Magnetism For Olevel
Magnetism For Olevel
Iron Iron
fillings fillings
iii) This shows that the attractive force is strongest at the ends.
Experiment to show that a freely suspended magnet comes to rest in a
north-south direction
o Suspend a bar magnet with a cotton thread from a wooden stand so that the magnet
is free to rotate in a horizontal plane.
o Turn the magnet around and let it oscillate for a while. It comes to rest in a
particular direction, which is approximately the north-south direction.
o Mark the pole, which points in the north, with letter N and the other pole, which
points to the south with letter S.
o Twist the thread again and let the magnet go. After a while, it comes to rest in the
same direction again. I.e. The pole of the magnet marked N always points to the
north and the other pole marked S points to the south.
N
or
th
N
S
So
uth
o The pole, which points to the north, is called the North seeking Pole or North Pole
(N-pole). The other one is called the South seeking Pole or South Pole (S-pole).
Law of magnets
It starts that “like poles repel and unlike poles attract”.
Polarities of a magnet
Two methods are involved in testing for the polarity of a magnet
i) Using magnets of known polarity
ii) And suspension method.
An experiment to identify the pole of a magnetic material using a magnet
of known poles Y
X
At
tra
S N
cti
on
1. Stroking method
In this method the metal bar is magnetized using a permanent magnet. The permanent
magnet is passed several times over bar in the same direction.
a) Single touch method
i) Place the metal bar on the bench.
ii) The N-pole of the permanent magnet is placed at one end and the bar is stroked until
the other end is reached.
iii) The magnet is lifted at this end and the stroking is repeated for several times as
shown below.
S
N
N S
S N
Becomes N Steel Becomes S
The material is stroked using two unlike poles of permanent magnets at the same time
from the centre outwards for several times as shown above.
The pole made at the end of the bar where the stroking ends is opposite to that used for
stroking.
Consequent poles
If a steel bar is magnetised by double touch method using two S poles we obtain a N pole
at both ends of the bar and a double S pole in the centre. In this condition the bar is said
to possess consequent poles.
CONSEQUENT POLES
N N
S S
N SS N
Steel bar
Therefore;
Consequent poles are similar poles at both ends of a magnet obtained when stroked
using two similar poles in double touch method.
2. Electrical method
This is the best method of making magnets and only direct current is used.
Procedure
i) A metal bar is placed inside a long coil of a copper wire called a solenoid
connected to a battery as shown below
Soleniod Steel bar
Battery
ii) Current is switched on for a few minutes and then off.
iii) The steel bar becomes magnetised.
- The end of the solenoid in which current flows anti-clockwise is the North Pole,
while the end in which current flows clockwise is the South Pole.
Direction Direction
of current of current
N-pole S-pole
3. Magnetic induction
When a magnetic material is placed in contact with a pole of permanent magnet for
some time, magnetic properties are induced in it and the material acquires temporary
magnetism called induced magnetism.
N S
N
S
N
S
N
S
N
S
Note: The part of the magnetic material in contact with the pole of the magnet is
induced with opposite pole.
Demagnetisation
This is the process of making a magnet lose its magnetic properties.
A magnet can be made to lose its magnetic properties by;
1. By heating it until its red hot and then cooling it when lying in the East-West
direction.
2. By hammering it several times.
3. By using electrical method. This is the best method and is done by keeping the
magnet in a solenoid in east-west direction and passing alternating current.
4. Dropping of the magnet several times while facing in the East- West direction.
Uses of a magnet(s)
1. Used in industries to lift heavy loads.
2. Used in electric motors and generators to rotate the wheels of a machine.
3. Used in bicycle dynamos to produce electricity.
4. They are used in telephone receivers and loud speakers.
Types of magnet.
Magnets are classified according to their ability to retain magnetic properties. These
include,
1. Hard magnetic materials
These are Ferro-magnetic materials which are not easily magnetised but retain
their magnetism for a long period. E.g. steel.
Uses of hard magnets include,
Used in electricity meter.
Used in radio loudspeaker.
Used in telephone receiver etc.
2. Soft magnetic materials
These are Ferro-magnetic materials which are easily magnetised but loss their
magnetism easily e.g. iron.
Soft magnetic materials are used in;
Transformers
Keepers
Electric bells
Relays
Electromagnets
Dynamos
Properties of steel and iron
Magnetic saturation
When a magnetic material is magnetised, the dipoles position themselves parallel to one
another. As the process continues a point is reached when all the dipoles face in one
direction.
At this point the material said to be magnetically saturated.
magnetic saturation can there be defined as the process by which all the magnetic
dipoles in each magnetic dipole align theme selves in the same direction.
Illustration
Magnet
N S N
S
Pieces of Magnetic
wood poles
S
N S N
S N S N
1. The combined effect due to the earth and a bar magnet with its north pole point
North is shown below.
The point marked x is the neutral points because no lines of forces pass through this
point. Thus the magnetic flux is zero.
The study of the earth’s magnetic fields involves;
a) Two imaginary lines called magnetic meridian and geographical meridian.
b) Two angles called angle of declination and angle of dip.
Magnetic meridian
This is a vertical plane passing through an axis of rotation of a freely suspended magnet.
OR
Magnetic meridian at any place is the line joining the earth’s magnetic poles.
Geographical meridian
This is a vertical plane passing through the axis of rotation of the earth. OR
Geographical meridian at any place is the line joining the earth’s geographical poles.
Angle of declination
Angle of declination is the angle between the magnetic and geographical meridians.
OR
This is the angle between magnetic north and true north.
Geograhical
M agnetic
North
North
Declination
(Variation)
Angle of dip / inclination
This is the angle between the horizontal surface of the earth and the direction of the
magnetic field at a point.
Electromagnets
Definition
An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetism is produced by the
flow of electric current.
OR
Is a magnet formed when a magnetic material is placed in a solenoid
carrying current
The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases.
Action
When current passes through a coil containing a soft magnetic material, a
strong but temporary magnetism is induced on the soft magnetic material.
The magnetism is lost when current is switched off and again produced when
current is switched on.
N.B. Steel produces a weaker magnet than iron but keeps its magnetism much
longer than iron. Hence iron is used for electromagnets to produce a stronger
magnet than steel and to lose the magnetism quickly.
Uses of electro-magnets
i) Used in electric bells, electric motors, electric buzzers, telephone receivers,
loudspeakers, microphones etc.
ii) Used by doctors to remove bits from eyes.
iii) Used in industries to lift heavy iron loads.
Electric bell
How it works.
i) When the switch is pressed, current flows across the contacts and around
the coils attracting the armature to the electromagnet formed.
ii) The armature makes the hammer to hit the gong producing the sound and
at the same time the contacts separate, stopping current flow; causing the
electromagnet to lose its magnetism.
iii) The spring pulls back the armature, no sound is produced and hence
completing the circuit again.
iv) The process is repeated and each time the circuit is completed and broken,
the hammer strikes the gong and sound is heard. Hence the bell rings.
Microphone
A microphone is a device which changes sound energy into electrical
energy.
The electrical energy travels along the telephone cable and finally into
sound.
A microphone uses a variable resistor whose resistance changes as
sound waves hit it.
Structure
The variable resistor is made of two carbon blocks separated by carbon
granules. One of the blocks is attached to a diaphragm. It controls the
varying current sent to the earpiece.
Plastic case
Carbon
granules
Sound in
Wires to
ear piece
Diaphragm Carbon
blocks
How it works
i) When one speaks, sound forces the diaphragm to vibrate. The diaphragm
moves the carbon block attached to it.
ii) As the carbon blocks are moved closer, the granules are compressed
(squeezed).
iii) More granules are in contact with one another so that there are more paths
for electricity to flow hence resistance to flow lowered.
iv) When the carbon granules are moved apart, the granules are loosened, so
that there less paths for electricity hence resistance increased.
v) This resistance also varies in the same way with sound variations making
the current to vary in the same way.
S N S N
State what is observed when current flows in the wire using Fleming’s left
hand rule.
(i) In the direction AB.
The wire moves upwards
(ii) In the direction BA.
The wire moves downwards
STRUCTURE
Rotation
Coil
(armature) C
B S
N D
A
Br us
h es
t or
m ut a
Com
h eo st at
R
It consists of a rectangular coil of wire placed between pieces of strong
magnet, whose end connected is to the commutators. The coil is free to rotate
in uniform field. The current is passed into and out of the coil through brushes
How it works
o When current is passed through the coil, equal opposite forces are exerted
on the coil causing it to rotate in clockwise direction .i.e. side AB upwards
and side CD downwards.
o When the coil reaches the vertical position, the brushes loose contact with
the commutators hence the current is cutoff. The momentum of the coil
however carries it beyond this vertical position.
o As the coil rotates, the commutators change brushes during the second
vertical turn. The current in the coil is reversed.
o At this instant, the commutator is oriented so that it reverses the
connections from the coil to the circuit, and the coil continues to rotate in
the same direction.
o The motor will continue to rotate in the same direction until current is
switch off.
Note
The strength of a motor can be increased by:
i) Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
ii) Increasing the amount of current. This can be done by varying the rheostat.
iii) Increasing the strength of the magnet. This can be done by replacing the
permanent magnet with electromagnet.
iv) Winding the coil on a soft iron armature.
Energy (power) losses in an electric motor
The efficiency is reduced by the little energy lost in a motor in the following
ways;
Eddy currents (Induced currents)
Magnetic reversals or hysteresis.
Magnetic flux leakage.
Back e.m.f in an electric motor.
Moving coil loud speaker
This is the most common type of speaker and uses a moving coil to cause the
motion that reproduces sound waves in the air. It changes electrical energy
into sound energy, which is sent into air.
The moving coil loudspeaker works on the principle of force exerted on a
current carrying coil situated in a magnetic field.
Structure
How it works
Varying current from the amplifier, flows through the terminal into the
coil, which is in a magnetic field.
A coil experiences a varying force, which causes it and the paper cone to
vibrate. This sets the air in contact with it into vibration hence setting up a
sound wave, which follows the same pattern as the original electrical signal.
A vibrating cone produces sound.
How it works
When a current flows through a coil, there is a force on it, which makes it
turn.
The coil turns until the magnetic force on it is balanced by the force due to
the tension in the coil springs.
The position of the coil is then the measure of the current.
A pointer is fixed on the coil so that the current can be read off form the
scale.
Note
1. The scale of the moving coil is made uniform by fixing a cylinder of soft
iron inside the coil. This has the effect of making the magnet field
uniformly strong in the gap through which the coil rotates. Hence, force on
the sides of the coil will be proportional to current.
Vg Vm
V
Example
A milliammeter of resistance 5ohms gives a full scale deflection for a current
of 10 mA. How can it be adopted to read;
a. 1.0 A,
b. 10 V?
Solution
a) Current through G = 10 mA = 0.01 A
Current through the shunt will be = 1 - 0.01 = 0.99 A.
Since the shunt and G are in parallel, the p.d across them is the same
I.e. P.d across G = P.d across shunt
0.01 5 = 0.05 V = P.d across shunt
V 0.05
Resistance of the shunt = = = 0.0505 Ω
I 0.99
A shunt of resistance 0.0505 Ω should be connected in parallel with the milliammeter.
b) Total resistance, R = (X+5) Ω
V 10
From Ohms law, R = = = 1000 Ω
I 0.01
X + 5 = 1000 Ω, X = 1000 - 5 = 995 Ω
A high resistance (multiplier) of 995 Ω
should be connected in series with the milliammeter.
Electromagnetism
Definition
Electromagnetic Induction is the Induction of an electromotive force in a
circuit by varying the magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
This means that current (or e.m.f) can be induced when:
1. The magnetic field around an electromagnet is increased and decreased.
2. Constantly moving a permanent magnet in and out of a coil of wire.
3. Constantly moving a conductor near a stationary permanent magnet.
M otion
Field
Remember:
Current
(We use the Right hand
for Direction of Current produced or RDC)
As the side AB comes up through the field, the induced current is in part AB
and part CD of the coil. The direction of the induced current in AB is from A to
Applications of induction
Transformer
A transformer is a device used for stepping up or down an alternating
voltage.
The ease with which a transformer changes an alternating voltage has made it
possible for the present day use of A.C. power for our homes and industry.
It transfers electrical energy from one circuit (primary) to another (secondary)
by electromagnetic induction between two coils.
Thus, a transformer is used only with alternating voltage, if it is used with D.c
it burns out.
Structure of a transformer
Secondary
Primary
coil S Symbol
coil P
Input A.c Output A.c
Vp Vs
Np Ns
Turns ratio
An a.c. flowing through the primary coil at one voltage causes an a.c. to flow in
the secondary coil at a higher or lower voltage.
The size of a.c. in the secondary coil depends on the number of turns on both
coils. This is called “turns ratio”.
Secondary turns N
Turns ratio = = S
Primary turns NP
This also equals the ratio by which the transformer changes the voltage of a.c.
Secondary turns V N
Thus; = S = S OR
Primary turns VP NP
p.d across primary number of turns in primary
=
e.m.f of secondary number of turns in secondary
VP NP
=
VS NS
Types of transformers
Step-up transformer
If the number of turns on the secondary coil is greater than those on the
primary, then, the turns ratio >1 i.e. Vs >Vp
The transformer changes voltage to a higher value and is called a „step- up‟
transformer.
Definition
A step-up transformer has more turns in the secondary coil than in the
primary and increases an a.c voltage.
Coil
Coil
Step-up transformer
Step-down transformers
If the turns ratio <1 i.e. the primary coil has more turns than those on
secondary, the transformer changes the voltage to a lower value and a „step-
down‟ transformer.
Definition
A step-down transformer has few turns in the secondary than in the primary
and it decreases a.c.
Coil
Coil
Step-down transformer
Efficiency in a transformer
Power output
Efficiency = × 100 %
Power input
IS VS
Efficiency = × 100 %
IP VP
No machine is perfect so energy is always lost, therefore efficiency cannot be
100 %.
Discussion questions
1. (a) Describe with the aid of a diagram the operation of a
transformer.
(b) A 240 V step-down mains transformer is designed to light ten 12 V,
20 W ray box lamps and draws a current of 1 A in the primary coil.
Calculate the :
(i) Power supplied to the primary coil
(ii) Power delivered in the secondary coil
(iii) Efficiency of the transformer.
2. A transformer connected to 240 V a.c. mains is used to light a 12 V 36 W
lamp.
(a) What current does the lamp need to light correctly?
(b) If the efficiency of the transformer is 75 %, what current is taken
from the mains?
(c) Calculate the magnitude of the series resistor that would be
necessary if the lamp were connected directly to the mains.
3. A transmission line between a power station and a factory has resistance of
0.05 Ω in each of the two wires. If 100 A is delivered at 100 V,
(a) What useful power is delivered into the load?
(b) How much power is wasted during transmission?
(c) What total power must be supplied by the generator?
S
N
Sl i p
r i ngs
Br u
sh
Loa
es
d
How it works
o When the coil is rotating, it cuts across the magnetic field lines and a
current is induced in it. The induced current is carried away by the brushes
to the load (output).
o When the coil is in vertical position, it is moving parallel to the flux and
therefore not cutting the lines. In this position, the current induced in the
coil is zero.
o During the first quarter of rotation, the induced current also increases from
zero to a maximum (peak) value when the coil is horizontal (parallel to the
magnetic field lines).
o During the second quarter of rotation, the induced current decreases to
zero again when the coil is vertical again, completing the first half of the
rotation.
o During the second half of the rotation, the induced current follows in the
same pattern but in a reversed direction, since the direction of motion of
the sides of the coil across the magnetic field has also reversed. This
completes the cycle.
o The process is repeated providing a continuous supply of changing
direction current to the load. This is called alternating current.
Peak value
Number of
0 1 revolutions
1 complere cycle
It varies from zero (when the coil is in a vertical position and not cutting
the magnetic flux) to a maximum (when the coil is in horizontal position
and cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate) then reverses and
varies in the same pattern.
Note:
1. This type of current, which constantly changes direction is called
alternating current (a.c.). Its maximum current is called the peak value. A
rotation of 360° completes a full cycle.
2. If the load is a bulb for example, bulb continuously lights up, then goes off
and then lights up again. This happens so long as the speed of rotation of
the coil is low.
3. But if the speed of rotation is high, the bulb continues to light irrespective
of the position of the coil. However, the brightness of the bulb increases
and then decreases. This is because the current increases from zero to a
maximum in one direction and does the same in the opposite direction.
4. The maximum output current may be increased by:
Rotating the coil faster.
Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
Increasing the cross-section area of the coil.
Using a stronger magnet.
Winding the coil on a soft iron core.
Structure
A simple D.C. generator consists of a permanent magnet, a rectangular coil of
wire rotating about an axis perpendicular to a magnetic field, on ashaft. The
coil is connected to a single insulated split ring (commutator) also connected
to brushes, which are always in sliding contact with the rings. The brushes
give connection to the outer circuit such as to a bulb or to any resistor.
Rotation
Coil
S
N
Br us
h es
t or
m ut a
Com
Load
The commutator rotates with the coil on a common axis in such a way that it
presses lightly against the fixed brushes. The two halves of the commutator
change the brushes exactly at half-turn.
How it works
o When the coil is rotating, it cuts across the magnetic field lines and a
current is induced in it. The induced current is carried away by the
commutator to the load (output) and is maximum (peak value) when the
coil is horizontal.
o During the first half turn, the coil is in a vertical position, the commutators
are not touching the brushes, and there is no connection and current
decreases to zero.
o During the second half-turn, sides of the coil exchange positions,
commutators have also changed brushes. The current in the coil is
reversed.
o At this instant, the commutator is oriented so that it reverses the
connections from the coil to the circuit, making the current to the outer
circuit to flow through the load in the same direction.
o Thus, the current does not change direction in the outer circuit and it is a
direct current (D.C.).
Number of
0 1 revolutions
It varies from zero (when the coil is in a vertical position and not cutting
the magnetic flux) to a maximum when the coil is in horizontal position
and cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate.
Note:
1. This type of current does not change direction, and is called direct current
(D.c).
2. If the load is a bulb for example, the bulb continues to light irrespective of
the position of the coil. However, the brightness of the bulb increases and
then decreases. This is because the current increases from zero to a
maximum in one direction.
3. The maximum output current may be increased by:
Rotating the coil faster.
Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
Increasing the cross-section area of the coil.
Using a stronger magnet.
Winding the coil on a soft iron core.