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Magnetism For Olevel

The document discusses different types of magnetic and non-magnetic materials, how magnets work and their properties, how to magnetize materials using different methods, and how to demagnetize materials. It also discusses the uses of magnets.

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MASEDE JOB
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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
100 views28 pages

Magnetism For Olevel

The document discusses different types of magnetic and non-magnetic materials, how magnets work and their properties, how to magnetize materials using different methods, and how to demagnetize materials. It also discusses the uses of magnets.

Uploaded by

MASEDE JOB
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Magnet

This is a material or substance that attracts other materials or substances.


Substances attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials. E.g. iron, steel, cobalt
and nickel
Material include;
These include magnetic and nonmagnetic materials
Ferro-magnetic materials
These are materials that are strongly attracted by a magnet. E.g. iron, cobalt and nickel.
Electromagnet material
This is a type of magnet whose magnetism is produced by the flow of electric
current
However substances that are not attracted by a magnet are known as non-magnetic
materials e.g. carbon, copper, brass, wax, glass, plastics, wood, sulphur etc
They are classified as diamagnetic or paramagnetic materials.
Dia-magnetic materials
Dia-magnetic materials are materials that are very very weakly attracted by a magnet.
Para-magnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials are materials that are weakly attracted by a magnetic e.g.
aluminium, brass, copper etc.
Properties of magnets
i) Magnets attract only certain materials.
ii) Magnets have two poles called the North Pole and South Pole which come to
rest in a north-south direction in a freely suspended magnet.
iii) Magnets have two ends called magnetic poles. The attractive force of a
magnet is strongest at its ends i.e. its magnetic poles. This can be shown by
the experiment below.
Experiment to show that attractive force of a magnet is strongest at its ends.
i) Dip a bar magnet in iron fillings and observe.
ii) When removed, it’s observed that most of iron fillings cluster around the two ends
while there are very few of them around the middle as shown below.

Iron Iron
fillings fillings

iii) This shows that the attractive force is strongest at the ends.
Experiment to show that a freely suspended magnet comes to rest in a
north-south direction
o Suspend a bar magnet with a cotton thread from a wooden stand so that the magnet
is free to rotate in a horizontal plane.
o Turn the magnet around and let it oscillate for a while. It comes to rest in a
particular direction, which is approximately the north-south direction.
o Mark the pole, which points in the north, with letter N and the other pole, which
points to the south with letter S.
o Twist the thread again and let the magnet go. After a while, it comes to rest in the
same direction again. I.e. The pole of the magnet marked N always points to the
north and the other pole marked S points to the south.
N
or
th
N
S
So
uth
o The pole, which points to the north, is called the North seeking Pole or North Pole
(N-pole). The other one is called the South seeking Pole or South Pole (S-pole).

Law of magnets
It starts that “like poles repel and unlike poles attract”.
Polarities of a magnet
Two methods are involved in testing for the polarity of a magnet
i) Using magnets of known polarity
ii) And suspension method.
An experiment to identify the pole of a magnetic material using a magnet
of known poles Y
X
At
tra

S N
cti
on

i) Suspend an iron bar and mark its ends X and Y.


ii) Bring the N-pole of magnet slowly towards the end X and after towards end Y.
In each case note the observation.
iii) Repeat the above procedure using the S-pole of magnet.
iv) It’s observed that both ends of the iron bar are attracted to both ends of the
magnet. Repulsion never occurs.
v) Thus the iron bar is not magnetised.
This can be summarised in the table below

Pole of suspended magnet Pole of hand held magnet Action observed


S N Attraction
N N Repulsion
S S Repulsion
N S Attraction
Magnetization
Magnetisation is the process of making a magnet. These include,
i) Stroking method
ii) Electrical method
iii) Induction method

1. Stroking method
In this method the metal bar is magnetized using a permanent magnet. The permanent
magnet is passed several times over bar in the same direction.
a) Single touch method
i) Place the metal bar on the bench.
ii) The N-pole of the permanent magnet is placed at one end and the bar is stroked until
the other end is reached.
iii) The magnet is lifted at this end and the stroking is repeated for several times as
shown below.

S
N

Becomes N Steel Becomes S


iv) The metal bar will be magnetized with poles shown above. The metal bar can attract
other magnetic material i.e. it is magnetized.
NOTE: The pole created at the end of the stroke is opposite to the pole of the
permanent magnetising magnet.

b) Double touch method

N S
S N
Becomes N Steel Becomes S
The material is stroked using two unlike poles of permanent magnets at the same time
from the centre outwards for several times as shown above.
The pole made at the end of the bar where the stroking ends is opposite to that used for
stroking.

Consequent poles
If a steel bar is magnetised by double touch method using two S poles we obtain a N pole
at both ends of the bar and a double S pole in the centre. In this condition the bar is said
to possess consequent poles.
CONSEQUENT POLES

N N
S S
N SS N
Steel bar

Therefore;
Consequent poles are similar poles at both ends of a magnet obtained when stroked
using two similar poles in double touch method.

2. Electrical method
This is the best method of making magnets and only direct current is used.
Procedure
i) A metal bar is placed inside a long coil of a copper wire called a solenoid
connected to a battery as shown below
Soleniod Steel bar

Battery
ii) Current is switched on for a few minutes and then off.
iii) The steel bar becomes magnetised.

- The end of the solenoid in which current flows anti-clockwise is the North Pole,
while the end in which current flows clockwise is the South Pole.
Direction Direction
of current of current
N-pole S-pole
3. Magnetic induction
When a magnetic material is placed in contact with a pole of permanent magnet for
some time, magnetic properties are induced in it and the material acquires temporary
magnetism called induced magnetism.
N S
N
S
N
S
N
S
N

S
Note: The part of the magnetic material in contact with the pole of the magnet is
induced with opposite pole.
Demagnetisation
This is the process of making a magnet lose its magnetic properties.
A magnet can be made to lose its magnetic properties by;
1. By heating it until its red hot and then cooling it when lying in the East-West
direction.
2. By hammering it several times.
3. By using electrical method. This is the best method and is done by keeping the
magnet in a solenoid in east-west direction and passing alternating current.
4. Dropping of the magnet several times while facing in the East- West direction.
Uses of a magnet(s)
1. Used in industries to lift heavy loads.
2. Used in electric motors and generators to rotate the wheels of a machine.
3. Used in bicycle dynamos to produce electricity.
4. They are used in telephone receivers and loud speakers.
Types of magnet.
Magnets are classified according to their ability to retain magnetic properties. These
include,
1. Hard magnetic materials
These are Ferro-magnetic materials which are not easily magnetised but retain
their magnetism for a long period. E.g. steel.
Uses of hard magnets include,
 Used in electricity meter.
 Used in radio loudspeaker.
 Used in telephone receiver etc.
2. Soft magnetic materials
These are Ferro-magnetic materials which are easily magnetised but loss their
magnetism easily e.g. iron.
Soft magnetic materials are used in;
 Transformers
 Keepers
 Electric bells
 Relays
 Electromagnets
 Dynamos
Properties of steel and iron

Difference between steel and iron


This can be examined by the experiment below.
i) Un-magnetised strips of Iron and Steel are placed side by side in contact with the
pole of a magnet.
ii) Both strips become magnetised by induction, and on dipping their free ends in iron
fillings, it is observed that more iron fillings get attached on iron than steel. This
means that induced magnetism is greater in Iron than Steel.
iii) When the permanent magnet was removed, steel remained with some iron filings
while iron lost all. This means that Iron is easy to demagnetize and steel is not easy
to demagnetise. Thus Steel is said to be magnetically hard while iron is magnetically
soft.

Theory of magnetism (Domain theory)


The theory of magnetism states that “all magnetic materials are made up of tinny
magnets called diploes which are divided into regions called domains”.
When the substance is not Magnetised the dipoles face in different directions while
when the substance is magnetised the dipoles faces in one direction as shown below.

Magnetic saturation
When a magnetic material is magnetised, the dipoles position themselves parallel to one
another. As the process continues a point is reached when all the dipoles face in one
direction.
At this point the material said to be magnetically saturated.
magnetic saturation can there be defined as the process by which all the magnetic
dipoles in each magnetic dipole align theme selves in the same direction.
Illustration
Magnet

Dipoles made to face in the


same direction
Storing (keeping) magnets
When a magnet is left alone, self-demagnetisation occurs caused by repulsion between
the adjacent poles of the dipoles leading to a reverse in direction.
Soft iron keepers are used to avoid self-demagnetisation.
This is done by storing bar magnets in pairs with unlike poles opposite and pieces of soft
iron keepers placed across the ends.
Pairs of poles neutralise
each other

N S N
S
Pieces of Magnetic
wood poles
S
N S N

Opposite poles of bar


magnets adjacent
The keepers become strong induced magnets and their poles neutralized. Therefore the
magnetic dipoles in the domains of both magnets and keepers form closed loops with no
free poles.
Consequently the demagnetising effect disappears.

Magnetic field patterns


Magnetic field
Magnetic field is region (space) around a magnet where magnetic forces of attraction
or repulsion are felt or experienced. It is represented by lines of force called magnetic
field lines or magnetic flux.
A magnetic field line is the path along which an isolated north pole is free to move.
Magnetic field lines form a magnetic flux.
Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines per unit area.
Magnetic field is strongest near the poles of the magnet and gets weaker further away.

Drawing magnetic field patterns


When drawing magnetic field lines, the following should be considered:
 Lines of force leave the N-pole and enter the S-pole.
 Arrows should be drawn to show the direction of the field lines.
 Lines of force should never cross each other.
 Magnetic field is strongest where the lines of force are close to each other.
Examples
X is a neutral point and is defined as a point at which the resultant magnetic flux density
is zero.
Magnetic shielding or screening
This is the creation of a magnetically neutral space or region in the neighbourhood of
the magnetic field irrespective of the strength of the field.
Shi el ded
regi on

S N S N

D i vert ed Sof t i ron


f i el d l i nes ri ng
Magnetic shielding can be used to protect (to shield) materials them from external
magnetic field.eg
 In non-digital watches.
 In T.V tubes and cathode ray tubes.
Earth as a magnet
When a freely suspend a bar magnet is twisted, it comes to rest with the North-pole
facing in the geographical north and South Pole in the geographical south. This makes
us to think that there is pole in the geographical north trying to attract the North Pole of
the bar magnet and likewise in the south.
The earth’s magnetic field can be described by imagining that there is a giant bar
magnet at the centre of the earth.
The imagined earth’s bar magnet behaves as if it’s inclined at an angle to its axis of
rotation with its south pole in the geographical north and North Pole in the geographical
south.
Therefore the south pole of the imagined earth’s bar magnet attracts the North Pole of
the suspended magnet while North Pole attracts the south pole of the suspended
magnet.

Earth‟s magnetic field


The earth’s magnetic field lines are made up of parallel lines running from the
geographical south (bottom) to the geographical north (top).

1. The combined effect due to the earth and a bar magnet with its north pole point
North is shown below.
The point marked x is the neutral points because no lines of forces pass through this
point. Thus the magnetic flux is zero.
The study of the earth’s magnetic fields involves;
a) Two imaginary lines called magnetic meridian and geographical meridian.
b) Two angles called angle of declination and angle of dip.

Magnetic meridian
This is a vertical plane passing through an axis of rotation of a freely suspended magnet.
OR
Magnetic meridian at any place is the line joining the earth’s magnetic poles.
Geographical meridian
This is a vertical plane passing through the axis of rotation of the earth. OR
Geographical meridian at any place is the line joining the earth’s geographical poles.
Angle of declination
Angle of declination is the angle between the magnetic and geographical meridians.
OR
This is the angle between magnetic north and true north.
Geograhical
M agnetic
North
North

Declination
(Variation)
Angle of dip / inclination
This is the angle between the horizontal surface of the earth and the direction of the
magnetic field at a point.
Electromagnets
Definition
An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetism is produced by the
flow of electric current.
OR
Is a magnet formed when a magnetic material is placed in a solenoid
carrying current
The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases.

Action
When current passes through a coil containing a soft magnetic material, a
strong but temporary magnetism is induced on the soft magnetic material.
The magnetism is lost when current is switched off and again produced when
current is switched on.
N.B. Steel produces a weaker magnet than iron but keeps its magnetism much
longer than iron. Hence iron is used for electromagnets to produce a stronger
magnet than steel and to lose the magnetism quickly.

Factors that affect the strength of a magnet


The strength of an electromagnet depends on;
1. Size (strength) of current in the coil.
2. Number of turns in the coil.
3. Shape of the material used. I.e. a horseshoe magnet is stronger than a
bar magnet under the same conditions.
4. Nature of the material.

Uses of electro-magnets
i) Used in electric bells, electric motors, electric buzzers, telephone receivers,
loudspeakers, microphones etc.
ii) Used by doctors to remove bits from eyes.
iii) Used in industries to lift heavy iron loads.
Electric bell

How it works.
i) When the switch is pressed, current flows across the contacts and around
the coils attracting the armature to the electromagnet formed.
ii) The armature makes the hammer to hit the gong producing the sound and
at the same time the contacts separate, stopping current flow; causing the
electromagnet to lose its magnetism.
iii) The spring pulls back the armature, no sound is produced and hence
completing the circuit again.
iv) The process is repeated and each time the circuit is completed and broken,
the hammer strikes the gong and sound is heard. Hence the bell rings.

Energy changes in an electric bell

Microphone
A microphone is a device which changes sound energy into electrical
energy.
The electrical energy travels along the telephone cable and finally into
sound.
A microphone uses a variable resistor whose resistance changes as
sound waves hit it.
Structure
The variable resistor is made of two carbon blocks separated by carbon
granules. One of the blocks is attached to a diaphragm. It controls the
varying current sent to the earpiece.
Plastic case
Carbon
granules

Sound in
Wires to
ear piece
Diaphragm Carbon
blocks

How it works
i) When one speaks, sound forces the diaphragm to vibrate. The diaphragm
moves the carbon block attached to it.
ii) As the carbon blocks are moved closer, the granules are compressed
(squeezed).
iii) More granules are in contact with one another so that there are more paths
for electricity to flow hence resistance to flow lowered.
iv) When the carbon granules are moved apart, the granules are loosened, so
that there less paths for electricity hence resistance increased.
v) This resistance also varies in the same way with sound variations making
the current to vary in the same way.

Electric currents in magnetic fields


We have already seen that electric currents cause magnetic fields around
them. When a wire carries an electric current through another magnetic field,
the two magnetic fields interact and the forces between the two magnetic
fields can move wires and turn coils which carry the electric current flowing.

Origin of the force on a current carrying conductor


placed in a magnetic field
A magnetic field exists around a conductor carrying current. The magnetic
field due to the current in the conductor interacts with the magnetic field due
to the permanent magnet. This interaction results in a force being produced
on the conductor.

Ways of increasing the force


i) Using a stronger magnet.
ii) Increasing the size of current.
iii) Increasing the length of the conductor in the magnetic field.
iv) Making the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the
conductor 90°.
Fleming‟s left hand rule
We can determine the direction of the force produced using Fleming’s left
hand rule.
It says; Hold the thumb, first finger and second finger of your left hand at
right angles to each other as shown below.

 First finger points in direction of magnetic field of the permanent magnet


(north to south).
 Second finger points in direction of current.
 Thumb points in direction of force.
Example
The diagram below shows a wire AB placed between the poles of a permanent
magnet.
B

S N S N

State what is observed when current flows in the wire using Fleming’s left
hand rule.
(i) In the direction AB.
The wire moves upwards
(ii) In the direction BA.
The wire moves downwards

Applications of motor effect


 Simple d.c motor
 Moving coil loudspeaker.
 Moving coil galvanometer
A Simple D.C motor
This transfers electrical energy into mechanical energy.

STRUCTURE
Rotation
Coil
(armature) C
B S
N D
A
Br us
h es
t or
m ut a
Com

h eo st at
R
It consists of a rectangular coil of wire placed between pieces of strong
magnet, whose end connected is to the commutators. The coil is free to rotate
in uniform field. The current is passed into and out of the coil through brushes
How it works
o When current is passed through the coil, equal opposite forces are exerted
on the coil causing it to rotate in clockwise direction .i.e. side AB upwards
and side CD downwards.
o When the coil reaches the vertical position, the brushes loose contact with
the commutators hence the current is cutoff. The momentum of the coil
however carries it beyond this vertical position.
o As the coil rotates, the commutators change brushes during the second
vertical turn. The current in the coil is reversed.
o At this instant, the commutator is oriented so that it reverses the
connections from the coil to the circuit, and the coil continues to rotate in
the same direction.
o The motor will continue to rotate in the same direction until current is
switch off.

Note
The strength of a motor can be increased by:
i) Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
ii) Increasing the amount of current. This can be done by varying the rheostat.
iii) Increasing the strength of the magnet. This can be done by replacing the
permanent magnet with electromagnet.
iv) Winding the coil on a soft iron armature.
Energy (power) losses in an electric motor
The efficiency is reduced by the little energy lost in a motor in the following
ways;
 Eddy currents (Induced currents)
 Magnetic reversals or hysteresis.
 Magnetic flux leakage.
 Back e.m.f in an electric motor.
Moving coil loud speaker
This is the most common type of speaker and uses a moving coil to cause the
motion that reproduces sound waves in the air. It changes electrical energy
into sound energy, which is sent into air.
The moving coil loudspeaker works on the principle of force exerted on a
current carrying coil situated in a magnetic field.
Structure

How it works
 Varying current from the amplifier, flows through the terminal into the
coil, which is in a magnetic field.
 A coil experiences a varying force, which causes it and the paper cone to
vibrate. This sets the air in contact with it into vibration hence setting up a
sound wave, which follows the same pattern as the original electrical signal.
A vibrating cone produces sound.

Galvanometers, Ammeters and voltmeters


Moving coil galvanometer
This works on the same principle as the electric motor. It is used to detect the
presence of small currents.
Structure
It consists of a coil of wire, which is pivoted so that it can rotate in a magnetic
field.
At each end of the coil there is a coil spring through which the current to be
measured enters and leaves. The coil is also connected to the pointer, which
moves over the scale when it turns.

How it works
 When a current flows through a coil, there is a force on it, which makes it
turn.
 The coil turns until the magnetic force on it is balanced by the force due to
the tension in the coil springs.
 The position of the coil is then the measure of the current.
 A pointer is fixed on the coil so that the current can be read off form the
scale.
Note
1. The scale of the moving coil is made uniform by fixing a cylinder of soft
iron inside the coil. This has the effect of making the magnet field
uniformly strong in the gap through which the coil rotates. Hence, force on
the sides of the coil will be proportional to current.

2. The sensitivity of the galvanometer can be increased by;


 Increasing the number of turns of coil.
 Using a stronger magnet with a high magnetic flux.
 Using a coil of larger area.
 Using weak hair springs to give a small control couple.
Conversion of moving coil galvanometer into ammeter or a
voltmeter
Ammeters and voltmeters are electric measuring instruments with scales,
which have been graduated to read current in amperes and potential
difference in volts respectively.
 The ammeter is always connected in series. The ammeter should therefore
have low resistance compared with the rest of the circuit, so that it does not
introduce unwanted resistance.
 The voltmeter is always connected in parallel. The voltmeter should
therefore have high resistance compared with the rest of the circuit, so that
it takes a comparatively negligible current, and can disturb the circuit as
little as possible.
The conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter or a voltmeter is carried
out by connecting resistors of different values either in parallel or in series
with the galvanometer. These resistors can be inside the instrument or
outside.

(a) Conversion of a galvanometer (milliammeter) into an


ammeter.
Here the galvanometer (milliammeter) is modified to measure high current in
amperes.
A low resistance called a shunt is connected in parallel with the
galvanometer.
Most current to be measured takes the easy path through the shunt. The shunt
allows most current flows through it and a very small proportion passes
through the galvanometer. Thus the galvanometer is protected against
excessive current and overheating. E.g. if a galvanometer is to read 1 A, a
shunt must be chosen so that 0.999 A flows through the shunt and only
0.0001 A flows through the galvanometer.
1A 0.0001 A 1A
G 0.0001 A
0.0009 A 0.0009 A
Shunt

If the galvanometer is required to read a high current a lower resistance shunt


must be used.
(b) Conversion of a galvanometer (milliammeter) into a
voltmeter.
Here the galvanometer (milliammeter) is modified to measure high voltages in
volts.
A high resistance called a multiplier is connected in series with the
galvanometer.
Because of high resistance the intensity of the current through the
galvanometer is reduced. Same current will be passed through both the
instruments and resistor.
M ultiplier
I I G I I

Vg Vm

V
Example
A milliammeter of resistance 5ohms gives a full scale deflection for a current
of 10 mA. How can it be adopted to read;
a. 1.0 A,
b. 10 V?
Solution
a) Current through G = 10 mA = 0.01 A
Current through the shunt will be = 1 - 0.01 = 0.99 A.
Since the shunt and G are in parallel, the p.d across them is the same
I.e. P.d across G = P.d across shunt
0.01  5 = 0.05 V = P.d across shunt
V 0.05
Resistance of the shunt = = = 0.0505 Ω
I 0.99
 A shunt of resistance 0.0505 Ω should be connected in parallel with the milliammeter.
b) Total resistance, R = (X+5) Ω
V 10
From Ohms law, R = = = 1000 Ω
I 0.01
 X + 5 = 1000 Ω,  X = 1000 - 5 = 995 Ω
 A high resistance (multiplier) of 995 Ω
should be connected in series with the milliammeter.

Electromagnetism
Definition
Electromagnetic Induction is the Induction of an electromotive force in a
circuit by varying the magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
This means that current (or e.m.f) can be induced when:
1. The magnetic field around an electromagnet is increased and decreased.
2. Constantly moving a permanent magnet in and out of a coil of wire.
3. Constantly moving a conductor near a stationary permanent magnet.

The size of induced e.m.f or current can be increased by;


v) Increasing the speed of motion of the magnet or coil.
vi) Increasing the magnetic field strength by using a strong magnet.
vii) Increasing the number of turns on the coil.

Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetism


1. A changing magnetic flux in circuit induces an e.m.f in it.
2. The induced electromotive force in a circuit is directly proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux or field lines linking the circuit.
Lenz‟s law
Faraday’s laws refer to e.m.f only and not to current, because if there is no
complete circuit, there is an induced e.m.f but no current.
Lenz studied the direction of the induced current in a complete circuit but
following Faraday’s law, hence Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s law states “the direction of the induced current is always
opposite to the changing causing it”.

Fleming‟s right-hand rule (Dynamo rule)


This is a method used to predict the direction of induced current/e.m.f.
 Arrange the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand
mutually at right angles.
 Point the first finger in the direction of the field.
 Point the thumb in the direction of the motion.
 Then, the second finger will point in the direction of the induced current.
In summary; thuMb- Motion, first Finger – Field, seCond finger –
Current.

M otion
Field

Remember:
Current
(We use the Right hand
for Direction of Current produced or RDC)

Direction of induced current in a straight wire


A wire is placed between the poles of a permanent magnet and connected to a
galvanometer. The wire is moved up and down at right angles to the magnetic
flux.
 It’s observed that when the wire is moved down, the galvanometer deflects
to the right meaning that induced current is following in clockwise
direction.
 When the wire is moved up, the deflection is reversed indicating that the
current is reversed. (Anticlockwise).
The above observation can be verified using Fleming’s right hand rule as
shown below

Induced current in a rotating coil


Consider a rectangular coil ABCD rotating in a clockwise direction in a
uniform magnetic field.
Rotation
Coil
(armature) C
B S
N D
A

As the side AB comes up through the field, the induced current is in part AB
and part CD of the coil. The direction of the induced current in AB is from A to

R h eost at right-hand rule) A current


B while in part CD it is from C to D. (use Fleming’s
will therefore flow in the rectangular coil.

Applications of induction
Transformer
A transformer is a device used for stepping up or down an alternating
voltage.
The ease with which a transformer changes an alternating voltage has made it
possible for the present day use of A.C. power for our homes and industry.
It transfers electrical energy from one circuit (primary) to another (secondary)
by electromagnetic induction between two coils.
Thus, a transformer is used only with alternating voltage, if it is used with D.c
it burns out.

Structure of a transformer
Secondary
Primary
coil S Symbol
coil P
Input A.c Output A.c
Vp Vs
Np Ns

Laminated soft-iron core


A simple type of transformer as shown above consists of:
(i) A primary coil P, to which the alternating voltage Vp to be changed is
connected;
(ii) A secondary coil S from which the changed voltage Vs is obtained;
(iii) Soft-iron core made of laminations (thin insulated soft iron-sheets,
round which the two insulated coils P and S are wound).

How a transformer works


An alternating current is changing all the time.
When an a.c. flows in the primary coil, it produces a continuous flux change
in the primary coil and hence in the secondary coil.
The changing flux in the primary coil induces alternating e.m.f. at the
secondary terminals. This is the principle of the transformer.

Turns ratio
An a.c. flowing through the primary coil at one voltage causes an a.c. to flow in
the secondary coil at a higher or lower voltage.
The size of a.c. in the secondary coil depends on the number of turns on both
coils. This is called “turns ratio”.
Secondary turns N
Turns ratio = = S
Primary turns NP
This also equals the ratio by which the transformer changes the voltage of a.c.
Secondary turns V N
Thus; = S = S OR
Primary turns VP NP
p.d across primary number of turns in primary
=
e.m.f of secondary number of turns in secondary
VP NP
=
VS NS

Types of transformers
Step-up transformer
If the number of turns on the secondary coil is greater than those on the
primary, then, the turns ratio >1 i.e. Vs >Vp
The transformer changes voltage to a higher value and is called a „step- up‟
transformer.
Definition
A step-up transformer has more turns in the secondary coil than in the
primary and increases an a.c voltage.

Primary Secondary Symbol

Coil
Coil
Step-up transformer

Step-down transformers
If the turns ratio <1 i.e. the primary coil has more turns than those on
secondary, the transformer changes the voltage to a lower value and a „step-
down‟ transformer.

Definition
A step-down transformer has few turns in the secondary than in the primary
and it decreases a.c.

Primary Secondary Symbol

Coil
Coil
Step-down transformer

Power transfer in a transformer


The law of conservation of energy implies that Transformers cannot create
energy therefore; power in the primary (input) equals the power in the
secondary (output). i.e.
Power input at primary = Power output at secondary
IP VP = IS VS

Efficiency in a transformer
Power output
Efficiency = × 100 %
Power input
IS VS
Efficiency = × 100 %
IP VP
No machine is perfect so energy is always lost, therefore efficiency cannot be
100 %.

Energy (power) losses in a transformer


The efficiency is reduced by the little energy lost in a transformer in the
following ways;
 Eddy currents (Induced currents)
 Heating effect of the coils (windings)
 Magnetic reversals or hysteresis.
 Magnetic flux leakage
Ways of reducing energy losses in a transformer
 Low- resistance thick copper coils so that internal energy losses in the
windings (coils) are small.
 Laminated core to reduce eddy currents losses.
 Core made of soft magnetic material to reduce the energy required to bring
about magnetic reversals.
 Efficient core design to ensure that all the primary flux is linked with the
secondary.
Uses of transformers
 Step-down transformers are used where a large current is required e.g. for
electric furnaces, welding etc.
 Step-up transformers are used where high output voltage but small current
is required e.g. in transmission lines for distribution of electric energy, TV
sets, X-ray tubes etc.

Discussion questions
1. (a) Describe with the aid of a diagram the operation of a
transformer.
(b) A 240 V step-down mains transformer is designed to light ten 12 V,
20 W ray box lamps and draws a current of 1 A in the primary coil.
Calculate the :
(i) Power supplied to the primary coil
(ii) Power delivered in the secondary coil
(iii) Efficiency of the transformer.
2. A transformer connected to 240 V a.c. mains is used to light a 12 V 36 W
lamp.
(a) What current does the lamp need to light correctly?
(b) If the efficiency of the transformer is 75 %, what current is taken
from the mains?
(c) Calculate the magnitude of the series resistor that would be
necessary if the lamp were connected directly to the mains.
3. A transmission line between a power station and a factory has resistance of
0.05 Ω in each of the two wires. If 100 A is delivered at 100 V,
(a) What useful power is delivered into the load?
(b) How much power is wasted during transmission?
(c) What total power must be supplied by the generator?

1. A simple Alternating current (A.C) generator


(Dynamo)
A simple alternating generator is used to produce current continuously by
moving the coil very rapidly in a magnetic field.
Structure
A simple A.C. generator consists of a permanent magnet NS, a rectangular coil
of wire rotating about an axis perpendicular to a magnetic field, on a shaft.
The coil is connected to two slip rings, also connected to two brushes, which
are always in sliding contact with the rings. The brushes give connection to the
outer circuit such as to a bulb or to any resistor.
Rotation
Coil

S
N
Sl i p
r i ngs
Br u
sh
Loa

es
d
How it works
o When the coil is rotating, it cuts across the magnetic field lines and a
current is induced in it. The induced current is carried away by the brushes
to the load (output).
o When the coil is in vertical position, it is moving parallel to the flux and
therefore not cutting the lines. In this position, the current induced in the
coil is zero.
o During the first quarter of rotation, the induced current also increases from
zero to a maximum (peak) value when the coil is horizontal (parallel to the
magnetic field lines).
o During the second quarter of rotation, the induced current decreases to
zero again when the coil is vertical again, completing the first half of the
rotation.
o During the second half of the rotation, the induced current follows in the
same pattern but in a reversed direction, since the direction of motion of
the sides of the coil across the magnetic field has also reversed. This
completes the cycle.
o The process is repeated providing a continuous supply of changing
direction current to the load. This is called alternating current.

The graph below shows the variation of current/e.m.f


with position of the coil
e.m.f/ I
generated

Peak value

Number of
0 1 revolutions

1 complere cycle
It varies from zero (when the coil is in a vertical position and not cutting
the magnetic flux) to a maximum (when the coil is in horizontal position
and cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate) then reverses and
varies in the same pattern.

Note:
1. This type of current, which constantly changes direction is called
alternating current (a.c.). Its maximum current is called the peak value. A
rotation of 360° completes a full cycle.
2. If the load is a bulb for example, bulb continuously lights up, then goes off
and then lights up again. This happens so long as the speed of rotation of
the coil is low.
3. But if the speed of rotation is high, the bulb continues to light irrespective
of the position of the coil. However, the brightness of the bulb increases
and then decreases. This is because the current increases from zero to a
maximum in one direction and does the same in the opposite direction.
4. The maximum output current may be increased by:
 Rotating the coil faster.
 Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
 Increasing the cross-section area of the coil.
 Using a stronger magnet.
 Winding the coil on a soft iron core.

2. A simple direct current (D.C) generator


(Dynamo)
A simple direct current generator is used to produce current continuously in
the rotating coil and in the same direction in the outer circuit i.e. to generate a
direct current (D.C.).

Structure
A simple D.C. generator consists of a permanent magnet, a rectangular coil of
wire rotating about an axis perpendicular to a magnetic field, on ashaft. The
coil is connected to a single insulated split ring (commutator) also connected
to brushes, which are always in sliding contact with the rings. The brushes
give connection to the outer circuit such as to a bulb or to any resistor.
Rotation
Coil

S
N
Br us
h es
t or
m ut a
Com

Load
The commutator rotates with the coil on a common axis in such a way that it
presses lightly against the fixed brushes. The two halves of the commutator
change the brushes exactly at half-turn.

How it works
o When the coil is rotating, it cuts across the magnetic field lines and a
current is induced in it. The induced current is carried away by the
commutator to the load (output) and is maximum (peak value) when the
coil is horizontal.
o During the first half turn, the coil is in a vertical position, the commutators
are not touching the brushes, and there is no connection and current
decreases to zero.
o During the second half-turn, sides of the coil exchange positions,
commutators have also changed brushes. The current in the coil is
reversed.
o At this instant, the commutator is oriented so that it reverses the
connections from the coil to the circuit, making the current to the outer
circuit to flow through the load in the same direction.
o Thus, the current does not change direction in the outer circuit and it is a
direct current (D.C.).

The graph below shows the variation of current/e.m.f


with position of the coil
e.m.f/ I
generated
1 complere cycle
Peak value

Number of
0 1 revolutions

It varies from zero (when the coil is in a vertical position and not cutting
the magnetic flux) to a maximum when the coil is in horizontal position
and cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate.

Note:
1. This type of current does not change direction, and is called direct current
(D.c).
2. If the load is a bulb for example, the bulb continues to light irrespective of
the position of the coil. However, the brightness of the bulb increases and
then decreases. This is because the current increases from zero to a
maximum in one direction.
3. The maximum output current may be increased by:
 Rotating the coil faster.
 Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
 Increasing the cross-section area of the coil.
 Using a stronger magnet.
 Winding the coil on a soft iron core.

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