• Empirical - this means that any conclusions drawn are based education and the accounting academia in recent decades has led to a
upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real divide between academia and practice in accounting.
life experiences or observations.
• Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods ACCOUNTING RESEARCH TOPICAL AREAS
employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of Accounting Information System (AIS)
investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The Studies which address issues related to the systems and the
process adopted and the procedures used must be able to users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting
withstand critical scrutiny. information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the
has the above characteristics. implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not.
Research streams include, but are not limited to design science,
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and
criteria: system performance.
(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and Auditing
common concepts be used. Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic.
(b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for of the audit environment – external and internal, auditor decision
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already making based on financial accounting information.
been attained. Managerial
(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting,
to yield results that are as objective as possible. compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and
(d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in the allocation of resources within an enterprise.
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its Tax
significance and the methods of analysis used should be Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-
appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting
checked carefully. transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to
(f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of tax disclosures.
the research and limited to those for which the data provide an Other Topical Areas
adequate basis. Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The
(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting
integrity. profession, work environment, etc.

GENERAL OVERVIEW OF ACCOUNTING RESEARCH Activity 1.1

“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the Briefly answer the following:
world around us and how the world affects accounting.” Teresa P. 1. Define research
Gordon and Jason C. Porter. 2. Define accounting research
Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new 3. In your own words, why is research important?
knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and 4. Distinguished purpose and objective of research.
testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including
accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH CLASSIFICATION
financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer
simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific Types of Research
perspective and basis for the following: The research is of various types:
• Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing 1. Basic Research: Also referred to as pure or fundamental research,
standards studies phenomena to get a fuller understanding of it. This is
• Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial essentially to obtain knowledge of a natural phenomenon whose
statements applications may or may not have any bearing on any application
• Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers in the immediate future or even after a long time. Generally, this
• Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital type of research demands a very high order of intellectual caliber;
markets through academic accounting research intuition also pays an important role in this types of research.
• Used for formulation of theory or formation of new theories,
FEATURES AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN principles
ACCOUNTING • Non-commercial application
If you can’t count it, you can’t manage it • Thorough knowledge of subject
Accounting is very deeply rooted profession in almost every • E.g. Battery charging with the help of physics laws
facet of management, company matters and day to day activities of any 2. Applied Research is to acquire knowledge on the practical
person or group. application of the theoretical base already built up which is
Accounting research is research into the effect of economic expected to solve a critical problem. Applied Research is usually
events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and conducted for industries or governments by universities or by
reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of specialized research laboratories or institutions. Applied Research
reported information on economic events. It encompasses a broad is always for development purposes. It is generally referred to as
range of research areas including financial accounting, management Research and Development (R&D).
accounting, auditing and taxation.
• To solve day to day problem
Academic accounting research “addresses all aspects of the
• Has commercial application or purpose
accounting profession” using the scientific method, while research by
• Normally sponsored and resource (fund) dependent
practicing accountants focuses on solving problems for a client or
• Can lead to patent and copyright
group of clients. Academic accounting research can make significant
• E.g., Pharma/Space/IT/Product-related research
contribution to accounting practice although changes in accounting
3. Historical Research: Historical research is “the systematic to get direction. This type of research is that hypothesis testing-
collection and objective evaluation of data related to past oriented rather it is more formation-oriented and objectives are to
occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, provide more definite information.
or trends of those events which may help to explain present events 7. Descriptive research: It is a fact finding word with sufficient
and anticipate future events”. interpretation. It is simpler and specific than explorative type of
A mere collection of facts including their description does research. Descriptive study focuses on theoretical point. In this
not constitute historical research. type data is collected to test basic concepts. The accuracy of data
Facts can serve as a base. Facts have to be related and a total collection is must to get real idea about basic concepts and their
picture drawn, to become meaningful and contiguous one. study.
• Mere chronological (timescale-based) arrangement is not • This type is more focused and specific towards research
historical research problem under study.
• It is understanding of scenario from series of incidences. • The problem under study should be clear and not debatable.
• It leads to find reasons behind past happenings. • It only develops relationship between variables and not
• E.g., study of epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata for TV testing of their relationships like in hypothesis.
serial or movie making, biographical research; histories of • This method is applicable to problem which specifies certain
institutions and organizations; criteria and data is clearly available for accurate objectives.
4. Empirical Research: This research exclusively relies on the • This type needs basic statistical techniques like central
observation or experience with hardly any regard for theory and tendencies, percentages for comparison mainly.
system. Such research is data based, which often comes up with • If the criteria are not satisfied, then this method is not useful.
conclusions that can be verifies through experiments or 8. Ex post facto research: This type of research is quite often used
observation. It is also known as experimental type of research, in for descriptive research studies in social sciences and business
which it is important to first collect the facts and them sources, research. The most distinguishing feature of this method is that
and actively take steps to stimulate the production of desired the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/She has
information. In this type of research, the researcher first to only report what is happening or what has happened. Majority
formulated a working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts of the ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive
to accept or reject (and not prove and disprove) the stated studies in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena,
hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental design, which such as the consumer's preferences, frequency of purchases,
according to him/her would manipulate the variables, so as to shopping, etc. Despite the inability of the researchers to control
obtain the desired information. This type of research is thus the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by
characterized by the researcher’s control over the variables under them to discover the causes of the selected problem.
study. In simple term, empirical research is most appropriate • Data collection is after an event or incident happens
when an attempt is made to find that certain variables influence • It is more of investigative type of research
the other variables in some way. • E.g., officer visit crime scene or place to collect clues and to
• Hypothesis (supposition) based data collection research reach conclusion
• Collected data will decide to accept hypothesis or reject • Personal skill plays an important role
• Extensive resources are required to carry out this research 9. Case study research: The method of exploring and analyzing the
• Statistical techniques are used to analyze (understand hidden life or functioning of a social or economic unit, such as a person,
meaning) data a family, a community, an institution, a firm or an industry is
5. Experimental Research: In many areas or problems there are called case study method. The objective of case study method is
many variables are involved or influential. It is not always to examine the factors that cause the behavioral patterns of a given
possible or feasible to study all variables at the same time so to unit and its relationship with the environment. The data for a study
study limited variables this type of research is conducted. In this are always gathered with the purpose of tracing the natural history
type one variable (under study) keep open whereas other variables of a social or economic unit, and its relationship with the social or
are kept constant and then open variable effect is studied. It aims economic factors, besides the forces involved in its environment.
in determining in whether and in what manner variables are Thus, a researcher conducting a study using the case study method
related to each other and their tendency to influence each other. attempts to understand the complexity of factors that are operative
The relationship between dependent and independent variables is within a social or economic unit as an integrated totality.
observed and describe in connecting hypothesis. The variable • In order to attempt this some subject knowledge is acquired
which is influenced is known as dependent and the variable which • Case study approach is the most human-oriented approach
influence other is known as independent variable. Like • Different research can come up with different results for
investment decision (independent) and investment returns same case
(dependent). In experimental research two groups are formed • Multidisciplinary knowledge leads to overall understanding
experimental and controlled. Experimental group is exposed to an of case
experimental variable or stimulus. Control group is not exposed
to the experimental variable. The difference between two groups
outcome is attributed to the effect of the experimental variable. APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
The results obtained by using the experimental or empirical There are two main approaches to research, namely
studies are considered to be the most powerful evidences for a quantitative approach and qualitative approach.
given hypothesis. The quantitative approach involves the collection of
6. Exploratory Research: When researcher has little or no quantitative data, which are put to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
knowledge about the problem under study, he undertakes formal and rigid manner. This approach further includes experimental,
preliminary study to know the problem like a doctor’s initial inferential, and simulation approaches to research. Meanwhile, the
investigation of a patient suffering from an unfamiliar disease or qualitative approach uses the method of subjective assessment of
getting some clues for identifying it. It is sort of a pilot study to opinions, behavior and attitudes. Research in such a situation is a
affirm his future steps. The objective of this is to: function of the researcher’s impressions and insights. The results
• Generate new ideas generated by this type of research are either in non-quantitative form
• To get to know something about unknown happenings or in the form which cannot be put to rigorous quantitative analysis.
• To check feasibility of research Usually, this approach uses techniques like in-depth interviews, focus
• To formulate study or to get direction group interviews, and projective techniques.
In many cases after investing resources on research activities, There is one more approach other than these two and it is
researcher may find, it is not worth continuing and in order to mixed approach as for any research it is very difficult to apply
avoid such wastage, it is always advisable to take a pilot research
exclusively only one approach. Many number of times objectives and empirical consequences. It’s very important or it provides the focal
effectiveness of research is more important than the approach and so point for research.
combination of approaches is the best way to adopt. 4. Preparing the Research Design:
After framing hypothesis, we have to prepare a research design
Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative methods of data i.e. we have to state the conceptual structure within which research
collections/approaches would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
Sr. Factors Qualitative Quantitative research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In
No. other words, the function of research design is to provide for the
1 Basis Concept based Number based collection of relevant evidence with optimum effort, time and
2 Method Focus groups, in- Surveys, expenditure. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
depth interviews observations, research purpose.
structured 5. Determining Sample Design:
interviews A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is
3 Nature Subjective: Objective: Observed actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.in
Define problem effects of a program census inquiry we involve a great deal of time, money and energy so it
from sufferers condition problem it not possible in practice under many circumstances. Sample designs
point of view can be either probability or non-probability. With probability samples
4 Effectiveness More in-depth Less in-depth but each element has a known probability of being included in the sample
info on a few more breadth of info but the non-probability samples do not allow the researchers to
cases for large number of determine this probability.
cases 6. Collecting the Data:
5 Testing No statistical test Based on stats There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which
techniques differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the
6 Validity More depends Depends upon disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through
upon research methodology, experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can be collected
skills and measurement device by any one or more of the following ways;
experience instrument By observation,
7 Resources Less for planning High for planning • Through personal interview,
required and more for and less for analysis • Through telephonic interviews,
analysis • By mailing of questionnaires or
8 Applicability Less generalized More generalized • Through schedules.
9 Responses Semi-structured Structured and fixed 7. Analysis of Data:
or unstructured responses The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these
Activity 2.1 categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
1. Give the different types of research and explain each briefly. statistical inference. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based
2. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative on the computation of various percentages; coefficients etc., by
research? applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of
3. Give the different approaches to research. analysis, relationships of differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance
to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
CHAPTER 3: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
conclusions.
8. Hypothesis Testing:
Research process consists of series of actions or steps After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the
necessary to effectively carry out research. These actions or steps are: hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the
(i) Formulating the Research Problem hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question
(ii) Extensive Literature Survey which is to be answered by applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test
(iii) Developing the Research Hypothesis etc. F test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
(iv) Preparing the Research Design Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
(v) Determining the Research Design rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
(vi) Collecting the Data generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.
(vii) Analysis of Data 9. Generalizations and Interpretation:
(viii) Hypothesis Testing If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
(ix) Generalization and Interpretation possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a
(x) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability
to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis
1. Formulation of Research Problem: to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of theory. It is known as interpretation.
interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into 10. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis:
and then research problem should be formulated. Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
2. Extensive Literature Survey: done by him. The layout of the report should be as follows; the
Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The preliminary pages
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this carry title, acknowledgements and forward and then index. The main
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or text of the report should have introduction, review of literature and
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to academic methodology, references, appendices.
journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. must
be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. Activity 3.1
3. Development of Working Hypothesis: 1. Give the steps in research process and briefly explain each.
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN It refers to the findings related to the method of data
collection and scoring of the responses. The research design should
permit the measuring instruments which are fairly objective in which
A research design is simply the framework or plan for a
every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give
study that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data. It is
the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may
a blueprint that is followed in completing a study. Research design is
be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned
the blue print for collection measurement and analysis of data. Actually
to different individuals by more than one independent observer. This
it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.
ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of
analysis and interpretation.
Definitions
(ii) Reliability:
“Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and
It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements.
procedures for collection and analyzing the needed information.”
For example, if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item,
William Zikmund
he is expected to give the same response to that item even if he is asked
“Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, the
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control
consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a
variance.”
questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.
Kerlinger
(iii) Validity:
Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when
Thus we can say that a research design is the arrangement of
it measures what it is expected to measure. For example, an
condition for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ should measure only
generalize the findings of the sample on the population.
the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed
accordingly.
PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH DESIGN
(iv) Generalizability:
Research designs are used for the following purposes;
It means how best the data collected from the samples can
(i) To minimize the expenditure:
be utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large
Research design carries an important influence on the
group from which sample is drawn. Thus a research design helps an
reliability of the results attained. It therefore provides a solid base for
investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care
the whole research. This makes the research as effective as possible by
in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate
providing maximum information with minimum spending of effort,
statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research design. Thus a
money and time by preparing the advance plan of all about the research.
good research design is one which is methodologically prepared and
(ii) To facilitate the smooth scaling:
should ensure that generalization is possible. For ensuring the
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth
generalization we should confirm that our research problem has the
scaling of the various research operations, thereby making research as
following characteristics;
efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
a) The problem is clearly formulated.
expenditure of effort, time and money.
b) The population is clearly defined.
(iii) To collect the relevant data and technique:
c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods
to form an appropriate sample.
to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be
d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.
used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and
e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.
the availability of staff time and money. Poor preparation of research
(v) Adequate Information:
design upset the entire project.
The most important requirement of good research design is
(iv) To provide blue print for plans:
that it should provide adequate information so that the research
Research design is needed due to the fact that it allows for
problem can be analyzed on a wide perspective. An ideal design should
the smooth working of many research operations. It is like blue print
take into account important factors like;
which we need in advance to plan the methods to be adopted for
(i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied
collecting the relevant data and techniques to be used in its analysis for
(ii) The objective of the research
preparation of research project. Just as for better economical and
(iii) The process of obtaining information
attractive construction of a house need a blue print and a map of that,
(iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and
similarly we need a blue print or a design for the smooth flow of
(v) The availability of adequate financial resources for
operation of research.
carrying research.
(v) To provide an overview to other experts:
(vi) Other Features:
A research design provides an overview of all the research
Some other important features of a good research design are
process and with the help of the design we can take the help and views
flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on. A good
of experts of that field. The design helps the investigator to organize
research design should minimize bias and maximize reliability and
his ideas, which helps to recognize and fix his faults.
generalization.
(vi) To provide a direction:
A research design provides a proper or particular direction
Activity 4.1
to the other executives and others who are helping us into the process.
1. What is research design?
The researcher studies available, literature and learns about new
2. What are the purpose of research design? Briefly explain each.
(alternative approaches.
3. How do you describe a good research design?
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
Generally, a good research design minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed. The CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH PROBLEM
design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to be the
best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our
maximum information and provides an opportunity for considering door step and in our backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that
different aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate a problem solved for one individual may still exist for another
and efficient design. A good research design possesses the following individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/ situation/
characteristics; system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/
teacher/ situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being
(i) Objectivity: may reappear with a lapse of time. We become habitual of living in the
age of problems i.e. we are so much surrounded by the problem that
we suffer from,” problem blindness”. But in order to solve the problem bulletins, research reports, journals of researches,
or making research we need to delimit the problem. dissertations and many similar publications are rich sources
Selection of problem is not the first step in research but of research problems.
identification of the problem is the first step in research. Selection of iv. Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and
problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is wrong to think that term papers will suggest additional areas of needed research.
identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or v. Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange
statement of the problem. of ideas with faculty members and fellow scholars and
A topic or statement of the problem and research problem students will suggest many stimulating problems to be
are not the synonyms but they are inclusive. The problem concerns solved, close professional relationships, academic
with the functioning of the broader area of field studied, whereas a discussions and constructive academic climate are especially
topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement of the advantageous opportunities.
problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or vi. Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards
pin points the task of a researcher. prevailing practices and research oriented academic
It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the experience will effectively promote problem awareness.
topic of the study from different sources especially from research vii. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor,
abstracts. They do not identify the problem, but a problem is made on experts of the field and most experienced persons of the field.
the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active involvement in They may suggest most significant problems of the area. He
their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically. can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.

Definitions of the Problem: Although research problems should not be assigned or they
The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. should not be proposed and allotted by a guide but consultation with
Different definitions of the problem are given below; “Problem is the the more experienced faculty member or research worker is a desirable
obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.” practice.
John Geoffery One of the most important functions of the research guide is to
“Problem is a question which is to be solved.” help the student clarify his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and
John. G. Tornsand develop a manageable problem from one that may be vague and too
“To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by complex.
careful distinctions from like questions found in related situations of
need.” Statement of Problem:
Whitney Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem
“A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a statements;
problem exists when there is a no available answer to same question.” 1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more
J.C. Townsend variables.
“A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What 2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.
relation exists between two or more variables?” 3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.
F.N. Kerlinger
“To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in
each question and subordinate question to be answered is to be a clear and concise idea of what the researcher wants to do. This sets
specified, the limits of the investigation must be determined. the state for further planning.
Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to
determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to Objectives of Assumptions about the Problem:
formulate the point of view or educational theory on which the 1. To make the research work feasible.
investigation is to be based. If certain assumptions are made, they must 2. To delimit the scope of the problem.
be explicitly noted.” 3. To establish the proper frame of reference.
Monero and Engelhart
Aspects of Delimiting a Problem:
Identification of a Research Problem: 1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in
The following steps are to be followed in identifying a the problem.
research problem; 2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level,
Step I: Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen college or university level.
to do the research work. 3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.
Step II: The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it 4. Delimited to the best method only.
should be the field of his specialization. 5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.
Step III: He should review the research conducted in area to know the 6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.
recent trend and studies are being conducted in the area. 7. Other delimitations particular to a problem.
Step IV: On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of As the above delimitations help the researcher for
the study. conducting the study, the findings of studies also confine to these
Step V: He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem delimitations.
or employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem.
He may take help of supervisor or expert of the field. Evaluation of the Problem:
Step VI: He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to When considering a problem, a researcher is required to ask
be investigated. himself a series of questions about it. These are helpful in the
evaluation of the problem on the basis of personal suitability of the
researcher and social value of the problem.
The Sources of the Problem: Following questions must be answered affirmatively before
i. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies the study is under Taken:
of education are obvious sources. 1. Is the Problem Researchable?
ii. Social developments and technological changes are 2. Is the Problem New?
constantly bringing forth new problems and opportunities for 3. Is the Problem Significant?
research. 4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?
iii. Record of previous research such specialized sources as the
encyclopedias of educational, research abstracts, research
 In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the and not to some extraneous variable(s). When the dependent variable
following: is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
a) Research competencies of the Researcher between the dependent and independent variable is said to be
b) Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
c) Financial consideration in the Project Extraneous variable can be controlled by removing the
d) Time requirement for the Project variable causing distraction. It may be eliminated by selecting cases
e) Administrative considerations in the Project. with uniform characteristics and through randomization.
(ix) Organismic Variable:
Activity 5.1 There are some variables which cannot be manipulated.
1. What is a research problem? They are accepted by the researcher as they are. They are levels of
2. How will you identify a research problem? intelligence, sex, class levels, and the like. The researcher can classify
3. Give a research problem. the subjects by sex but he cannot modify to suit his research condition.
If a researcher attempts to compare boys and girls on some learning
task, any differences might be attributed to sex differences but not
CHAPTER 6: VARIABLES AND THEIR TYPES
necessarily so. The differences between boys and girls could be due to
differences in intelligence, training, motivation or a myriad of other
Variable is a concept which can take on different quantitative conditions present in all human beings and not necessarily to biological
values. For example; height, weight, income, age etc. The main focus differences between sex. Those variables which cannot be manipulated
of the scientific study is to analyze the functional relationship of the and cannot themselves point out causal relations are called organismic
variables. A variable is a quantity which can vary from one individual variables.
to another. The quantity which can vary from person to person.
“Variable is a property that taken on different value”, Activity 6.1
Kerlinger 1. What is a variable?
2. Differentiate the different variables.
It is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process 3. Explain dependent and independent variable.
that, by its presence and nature, affects some other event or process, 4. Give a dependent variable and independent variable. Explain.
which is being studied.
CHAPTER 7: FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
(i) Continuous Variable:
It is that which can assume any numerical value within a
Formulation of Hypothesis
specific range.
The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis.
(ii) Discrete Variable:
‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means
A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale
statement about solution of the problem. Thus the literal meaning of
only with distinct gaps is called a discrete variable.
the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the
(iii) Dependent Variable or Criterion variable:
problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be
If one variable depends or is a consequence of other, it is
verified empirically and based on some rationale.
termed as dependent variable. Criterion variable is the basis on which
Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more
the effectiveness of the experimental variable is studied.
variables which are to be verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these
(iv) Independent Variable or Experimental Variable:
variables in the specific frame of reference.
The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is
termed as an independent variable. The variable whose effect is going
Definitions of Hypothesis:
to be known is known as experimental variable.
“Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce
(v) Controlled Variable:
conclusions in accordance with facts which are known to be real
The effectiveness of an experimental variable is examined
under the idea that if the conclusions to which the hypothesis leads
by comparing with other variable, known as controlled variable.
are known truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or at least likely
(vi) Confounding Variable:
to be true.”
Those aspects of study or sample, that might influence the
J.S. Mill
dependent variable (outcome measures), and whose effect may be
confused with the effects of the independent variable. They are of two
“A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which
types; Intervening and extraneous variable.
remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may
(vii) Intervening Variable:
be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes basis for
There are a number of abstract variables in
further investigation.”
educational/social experiments, which intervene the effect of
Lundberg
experimental or criterion variable. For controlling intervening variable
appropriate research design should be used. Intervening variables are
“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally
hard if not impossible, to observe because they usually have to do with
adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in
an individual’s feelings like boredom, stress, fatigue, excitement etc.
further investigation.”
Extraneous variable on the other hand, are more readily observed or
John W. Best
measured and thus are more easily controlled.
(viii) Extraneous Variable:
“A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of
of what is, at the time, known about a phenomenon, and it is
the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as
employed as a basis for action in the search for new, truth, when the
extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the
hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts,
hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gain in social
principles and theories.”
studies achievement and their self-concept. Here self-concept is
Barr and Scates
independent variable and achievement in social study is dependent
variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement;
“Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the
but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the
basis of the compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence
researcher, it will be termed as extraneous variable. Whatever effect is
and previous knowledge.”
noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is
Gorge J. Mouly
technically described as an ‘experimental error.’
A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the
Nature of Hypothesis:
dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variables
(i) Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework (xiii) It stimulates the investigator for further research.
are involved in a hypothesis.
(ii) Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal Forms of Hypothesis:
expression of ideas and concepts. It is not merely mental idea but According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of
in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical hypothesis;
verification. (iii) It represents the tentative relationship between (i) Question form:
two or more variables. A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of
(iv) Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It empirical observation. It
relates to the future verification not the past facts and information. fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the
list. There are cases of simple investigation which can be adequately
(v) Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed
implemented by raising a question, rather than dichotomizing the
for verification of hypothesis.
hypothesis forms into acceptable / reject able categories.
Functions of Hypothesis: (ii) Declarative Statement:
H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis; A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides
an anticipated relationship or difference between variables. Such a
(i) It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some
hypothesis developer has examined existing evidence which led him
truth which enables an investigator
to believe that a difference may be anticipated as additional evidence.
to start his research works.
It is merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the
(ii) It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for criterion variable.
and may provide possible solutions to the problem.
(iii) Directional Hypothesis:
(iii) It may lead to formulate another hypothesis. A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in
(iv) A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final the relationship or difference between variables. This type of
hypothesis. hypothesis developer appears more certain of anticipated evidence. If
(v) Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the researcher,
statement which may be objectively tested and accepted or this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals two
rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing possible conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship
conclusions that is related to original purpose. between variables is so obvious that additional evidence is scarcely
needed. Secondly, researcher has examined the variables very
(vi) It delimits field of the investigation.
thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a
(vii) It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, particular anticipated outcome.
and have very realistic approach to the problem.
(iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis:
(viii) It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an
verification. assertion that no relationship or no difference exists between or
among the variables. Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis
Importance of a Hypothesis: testable within the framework of probability theory. It is a non-
(i) Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the directional form of hypothesis.
investigator in further investigation hypothesis serves as the There is a trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in
investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to tentatively adopted research in most of the disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively
generalization. states that on the basis of evidence tested there is no difference. If the
(ii) Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do not know
unfocussed research and remains like a random empirical the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to
wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory anticipate or give the rational for the declaration or directional form.
and the investigation. It does not make researcher biased or prejudiced. He may be
(iii) Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis objective about the expected outcomes of the research or findings.
places clear and specific goals before the research worker and Actually this is a statistical hypothesis which is self-
provides him with a basis for selecting sample and research explanatory. Null hypothesis means zero hypotheses. A researcher
procedure to meet these goals. has not to do anything in developing it. While research hypothesis is
second step in the process of reflective thinking.
(iv) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the
A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to
important function of linking together related facts and
accommodate the object of inquiry for extracting this information. It
information and organizing them into wholes.”
does not necessarily reflect the expectations of the researcher so
(v) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young,” The use much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of
of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate chance in statistical knowledge or science.
gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or
the problem under study." relationship between or among variables under certain conditions.
(vi) Guiding Light:” A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject
lights the way for the research work.” the null hypothesis. If it is rejected, the general hypothesis is
(vii) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of accepted.
irrelevant literature and the collection of useful or excess data. Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis
because it ‘nullifies’ the positive argument of the findings or non-
(viii) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which
directional statement of the generalization. It is also termed as
are irrelevant from the standpoint of problem at hand.
statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the existence of any
(ix) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that
problem and its ramification. none or zero difference exists between the two population means or
(x) It is an indispensable research instrument, for it builds a bridge the treatments.
between the problem and the location of empirical evidence
that may solve the problem. Formulation of Testable Hypothesis:
(xi) It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from
for exploring and explaining the unknown facts. knowledge and theory. It is used as a guide in the investigation of
other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its formulation is one
(xii) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.
of the most difficult and most crucial step in the entire scientific
process. A poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent makes exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less time,
the following: money and material. Its more popular in research work.
(i) The obtaining of enough pertinent data,
Population:
(ii) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and
Population or universe means, the entire mass of
(iii) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis observations, which is the parent group from which a sample is to be
of the result. formed. The term population or universe conveys a different meaning
than a traditional one. In census survey, the count of individuals
Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the (men, women and children) is known as population. But in Research
selection of the data to be gathered, the experimental design, the Methodology population means characteristics of a specific group.
statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn from the study. For example, secondary school teachers of, who have some specific
A study may be devoted to the testing of one major features like teaching experience, teaching attitudes etc.
hypothesis, a number of subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from
subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses are used, each a defined population as representative of that population.
should be stated separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis One type of population distinguished by educational
required and in order to definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on researchers is called the target population.
its own merit. Irrespective of number or type used each hypothesis By target population distinguished by educational researchers is
should be testable and based upon a logical foundation. called the target population.
By target population, also called universe, we mean all the
Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis: members of a real or hypothetical set of people, events or objects to
The researcher deals with reality on two levels; which we wish to generalize the results of our research.
1. The Operational Level:
On the operational level researcher must define events in The first step in sampling is to define the target population.
observable terms in order to operate with the reality necessary to do Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The
researches. researcher proceeds from specificity to generality. The sample
2. The Conceptual Level: observation is the specific situation, which is applied to the
On the conceptual level the researcher must define events population, it is the general situation.
in terms of underlying communality with other events. Defining at a The measures of a sample are known as statistics and
conceptual level, the researcher can abstract from single specific to measures of a population are termed as parameter. Mean, S.D.,
general instance and begin to understand how phenomena operate and coefficient of Correlation of sample observation known as Statistics
variables interrelate. The formulation of a hypothesis very frequently and Mean, S.D., coefficient of correlation of population are known as
requires going from an operational or concrete level to the conceptual parameters. Generally, parameters are estimated on the basis of
or abstract level. This movement to the conceptual level enables the sample statistics.
result to be generalized beyond the specific conditions of a particular Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research
study and thus to be of wider applicability. and not so common in physical sciences. It is fundamental to all
Research requires the ability to move from the operational statistical methodology of behavioral and social research. It makes
to the conceptual level and vice– versa. This ability is required not research findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection
only in constructing experiments but in applying their findings as of individuals from the population in such a way that every individual
well. The process of making conceptual contrasts between operational has equal chance to be taken into the sample.
program is called conceptualization or dimensionalization. Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion
of an aggregate of material which has been selected in the belief that
Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis: it will be representative of the whole aggregate. By Frank Yates
Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and “Sample is set of units of an aggregate.”
vice –versa is a critical ingredient of the research to demonstration
process. The following are the difficulties in the formulation of Assumptions of Sampling:
hypothesis: 1. Homogeneity amidst complexity:
1. Absence of knowledge of a clear Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every
theoretical framework. unit appears to be different from another. But at the same time they
also possess similarities in many respects. It is, therefore, assumed
2. Lack of ability to make use of the
that there is the possibility of such representative types in the whole
theoretical framework logically.
population that makes sampling possible.
3. Lack of acquaintance with available
research technique resulting in failure to be able to phrase
2. Possibility of Representative Selection:
Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of
the hypothesis properly.
probability and law of statistical regularity. The law of statistical
regularity lays down that a group of objects chosen at random from a
CHAPTER 8: SAMPLING
large group tend to possess the characteristics of that large group
(universe) by
A survey may be conducted by either of two methods:
L. R. Conner.
1. Census Method or Parametric method and 3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant
2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method. accuracy i.e. needed in case of large scale observations. Because it
is practically impossible to achieve because of errors in
1. Census method: measurement, collection of data, its analysis, interpretation.
It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here
the data are collected for each and every unit of the universe. This Definition:
method provides more accurate and exact information as no unit is “A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the
left out. entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.”
2. Sampling method: P. Y. Young
Here a small group is selected as representative of the A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for
whole universe. It works with the objective to obtain accurate and observation and analysis. It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-
reliable information about the universe with minimum of cost, time set of the objects or individuals of population which is selected for
and energy and to set out the limits of accuracy of such estimates. It the express purpose of representing the population.
 By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can 3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit
make certain inferences about characteristics of the population from prejudices, the learning and preconception, imaginations of the
which it is drawn. investigator to influence its choice.
Sampling, “It is the process of selecting a sample from the
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting
population. For this purpose, the population is divided into a number
procedure or absence of subjective elements from the situation.
of parts called sampling units.”
Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection 5. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimates
and estimation. Sampling is a part of the strategy of research. or statistics and does not involve
Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum. errors.
Good and Hatt, “A sample as the name implies, is a smaller 6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a
representation of a larger whole.” closely linked with truerepresentativeness. Comprehensiveness is
W. G. Cocharn, “In every branch of science we lack the a quality of a sample which is controlled by specific purpose of
resources, to study more than a fragment of the phenomenon that the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but
might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is sample and may not be a good representative of the population.
phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to 7. A good sample has the practicability for research.
the phenomenon i.e. generalization.
David S. Fox, “In the social sciences, it is not possible to
collect data from every respondent relevant to our study but only
from some fractional part of the respondents. The process of selecting
the fractional part is called sampling.”

Need of Sampling:
1. Economy of time.
2. Economy of money.
3. True detailed knowledge.
4. Utility in experimental study.
5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.
Advantages of Sampling:
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has high speed for generalization.
4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and
accuracy in the observation”.
5. This technique has great accuracy.
6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.
Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:
1. Scope of biasness. (Less accuracy)
2. Problem of representative Sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly
representative sample.
3. Need of eligible researchers.
4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in
heterogeneous population.
5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.
Essentials of an Ideal Sample:
Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness
with other units.
Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.
Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the
sample.
Representativeness: An ideal sample must be such that it
represents the whole data adequately. In the number of units included
in a sample should be sufficient to enable derivation of conclusions
applicable to the whole data. PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
Economical in terms of time and money. G.C. Halmstadter, “A probability sample is one that has
High level of reliability. been used selected in such a way that every element chosen has a
known probability of being included.”
Characteristics of a Good Sample:
PROBABILITY SAMPLING IS OF DIFFERENT TYPES:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population
(1) Simple Random Sampling:
corresponding to its properties.
It is one in which each element of the population has an
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and equal and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a
sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe. sample selected by randomization method is known as simple random
sample and this technique is simple randomizing.
Randomization is done by using the following techniques: proportion of the population in each category and faulty classification
(a) Tossing a coin (b) Throwing a dice may be listed as disadvantages of this method.
(b) Lottery method (d) Blind folded method (c) Optimum allocation:
Stratified sampling is representative as well as
(c) Tippett’s table method
comprehensive than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting
units from each stratum. Each stratum should be in proportion to the
Merits of Randomization:
corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is
1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population. known as optimum allocation sample.
2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose. Merits:
4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose. (i) It is a good representative of the population.
(ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.
Demerits of Randomization: (iii) It is an objective method of sampling.
1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample. (iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.
3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample. Demerits:
(i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the
(2) Systematic Sampling: researcher to decide the relevant criterion for stratification.
Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple (ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it
random sampling. This method requires the complete information seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification.
about the population. There should be a list of information of all the
individuals of the population in any systematic way.
(iii) It is costly and time consuming method.
Now we decide the size of the sample: (iv) Selected samples may be representative with reference to the
Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N used criterion but not for the other.
Now we select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the (v) There is a risk of generalization.
desired size of sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for
this technique of sampling population should be arranged in any (4) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling:
systematic way. Generally, this is not a new method but only a new
Merits: application of the samplings. This is most frequently used for
1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample. establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed
questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more
2. It reduces the field cost.
representative sample. This is done because some randomly selected
3. Inferential statistics may be used. subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them.
4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population. Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study,
5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions if the people who fail to reply the query differ in some fundamental
and generalizations. way from the others in respect to the phenomenon being studied.
To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at
Demerits: random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed
toobtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known as
1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to
repeated or multiple sampling.
different ways of systematic list by different individuals.
This double sampling technique enables one to check on
2. Knowledge of population is essential. the reliability of the information obtained from first sample. Thus,
3. Information of each individual is essential. double sampling, where in one sample is analyzed and information
4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness. obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the problem
5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the further.
sample.
Merits:
(3) Stratified Sampling: (i) Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free
It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we determine precision based on a number of observations.
employ this technique, the researcher divides his population into (ii) This technique of sampling reduces the error.
strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these (iii) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the
smaller homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined reliability of the sample.
number of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic as
criterion which seems to be more relevant in his research work. Demerits:
(i) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It
Stratified sampling may be of three types; is applicable only for small sample.
(ii) This technique is time consuming and costly.
(a) Disproportionate: (iii) Its planning and administration is more complicated.
Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not
proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations (5) Multi Stage Sampling:
involving personal judgement and convenience. This method of This sample is more comprehensive and representative of
sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different the population. In this type of sampling primary sample units are
error possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these
characteristics. ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group.
Stages of a population are usually available within a group
(b) Proportionate: or population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The
It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a
individuals are selected from different stages for constituting the
sample that is proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this
multi stage sampling.
procedure includes representativeness with respect to variables used
as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being
Merits:
able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on
(i) It is a good representative of the population.
(ii) Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods. (i) This technique is objective.
(iii) It is an objective procedure of sampling. (ii) It is not free from errors.
(iv) The observations from multi stage sample may be used for (iii) It includes uncontrolled variation.
inferential purpose. (iv) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this
sampling, so generalization is not possible.
Demerits:
(i) It is a difficult and complex method of sampling. (3) Purposive Sampling:
(ii) It involves errors when we consider the primary stages. The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary
method because it is known to be representative of the total
(iii) It is again a subjective technique of sampling.
population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups.
The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which are
(6) Cluster Sampling:
considered important for the particular study. This method is
To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster
appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon the control
sampling. In cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of
of certain specific variables.
element (cluster) instead of individual members or items in the
Merits:
population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a
given city and randomly selecting 15 % of these students for the (i) Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.
sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the city, (ii) Better control of significant variables.
selects at random 15 % of these clusters of units, and uses all of the (iii) Sample groups data can be easily matched.
children in the selected schools as the sample.
(iv) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
Merits:
Demerits:
(i) It may be a good representative of the population. (i) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
(ii) It is an easy method. (ii) Knowledge of population is essential.
(iii) It is an economical method. (iii) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
(iv) It is practicable and highly applicable in education. (iv) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.
(v) Observations can be used for inferential purpose. (v) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.
Demerits:
(4) Quota Sampling:
(i) Cluster sampling is not free from errors. This combines both judgment sampling and probability
(ii) It is not comprehensive. sampling: on the basis of judgment or assumption or the previous
knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each category is
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD: decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the
Samples which are selected through non-random methods observer is allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very
are called non probability samples. Depending upon the technique arbitrary and likely to figure in municipal surveys.
used it may be; Merits:
(1) Incidental or Accidental Sampling: (i) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.
The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are
(ii) It is an easy sampling technique.
taken because they are most frequently available i.e. this refers to the
groups which are used as samples of a population because they are (iii) It is not frequently used in social surveys.
readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ more
acceptable sampling methods. Demerits:
(i) It is not a representative sample.
Merits: (ii) It is not free from errors.
(i) It is very easy method of sampling. (iii) It has the influence of regional, geographical and social factors.
(ii) It is frequently used method in behavioral sciences.
(iii) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical (5) Snowball Sampling:
method. The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a
sampling procedure in which the sample goes on becoming bigger
Demerits: and bigger as the observation or study proceeds. The term snowball
stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would allow
(i) It is not representative of the population. computation of estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test
(ii) It is not free from errors. of significance.
(iii) Parametric statistics cannot be used. For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on
smokers of a particular brand of cigarette. At the first stage, we may
(2) Judgment Sampling: pick up a few people who are known to us or can be identified to be
This involves the selection of a group from the population the smokers of that brand. At the time of interviewing them, we may
on the basis of available information assuming as if they are obtain the names of other persons known to the first stage subjects.
representative of the entire population. Here group may also be Thus the subjects go on serving an informant for the identification of
selected on the basis of intuition or on the basis of the criterion more subjects and the sample goes on increasing.
deemed to be self-evident. Generally, investigator should take the Merit:
judgment sample so this sampling is highly risky. Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non-
probabilistic can be converted into probabilistic by selecting subjects
Merits: randomly within each stage.
(i) Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of Demerits:
sampling. Sampling errors may creep in.
(ii) This method of sampling is economical.
(6) Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling:
Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the
Demerits:
light of available information, these mirror some larger group with
reference to one or more given characteristics. The controls in such 7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
samples are usually identified as representative areas (city, country,
8. Questions are presented in an order from simple to complex.
state, district), representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex,
marital status, socio-economic status, race) or types of groups 9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.
(administrator, counselors, teachers etc.). 10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one
These controls may be further sub-divided by specified question are also avoided.
categories within classes such as amount of training, years of 11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
experience or attitudes towards a specific phenomenon. Up-to this
12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.
stage, these controls are somewhat similar to those used in
satisfaction. Purposive sampling differs from stratified random
Merits of Questionnaire Method:
sampling in that the actual selection of the units to be included in the
sample in each group is done purposively rather than by random 1. it’s very economical.
method. 2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
CHAPTER 9: TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
5. It is most reliable in special cases.
Demerits of Questionnaire Method:
A researcher requires many data – gathering tools or
techniques. Tests are the tools of measurement and it guides the 1. Through this we get only limited responses.
researcher in data collection and also in evaluation. Tools may vary in 2. Lack of personal contact.
complexity, interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is 3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
suitable for the collection of certain type of information.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
One has to select from the available tools those which will
provide data he seeks for testing hypothesis. It may happen that 5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
existing research tools do not suit the purpose in some situation, so 6. It may be useless in many problems.
researcher should modify them or construct his own.
2. The Interview:
DIFFERENT TOOLS USED FOR DATA COLLECTION MAY Interview is a two-way method which permits an exchange of ideas
BE; and information.
1. Questionnaires “Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.”
W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt
2. Interviews “The interview constitutes a social situation between two
3. Schedules persons, the psychological process involved requiring both
4. Observation Techniques individuals mutually respond though the social research purpose of
5. Rating Scales the interview call for a varied response from the two parties
concerned.”
1. Questionnaire: Vivien Palmar
It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined
as; “The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a
“A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions person enters more or less imaginatively into the inner life of a
that are submitted to a sampling of population from which comparative stranger.”
information is desired.” P.V. Young
Barr, Davis & Johnson
In an interview a rapport is established between the
“In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for interviewer and the interviewee. Not only is physical distance
securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent between them annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also
fills in himself.” removed; and a free mutual flow of ideas to and fro takes place. Both
W. J. Goode & K. Hall create their respective impression upon each other.
The interview brings them both on the same level and an
The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused emotional attachment supervenes between them.
of the data gathering devices. It is easy to prepare and to administer. In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is
The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to opened for delivering into the intellectuals, emotional and
secure responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing subconscious stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here the ‘depth’ of
answers to questions by using a form which the respondent will fill subject (man) is gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and
by himself. may check his truthfulness of responses.
It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an
important instrument being used to gather information from widely
scattered sources. Normally used where one cannot see personally all
of the people from whom he desires responses or where there is no
particular reason to see them personally.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:

1. It deals with an important or significant topic.
2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on
Characteristics of an Interview:
its covering letter.
1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the
attitudes, discover the origin of problem.
resources like books, reports and records.
2. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
person.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly
3. It can make cross questioning possible.
duplicated or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
 4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person 6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down
concerned. formally and the interviewer is always armed with the formal
5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate document detailing the questions.
topics. Thus interviewer not to depend upon the memory.
6. It has flexibility.
Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule:
7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the
interviewee can be better judged through cross questioning.
1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.
8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier
2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.
answer. 3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.
9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in 4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.
historical, experimental, case studies and clinical studies. 5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.
6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be
Merits of Interview: included in schedule.
1. Direct research.
2. Deep research Merits of Schedule:
3. Knowledge of past and future. 1. Higher percentage of responses.
4. Knowledge of special features. 2. Possible to observe personality factors.
5. Mutual encouragement is possible. 3. Through interview personal contact is possible.
6. Supra-observation is possible. 4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.
7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes. 5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is
there.
8. Examination of known data.
6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.
Disadvantage of Interview: Observation Technique:
This is most commonly used technique of evaluation
1. May provides misleading information.
research. It is used for evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects
2. Defects due to interviewee (low level of intelligence or may be of a person. It is used in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes,
emotionally unbalanced) values towards their life problems and situations. It is most useful
3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer. technique for evaluating the behaviors of children. It is technique of
4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural situation.
of interviewee and interviewer.
“It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this
5. One sided and incomplete research.
technique group behaviors and social institutions problems are
6. Art rather than science. evaluated.”
C. Y. Younge
Schedule:
When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview “Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than audio
purpose it is known as schedule. “Schedule is the name usually and vocal organs.”
applied to set of questions, which are asked and filled by an C.A. Mourse
interviewer in a face to face situation with another.”
W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt The cause- effect relationship and study of events in
original form, is known as observation. Observation seeks to ascertain
By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information what people think and do by watching them in action as they express
about many things at once. It is best suited to the study of a single themselves in various situations and activities.
item thoroughly. Observation is recognized as the most direct means of
According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is studying people when one is interested
nothing more than a list of questions which, it seems necessary to test in their overt behavior.
the hypothesis.” In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as
Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and they think, they do but this is often different from what they actually
presented with the specific purpose of testing an assumption or do. These restrictions are missing in observation so observation is a
hypothesis. In schedule method interview occupies a central and more natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and formality of
plays a vital role. questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality and informality in
As a matter of fact, success in the use of schedule is largely observation. Data obtained through observation are more real and true
determined by the ability and tact of the interviewer rather than by the than the data collected by any other method. It also plays a particular
quality of the questions posed. part in survey procedure.
Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and
notes down the answers all by himself, the quality of questions has Characteristics of Observation Schedule:
not any great significance. According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;

Important Features of Schedule:

1. It serves a formulated research purpose.

1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are 2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring
haphazardly.
asked and the answers are noted down by him.
2. The list of questions is a mere formal document; it need not be 3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general
propositions.
attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research. 4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to
validity, reliability and precision.
4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the
circumscribed elements essential
5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a
problem.
to the analysis.
5. It aims at delimiting the subject. 6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.
7. It employs own experiences.
 8. It establishes cause-effect relationship. 3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.
9. It is an objective technique of data collection. 4. Average superior than single.
10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique. 5. Impact of emotions.
11. It is formal as well as informal technique. 6. Limits of self-rating.
12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for 7. Over rating.
data collection. 8. Limits of rating of specific qualities.
9. Limits of justifications.
Advantages:
1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information. Activities Involved in Data Collection:
2. We get first hand data through this method. Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for
3. Record of observation is also available immediately. the intended analysis. The collection of data requires time and
substantial effort for acquiring skills and making the necessary
4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.
arrangements for collection and to ensure adequate quality.
5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct
information. Access to Data:
Generally, it is a problem for researcher to get access to
Limitations: data because the institutions or the persons who generally control the
1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be data are not willing to provide him data for one or the other reason or
observed directly. excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate such
2. It is subjective method. institutions or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some
educational problems are of such nature that the subjects specially
3. It is very time consuming process.
girls are not willing to disclose correct information. Similarly, a
4. Costly so energy consuming also. researcher of any board or university may not have access to
5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e. confidential data.
subject becomes conscious.
6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not useful. Adequate Standard:
7. Observer should be trained and experienced. The researcher should demonstrate that his data were
properly collected. It is possible if the following conditions are
Rating Scale: fulfilled.
Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment (i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of
regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually validity. In other words, the data should, ensure what they
expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by claimed to measure.
which such judgments may be quantified. (ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error.
The following types of error are possible in data collection;
“Rating is an essence and direct observation.” (a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/
Ruth Strong instrument.

“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of a

(b) Error of bias.
variable.” (c) Deliberate falsehood.
Von Dallen (d) Distortion of facts.
(e) Random errors.
Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling
traits and attributes.
(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the
population so that proper generalization could be made.
A rating method is a method by which one systematizes,
the expression of opinion concerning (iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded.
a trait. The conditions under which the data were gathered should be
The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of properly noted and suitable data recording method should be
interviewers and judges and even by the used. The efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors
self as well. arising during recording. The data are generally recorded in the
The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are following forms;
evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the (a) notes of the researcher
basis of the opinions and judgments of the experimenter himself. (b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing
In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial the experiment or conducting a
expression, personal documents, clinical type interview, projective field study
techniques and immediate experiences as emotions, thoughts and
(c) Interview notes
perceptions.
(d) Responses to questionnaires (e) Recording on tape
Advantages: recorder.

1. Writing reports to parents. (f) Video cameras

2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges. (g) Transcribing data for computer input
3. Finding out students’ needs. Data Organization:
4. Making recommendations to employers. Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be
5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child. necessary that an extensive set of supplementary notes should be
6. Stimulating effect upon the rates. made for the following; (a) Sources of data
(b) Conditions under which data were gathered.
Limitations: There should be stored in such a way as offer some
reasonable prospects of retrieval when required.
1. Difference in rating abilities.
2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating. Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data:
 The primary data can be collected through laboratory
measurement, field observation, questionnaires, interviews,
opinionnaires, schedules etc.
The secondary data can be collected from technical
publications such as manuals, handbooks, data sheets, and standards,
books and journals, official publications of the Central government,
state governments, local bodies, private data services and computer
data base.

General Rules:
There are some general rules that apply to all types of data
collection. They are as follows; (i) Do not collect more
information than is required for the research problem.
(ii) Make sure the wording of the data collection instrument is
clear and unambiguous.
(iii) Use clear and explicit instructions in data collection
instruments.
(iv) Design the response options as carefully as the items stems
themselves. (v) Make responding to the measuring
instrument as alternative as possible.
(vi) Make sure that the final products look professional.