SINGAP ORE’ S

NAT IONAL
H Y DROGEN
S T R AT EGY
05 06
E X ECU T I V E IN T RODUC T ION
SUMM A RY Hydrogen as a low-carbon solution for the world 09

Standing at an inflection point in global hydrogen development 11

12 40
H Y DROGEN IN A DVA NCI NG T HE T R A NS I T ION
S ING A P ORE’ S JOU RNE Y Experiment with the use of advanced hydrogen technologies 45
TOWA RDS NE T Z ERO Invest in R&D to unlock key technological bottlenecks 51
Power Sector 17 Aviation 35
Pursue international collaborations 53
Industrial Sector 23 Land Transport 39
Undertake long-term land and infrastructure planning 55
Maritime 27
Support workforce training and development of broader 57
hydrogen economy

58
CONCLUS ION
E X ECU T I V E SUMM A RY
Global developments in hydrogen are and transition towards the making We will focus on progressively building
at an inflection point, with increased of sustainable products such as capabilities in industry, workers and the
investments from countries and biofuels and synthetic fuels. Low- Government in areas that are critical to
companies globally to develop new carbon hydrogen also presents an unlocking hydrogen adoption in Singapore,
technologies and establish supply option for the industry to decarbonise and will organise our efforts around five
chains for low-carbon hydrogen. heat, power and steam generation by key thrusts:
Given these significant developments, replacing fossil fuels in burners and
Singapore believes that low-carbon co-generation plants. 1. Experimenting with the use of advanced
hydrogen has the potential to be hydrogen technologies at the cusp of
a major decarbonisation pathway Besides reducing domestic emissions, commercial readiness through
to support Singapore’s accelerated low-carbon hydrogen can be a key pathfinder projects,
transition towards net zero by 2050, decarbonisation solution for the
while strengthening our energy maritime and aviation sectors. As a 2. Investing in research and development
security and resilience. global shipping and air hub, to unlock key technological bottlenecks,
Singapore can play an important
Low-carbon hydrogen can play role in supporting this transition. 3. Pursuing international collaborations
an important role to decarbonise In the maritime sector, hydrogen- to enable supply chains for low-carbon
our power sector, given our limited based fuels such as ammonia are hydrogen,
ability to generate renewable energy expected to play a prominent role
domestically. Utility-scale Combined in the sector’s multi-fuel transition, 4. Undertake long-term land and
Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGTs) that can and we are working with industry infrastructure planning, and
combust a blend of hydrogen and and international partners to study
natural gas are already available, ammonia’s potential as a marine fuel. 5. Supporting workforce training
while CCGTs able to run fully on On the aviation front, low-carbon and development of our broader
hydrogen are expected to become hydrogen can contribute to the hydrogen economy.
available in around 2030. If technology production of Sustainable Aviation
continues to advance and international Fuels, be used in fuel cells for airside Singapore looks forward to working closely
efforts remain strong, we assess that ground vehicles and aircrafts, and in with our industry and international partners,
hydrogen could meet up to 50% of our the longer term possibly directly as a to realise low-carbon hydrogen’s potential
projected electricity demand by 2050. fuel. for Singapore as well as the world.

Low-carbon hydrogen is also a Recognising both the potential as well

pathway for mitigating industrial as continued uncertainties surrounding
emissions and enabling sustainable low-carbon hydrogen, Singapore
production. As a feedstock for multiple will pace its hydrogen deployment
industrial processes, demand for and infrastructure development, in
low-carbon hydrogen is expected to line with technological and global
increase as companies decarbonise progress. 5
06
IN T RODUC T ION
Two years into this decade, the world However, renewable energy alone cannot
has already witnessed the acceleration go sufficiently far in decarbonising the
of two major shifts in the global energy world. First, there is a large variance in
situation. First, there has been a marked countries’ access to renewable energy;
increase in recognition of the urgency those that are not naturally endowed
of our climate crisis, in no small part will need to find means to import low-
due to more frequent and extreme carbon energy. Second, hard-to-electrify
weather patterns faced by countries sectors, many of which are critical to the
across the world. global economy, will need to continue
to rely on fuel energy until significant
The search for a more sustainable way breakthroughs in electrification
to power our economies and lifestyles technology materialise. These include
has never been more pressing. Second, heavy industries such as chemicals,
the Russia-Ukraine war has sent steel and cement, as well as long-range
shockwaves around the global gas aviation and maritime transportation.
market. Countries that depend
significantly on natural gas are faced
with a significant increase in energy
prices, which has in turn fuelled broad-
based inflation.

The world cannot overcome either

challenge without a substantial scale-up
in the generation, trade, and deployment
of low-carbon energy sources. According
to the International Energy Agency
(IEA), around 29% of the world’s 2020
electricity generation was met by
renewable sources1, and this figure needs
to rise to 90% for the world to reach net
zero by 20502 .

IN T RODUC T ION 1
Global Energy Review 2021, IEA. April 2021.
Net Zero by 2050, IEA. May 2021.
7
2
H Y DROGEN A S A LOW- C A RBON SOLU T ION F OR T HE WORL D
This is where hydrogen comes into the Upon arrival at its destination, the use cases, hydrogen carriers, such as
picture. Low-carbon hydrogen is widely hydrogen can then be regasified or ammonia, can be used directly without
recognised by industry experts and extracted to be used as either a fuel or the need to extract the hydrogen, which
international organisations – such as a feedstock for a variety of applications, presents cost savings to the end-user by
IEA, International Renewable Energy including power generation, industrial skipping the (usually) energy-intensive
Agency (IRENA), and the World Economic processes, and transport. In certain extraction process.
Forum to name a few – as a sustainable
alternative to fossil fuels and a major
pathway to address climate change. Fr
o
fro m e
Hydrogen, when used as a low-carbon en m relect
er ne rol
gy w ys
fuel, is especially valued for its ability ab is
le
Po
to decarbonise sectors that are difficult us tent
e i
to abate through renewable energy. ria
l r n
we tio am s o al d
Co st k Po era m f ire
amnve du oc ge
n
on ct
In dst
For a city-state like Singapore that has m rsio
on n fe
e ia
ia to
very limited access to in-situ renewable
energy, hydrogen is also an attractive rin
g
ke
decarbonisation pathway because it Bu
n

presents a scalable way to transport Fr

o
wi m m fo
r
t d
clean energy from countries around ca h ca eth
pt rb an
ur on e Liqnsp
fie
ue ort s
e se rs
r u ise
the world. tra
t
O .f
he ertil
e.g

Low-carbon hydrogen can be produced Po

either from the electrolysis of water us tent
e i
hy s o al d
dr f ire
using renewable/low-carbon energy or s og ct
to HC en
LO
n c n
from fossil fuels with carbon removal r
e g
sio ani iers
nv Or ar
r n
rs
ve en
io

Co uid en C co rog
Rehyd
technologies applied. Due to its low i q
L dro g
rio
va e
us
t o
Hy in d us
volumetric energy density, hydrogen d
pe en
ip to s
Sh ms tion
needs to be transformed into a more r
fo tina
s
de
easily transportable form, typically tio
n
n ia
through liquefaction or the conversion er
sio
nv gen
Av
o
c ro
into a “hydrogen carrier” before it can Rehyd
to
be shipped across long distances. uel
al r f
Hydrogen carriers include ammonia or d
In ds
tri o
us ock
t
e
liquid organic hydrogen carriers such r n
we tio
Po era
fe
n
as methylcyclohexane (MCH) and g e
ue
rf s
l

l fo icle
dibenzyltoluene (DBT). e h
Fu l ve
l
ce

9
 The world is currently at an inflection In addition, there are growing industry
point of global hydrogen development, activities surrounding technologies along
and we are not the only country that the hydrogen value chain. These include
thinks so. 40 countries have announced continued efforts to improve electrolyser
their hydrogen strategies, and committed efficiency and scale, the world’s first
significant resources to building up their shipment of liquefied hydrogen, and
hydrogen value chains3. the promising development of 100%
hydrogen- and ammonia-fired power
This has had a rallying effect on global generation gas turbines and ammonia-
hydrogen production and supply chains. fuelled ship engines, just to name a few.
The IEA estimated that if all announced IEA reported in its Global Hydrogen
pipeline projects for low-carbon Review 2022 that there are more than
hydrogen materialise, the production 100 pilot and demonstration projects
of low-carbon hydrogen could reach up involving the use of hydrogen and its
to 24 million tons per annum (mtpa) by carrier forms in shipping, while more
2030, an exponential increase from less than 3.5 GW of power generation
than 1 mtpa in 20214. capacity through the use of hydrogen and
ammonia by 2030 have been announced.
We are also starting to witness the
importance of hydrogen trade in enabling Given the significant progress, we believe
this global supply chain. The IRENA it is timely to more closely examine
reported that the cumulative number hydrogen’s potential for Singapore,
of announcements of agreements and assess our next steps to establish a
for hydrogen trade had increased domestic hydrogen supply chain.
progressively from early-2018 to May
2021 to over 40, but doubled in the
nine months from May 2021 to Feb 2022
to about 905.

S TA NDING AT A N
INFL EC T ION P OIN T IN
GLOBA L H Y DROGEN
DE V ELOPMEN T ³ Hydrogen Insights 2022. Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company. September 2022.
⁴ Global Hydrogen Review 2022. IEA (2022).
⁵ Global Hydrogen Trade to Meet the 1.5OC Climate Goal: Trade Outlook for 2050 and Way Forward. IRENA (2022).
11
12
Singapore has committed to achieving
net zero emissions by 2050, as part of our
contribution to global climate action. As a
small and densely populated city-state,
Singapore faces significant limitations in
harnessing alternative energies. We have
limited land for solar deployment, and do
not have access to wind and hydropower
at a meaningful scale.

Nevertheless, this has not stopped

us from making an ambitious effort to
lower our carbon footprint and develop
more sustainably.

H Y DROGEN IN
SINGAPORE’S
JOURNE Y
TOWARDS
NE T ZERO
13
P OWER

Contributes to 39.8% of our primary However, these measures will not P R I M A RY EM I S S I O N S P RO F I L E ( 2020) 6
e m i s s i o n s. We h ave a l re a d y be sufficient for Singapore to bring
EMISSION 49.7 MtCO2e
transitioned away from fuel oil to our emissions down to zero. Effective
rely almost fully on natural gas, the international cooperation and the
cleanest burning fossil fuel. In addition, maturing of key decarbonisation
we are maximising solar deployment technologies will be needed to help us
on all available spaces, scaling up overcome our resource constraints.
energy efficiency solutions, and
leveraging regional power grids to Low-carbon hydrogen is one such
access cleaner electricity. technological pathway. Hydrogen does
not release any greenhouse gases when
combusted. When produced through
I N DUS T RY low-emission methods such as the
13.7%
electrolysis of water using renewable
energy, it can have low to zero emissions.
Contributes to 44.4% of our primary
emissions. We have implemented energy
As it can be shipped over long distances 39.8%
and stored to some extent, it can also
efficiency and resource optimisation help strengthen our energy security and
measures to reduce the sector’s carbon resilience given our increasing reliance
footprint, and continue to explore low- on domestic renewable sources and
carbon technologies such as carbon electricity imports.
capture, utilisation and storage, and low-
carbon hydrogen. 44.4%

T R A N S P ORT
Contributes to 13.7% of our primary
emissions. For land transport, we
envisage a system where walking,
cycling and riding public transport are the
preferred modes of commute. We also
aim to have all vehicles run on cleaner
energy by 2040. Power Industry Transport Buildings, household, 
water and waste, and o thers

⁶ The emissions profile above excludes estimated hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) emissions of around 3.1 MtCO2e from the Refrigeration and Air-conditioning (RAC) sector in 2020. When more robust estimates
are established, the national emissions profile will be updated in accordance with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) guidelines on continual improvement of national GHG inventories.
15
 F OU R S W I TCH E S TO P OW ER S I NG A P O R E ’ S F U T U R E
P OWE R
The power sector currently accounts Singapore will work towards achieving a N AT U R A L G A S
for about 40% of Singapore’s diversified supply of low-carbon energy
primary greenhouse gas emissions. to meet our 2050 demand. Natural gas has allowed us to significantly reduce emissions
Decarbonising power generation is by switching away from fuel oil, and will remain a key source
therefore instrumental in enabling Solar is our most viable source of of fuel in the decades to come. We will continue to diversify
Singapore to achieve net zero emissions renewable energy, and we will need our natural gas sources and improve the efficiency of power
by 2050. to maximise solar deployment in all generation.
available spaces. In the update of the
In 2019, we announced the Singapore solar photovoltaic roadmap by the
Energy Story, and laid out the plans Solar Energy Research Institute of
to decarbonise the power sector and Singapore, the maximum technical
help Singapore achieve its climate potential for solar deployment was
commitments while ensuring that our estimated to be around 8.6 Gigawatt
power system remains secure and peak, meeting about 10% of our S OL A R
reliable. Four supply “switches” were projected electricity demand in 2050 if
We will maximise solar deployment paired with the use of
identified to transform our fuel mix – it materialises. Electricity imports are
Energy Storage Systems.
natural gas, solar paired with Energy estimated to meet about 30% of our
Storage Systems (ESS), regional power projected electricity demand by 2035,
grids, and low-carbon alternatives. and we may consider more imports if
doing so can meet our holistic needs.
Low-carbon hydrogen is a promising
technology under the last pillar. In March Beyond solar and electricity imports, we
2022, the Energy 2050 Committee, a will need to invest in other nascent low-
group of industry experts commissioned carbon alternatives such as geothermal
by the Energy Market Authority (EMA) and hydrogen to fully decarbonise the
R EG I ON A L P OWER G R I DS
to make recommendations on how power sector in the long term. Given Regional power grids will allow Singapore to import cleaner
Singapore can decarbonise the power recent developments in the global electricity from neighbouring countries and promote the
sector, stated in its report that hydrogen energy market and further acceleration development of renewable energy in the region.
is a promising low-carbon solution in momentum behind hydrogen, we
that can be scaled up and contribute to assess that hydrogen has the potential
power sector’s zero emissions target to supply up to 50% of our projected
by 2050. The findings noted that electricity demand by 2050. The eventual
hydrogen could be a major component fuel mix is not fixed and will depend
of Singapore’s 2050 fuel mix, depending on the development of technologies LOW- C A R BON A LT ER N AT I V E S
on technological developments and the over time.
extent of international cooperation in the The remaining supply could be met by Low-carbon alternatives
low-carbon energy trade. such as hydrogen to bring the power sector to net zero. Carbon
Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) and geothermal are
also being explored as potential solutions.

17
H Y DROGEN -TO - P OWER
Hydrogen-to-power applications, whilst commercial availability in around
nascent compared to natural gas power 2030. The transition from partial to
generation technology, are already 100% hydrogen-fuelled gas turbines
commercially available. There are two is expected to only require limited
main pathways to convert hydrogen retrofits, which offers power generation
to electricity. companies a more certain pathway to
start reducing their emissions.
First, it can be used in fuel cells,
which generate electricity through
electrochemical reactions. Second, Ga
s/
Hy
similar to natural gas, hydrogen can dr
og
en Co
be combusted in gas turbines. The m
Ch bus
advantage of fuel cells is that they are am tio
be n
r
more energy-efficient than gas turbines
as
in converting hydrogen to electricity. st
G
However, they are significantly more Ai h au
r Ex
expensive to produce, require high-
purity hydrogen, and are more
land-intensive when deployed at scale Co
ol
ing
based on current technology. Therefore, W
at
while they can be a good solution for er

decarbonising microgrids, they are

currently not suitable for utility-scale y
er r
c ov rato
power generation until design and Co e e
nd Ga
a t R Gen
technology improve. Nonetheless, en sT He am
se ur e
r bi
ne St
we will continue to explore hydrogen
fuel cell applications for decentralised
power generation to augment existing
grid infrastructure and complement
St
conventional power plant operations. e
Tu am r El
ec
rb ato tri
ine
n er cit
Ge y
On the other hand, utility-scale natural
gas-fired Combined Cycle Gas Turbines
(CCGTs) that can combust a blend of up
r El
to 30 – 50% of hydrogen by volume are ato ec
er tri
already commercially available. n cit
Ge y

The Original Equipment Manufacturers

are developing 100% hydrogen-
compatible CCGTs, targeted for
19
H Y DROGEN I M P ORT,
S TOR AGE FACI L I T I E S A N D
DI S T R I BU T ION N E T WOR K
Beyond end-use applications for power The development of a distribution
generation, hydrogen will need to be network, whether via dedicated
stored and distributed to off-takers. pipelines or through blending into the
This will require the development of current natural gas network, will have
suitable import and storage facilities, as to be built up progressively, taking into
well as a distribution network. consideration a myriad of factors
such as the pace and eventual extent of
Hydrogen can be distributed directly hydrogen demand in the power sector,
in pure hydrogen pipelines, or blended the type of carrier used, safety
with natural gas in existing pipelines. considerations and availability of
Based on current literature studies, overground and underground space
natural gas pipelines may be able for the new pipelines. Singapore will
to accommodate up to 10% blend continue to study the methods to
of hydrogen by volume. However, transport hydrogen effectively, safely
blending into the existing natural gas and efficiently.
network will impact all consumers,
and the needs of all gas network
users will need to be considered.
Therefore, there may be a need to
consider the distribution of hydrogen via
dedicated pipelines, and for blending
with natural gas to take place onsite
to tailor to the individual needs of
off takers.

21
I N DUS T R I A L
The manufacturing sector is a significant emissions, enabling sustainable
contributor to Singapore’s economy, produc tion and suppor ting the
comprising about 21% of our Gross manufacturing of sustainable products.
Domestic Product (GDP). The sector It can be used as both (i) feedstock for
employs about 450,000 people, or industrial processes and (ii) fuel for
approximately 12% of our workforce, heat, power, and steam generation. The
and provides good paying jobs with adoption of hydrogen also contributes to
median wages about 10% higher than end-users and consumers’ sustainability
the economy-wide median. Singapore’s efforts. For this reason, the adoption of
manufacturing sector is also globally low-carbon hydrogen was identified
competitive, and was ranked second in to be one of the key initiatives under
the world for manufacturing value-add Singapore’s Sustainable Jurong Island
in the 2020 Bloomberg innovation index. plans, to support the transformation of
At the same time, the manufacturing our Energy & Chemicals sector.
sector is the largest contributor to
Singapore’s carbon emissions, at around
44% of total emissions in 2020.

Decarbonising our manufacturing sector

will be important to our net zero efforts,
and to improve our competitiveness
in a low-carbon future. In this regard,
low-carbon hydrogen is one of the key
pathways in bringing down industrial

23
H Y DROGEN A S F EEDS TOCK H Y DROGEN A S F U EL
Hydrogen is used as feedstock in multiple Today, the hydrogen used in these plants Low-carbon hydrogen also presents an The adoption of low-carbon hydrogen in
industrial processes – in manufacturing is produced through steam methane option for the industry to decarbonise the industrial sector can have synergies
plants such as semiconductor wafer reforming, partial oxidation of refinery heat, power and steam generation. This is with hydrogen adoption in other sectors
fabrication, food manufacturing as well as bottoms, or as a by-product of chemical achieved through the partial or complete such as power generation. For example,
refineries and chemical plants. Demand processes, which are emissions-intensive replacement of fossil fuels such as natural both end-use sectors can share key
for low-carbon hydrogen is expected to processes. We are exploring options gas in burners and co-generation plants, infrastructure to import and distribute
increase as companies decarbonise their to decarbonise hydrogen production, thus avoiding carbon emissions from hydrogen and/or its carrier forms (such
operations, grow the base of advanced including through pairing hydrogen fossil fuel combustion. We expect that as ammonia).
semiconductor wafer fabrication, production assets with carbon removal the use of low-carbon hydrogen as fuel,
and transit towards the production of technologies, or switching to imported alongside carbon removal technologies,
sustainable products such as biofuels low-carbon hydrogen at the end of life will play a key role in decarbonising fuel
and synthetic fuels (e.g. e-methanol, of these assets. use in the manufacturing sector as part of
e-kerosene). Hydrogen is also used to our transition towards net zero emissions
produce sustainable chemicals such as by 2050.
methionine, a feed additive that allows
for more sustainable livestock production.

25
MARITIME
The Port of Singapore is currently the
world’s busiest container transhipment
port, with ship arrival tonnage exceeding
2.8 billion gross tonnage in 2021.
Singapore is also the world’s largest
bunkering hub, supplying close to 50
million tonnes of marine bunker fuel to
vessels that plied international shipping
routes in 2021.

As a major global maritime hub, Singapore

can play an important role in the sector’s
decarbonisation, especially through
transitioning to lower-carbon fuels.
To this end, we unveiled our Maritime
Singapore Decarbonisation Blueprint in
March 2022, which outlined our approach
towards the maritime green transition,
and will update this progressively to
reflect the concrete steps that we are
taking to enable decarbonisation both
within and beyond our shores.

27
SU PP ORT I NG
I N T ER N AT ION A L
MARITIME
DEC A R BON I S AT ION
The international maritime sector is Industry experts share this view. For
undergoing a green transition that will example, DNV projects that various
span the next few decades. Engine alternative fuels (including biofuels,
manufacturers have made progress on synthetic fuels and ammonia) will all
developing engines that can directly feature strongly in the 2050 fuel mix7.
combust ammonia or methanol fuel, and Actual uptake of the different fuels will
large global shipping lines have ordered be contingent on a multitude of factors,
new fleets built to be run on these such as fuel availability and prices,
engines. These developments are suitability for different vessel-operating
reflected in the latest industry profiles, additional demand for onboard
projections for maritime fuel transition, vessel storage, safety and regulations,
which estimate that ammonia and global acceptance of status as a low-
hydrogen onboard fuel technologies carbon fuel, availability of global
could be available well before the end bunkering infrastructure, and extent of
of the decade. capital investment.

Singapore believes that the international Notwithstanding these uncertainties,

shipping sector is headed for a multi- ammonia continues to be considered
fuel transition. The more prominent as one of the most promising zero-
low-carbon marine fuels in the near carbon marine fuels. In several projected
term include biofuels, methanol and scenarios, DNV expected ammonia to
ammonia, with liquefied hydrogen contribute to a significant proportion
potentially playing a role in the longer- of the world’s maritime energy mix
term. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is to decarbonise the world’s fleet by
also expected to be a transition fuel for 2050, while IEA estimated ammonia
ship liners that want to move off marine to meet 45% of international shipping
gas oil and do not wish to wait for newer fuel demand to achieve global net zero
marine fuel technologies to mature. in 20508.
Each of these fuels has its respective
advantages and disadvantages, and we
expect ship liners to adopt a portfolio
approach to meet the needs of different
vessels’ operating profiles.

⁷ DNV Maritime Forecast 2022

⁸ Global Hydrogen Review, International Energy Agency, 2021.
29
 E F FO R T S TO A DVA N C E A M M O N I A B U N K E R I N G
The Maritime and Port Authority of We will continue to monitor key signposts
Singapore (MPA) has already taken in low-carbon fuel development, and
early steps to ensure that Singapore work with the industry to develop new
can be an early mover in the transition standards and regulations on bunkering
towards ammonia bunkering. First, it is of such fuels, as part of our long-term
working directly with various industry strategy to build a sustainable maritime Wor k wi t h indus t r y consor t ia to acceler ate
consortia to study the feasibility of industry and to strengthen our position as
t he oper at ional deploy ment of ammonia-
ammonia as a bunkering fuel, and to a leading global port and bunkering hub.
accelerate its deployment in international As a leading global hub port, bunkering
f uelle d vessel s and build up t he supply
shipping. Second, it is collaborating hub and shipping registry, Singapore chain for ammonia bunker ing
with stakeholders to define safety and will continue to advance strong, credible
operational envelopes that will be used and inclusive climate action at the
to facilitate a regulatory sandbox for International Maritime Organization
ammonia bunkering trials. (IMO) and international fora.

MPA is also investing in industry enablers

Co - develop ammonia bunker ing s t andards
that can help build up capabilities in the
maritime sector and facilitate its transition
wi t h indus t r y, cl ass socie t ies , research
to a low-carbon future, and studying the ins t i t u tes and ac ademic s
support infrastructure to train seafarers.
In addition, it is building a network of like-
minded ports and countries, to establish
green and digital shipping corridors and
realise sustainable vessel sailing.

S e t up t he Global Cent re for Mar i t ime

De c ar b onisat ion (GCM D), toge t her wi t h six
ot her founding par t ner s , as a non-prof i t
organisat ion base d in Singap ore to ad vance
mar i t ime de c ar b onisat ion

E s t abl ish gre en and digi t al cor r idor s wi t h

l ike -minde d p or t s and count r ies to build
low- c ar b on mar ine f uel supply chains ,
conduc t joint bunker ing pilot s and t r ial s ,
and develop bunker ing inf r as t r uc t ure

31
DEC A R BON I S I NG
P ORT OPER AT ION S
& T H E DOM E S T IC
H A R BOU R CR A F T
F L EE T
On the domestic front, Singapore will
focus on decarbonising port operations
and transitioning the domestic harbour
craft fleet towards full-electric propulsion
and net zero fuels. PSA Corporation is
taking the lead by developing Tuas Port
with sustainability as a key focus area.
By 2050, PSA Corporation’s container
handling operations will be electrified,
supplemented by low-carbon energy
sources such as hydrogen. We envisage
that all licensed harbour craft will operate
on full-electric propulsion or net zero
fuels, consistent with our international
climate commitment to achieve net zero
emissions by 2050.

33
AV I AT I O N
Sustainability will be a key priority for
Singapore’s aviation sector in the coming
years, as it revives air travel and rebuilds
the Singapore air hub. At the same time,
Singapore will also play its part and
contribute to the decarbonisation of
global aviation.

35
SU PP ORT I NG I N T ER N AT ION A L EF F ORT S TO DEC A R BON I S E
AV I AT ION DEC A R BON I S AT ION A I R P ORT OPER AT ION S
At the recent 41st International Civil supporting the production of SAFs, In addition to exploring the use of
Aviation Organisation (ICAO) Assembly amongst other sustainable fuels and hydrogen fuel cells in airpor t
held in September and October 2022, chemicals. In the medium-term, hydrogen operations, our airport stakeholders are
ICAO adopted a long-term aspirational fuel cells could be used for airside ground progressively taking steps to enhance
goal (LTAG) for international aviation to vehicles and aircraft propulsion, with their energy efficiency, reduce energy
achieve net zero carbon emissions by liquefied hydrogen as a potential fuel consumption, and shift towards
2050. This is an important breakthrough, source for hydrogen-powered aircraft renewables, including through
and its successful attainment will require in the long-term. However, the latter infrastructure upgrades, equipment
the scaling up of a combination of low- will require several key challenges to be replacement, and electrification of airside
carbon solutions. By industry estimates, addressed, such as on-board storage, vehicles. As part of the International
including studies and scenarios laid out in safety, cost of fuel production and Advisory Panel (IAP) on Sustainable
the ICAO LTAG report and Air Transport airport infrastructure. Air Hub recommendations, which was
Action Group (ATAG) Waypoint 2050 published in Sep 2022, the airport
report, Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) We have already begun preparing community will continue to advance
are expected to play the largest role in for these longer-term but promising such efforts. This includes working to
decarbonising aviation, although short- technologies. In February 2022, CAAS transition all airside vehicles towards
haul flights could potentially also utilise signed a Cooperation Agreement with cleaner energy options, exploring the
electric and hydrogen technologies to Airbus, Changi Airport Group, and Linde deployment of solar panels on airfield, in
reduce emissions. to study the development of hydrogen addition to conventional rooftop panels,
supply and infrastructure for aviation. and studying the adoption of waste-to-
Singapore has started making the Under the Cooperation Agreement, the energy initiatives.
transition to green its aviation sector. In four parties will collaborate to conduct
July 2022, the Civil Aviation Authority of market analysis on the projected aviation
Singapore (CAAS), Singapore Airlines demand and supply for hydrogen,
(SIA) and Temasek embarked on a as well as regional readiness and
pilot where blended SAF was uplifted commercial feasibility for the adoption
onto SIA and Scoot departing flights at of hydrogen. The parties will also
Changi Airport for the first time. Come evaluate the infrastructure requirements
2023, Singapore will also be home to the for a hydrogen airport hub and the
world’s largest production plant for SAF, electrification of airport operations using
a Neste facility that boasts an annual hydrogen fuel cells.. Where deemed
production capacity of 1 million tonnes. suitable, the parties are open to pursuing
industry trials.
Low-carbon hydrogen will be an
important part of this transition. In the
near-term, we expect that low-carbon
hydrogen can start playing a role in

37
L AND
TR ANSPORT
Singapore aims to develop a greener While encouraging the adoption
and more sustainable domestic of electric vehicles, we continue to
transport sector. The Land Transport monitor developments in other clean
Master Plan 2040 envisages a land energy alternatives that can support
transport system that is convenient, the development of a more sustainable
well-connected and fast, using land transport sector. We expect that
“Walk, Cycle or Ride” transport hydrogen fuel cells may have a role to
options, and making them the preferred play in decarbonising vehicle segments
way to commute. In addition, we aim to that require higher power and mileage.
electrify our vehicle population, which The Government will continue to
will help Singapore achieve our vision work with industries and the research
of 100% cleaner energy vehicles community to understand and monitor
by 2040. such developments.

39
40
Singapore believes in the potential across its economy. We will closely
of low-carbon hydrogen as a broad- monitor technological developments of
based decarbonisation tool. At the the different hydrogen carriers and end-
same time, we also recognise that there use applications, and stage significant
remain considerable uncertainties in infrastructure investments accordingly
its development. to avoid stranded assets and land take.
We will also identify potential synergies
First, as we expect to have to import most for low-carbon hydrogen adoption across
of our low-carbon hydrogen, our cost of various sectors and applications, to
deployment, specifically for power and inform long-term land and infrastructural
the industrials sector, will likely be higher planning.
than that for countries that have the
ability to produce low-carbon hydrogen In the nearer-term, we will focus on
domestically. Today, global supply building capabilities in industry, workers
chains for low-carbon hydrogen have and the Government in selected areas
yet to develop, and key technologies that that are critical to unlocking hydrogen
support the transportation of liquefied adoption in Singapore. One particular
hydrogen and reconversion of hydrogen focal area is to uncover and find solutions
carriers are either nascent, or have yet to to technoeconomic challenges within the
demonstrate scale. hydrogen value chain that are unique or
more prominent for Singapore. With
Second, notwithstanding the good these important building blocks in place,
progress in recent years, whether Singapore will be in a strong position
hydrogen and ammonia can be used in key to scale up hydrogen deployment in the
end-use applications in a safe manner at longer-term when the time is right.
scale remains to be proven. In particular,
these include the use of ammonia as a
marine fuel in ships, the use of ammonia
as a direct fuel for power generation, and
the use of hydrogen directly in aircrafts.
Faced with these uncertainties, Singapore
will take a phased approach towards
the adoption of low-carbon hydrogen

ADVANCING
T HE T R ANSI T ION
41
 1. E X PER I M EN T W I T H T H E US E
O F A DVA NCED H Y DROG EN
T ECH N O LOG I E S AT T H E CUS P O F
COM M ERCI A L R E A D I N E S S T H ROUG H
PAT H F I N DER PROJ EC T S

2. I N V E S T I N R& D TO U N LOCK K E Y
T ECH NO LOG I C A L BOT T L EN ECK S

TO BEGIN OUR JOURNE Y,

WE WIL L ORGA NISE OUR
EFF OR T S A ROUND 3. P U R S U E I N T ER N AT I O N A L
CO L L A BO R AT I O N S TO EN A B L E S U PPLY
FI V E K E Y T HRUS T S: CH A I N S F O R LOW- C A R BO N H Y DROG EN

4. U N DER TA K E LO NG -T ER M L A N D
A N D I N F R A S T RUC T U R E PL A N N I NG

5. S U PP O R T WO R K F O RCE T R A I N I N G
A N D DE V ELO PM EN T O F B ROA DER
H Y DROG EN ECO N OM Y
43
E X PER I M EN T WI T H T H E US E OF
A DVA NCED H Y DROGEN T ECH NOLOGI E S
AT T H E CUS P OF COM M ERCI A L
R E A DI N E S S T H ROUGH PAT H F I N DER
PROJ EC T S
Through pathfinder projects, we aim to should be implemented with close
work with the industry to experiment partnership between the selected
with and build up capabilities in advanced industry partner(s) and the Government,
hydrogen technologies, and identify to facilitate the co-creation of solutions
and address any technical, safety, or to regulatory- and infrastructure-related
regulatory issues that may arise. In challenges. This collaborative and
identifying and implementing these iterative working relationship will be a
projects, we will take into consideration key feature to facilitate the development
the relative technological maturity of the of a hydrogen supply chain in Singapore.
technology and end-use application(s).

We envision each pathfinder project

to start with a solicitation of proposals
and ideas from the industry (such as
through an Expression of Interest and/
or a Request for Proposal), to uncover
the level of interest and capabilities
from our industry players. The projects

45
As a start, we will build Ammonia production, transportation
and storage are technologically mature
for power generation at the national level
requires cracking technology to improve

capabilities in importing, processes that have well-established

safety and operational protocols. There
in scale and efficiency.

handling, and utilising are also several low-carbon ammonia

projects in the pipeline worldwide,
The second key application for ammonia
is as a maritime fuel. Multiple countries

low-carbon ammonia signifying that that are concrete steps

taken to develop low-carbon ammonia
and industry consortia around the world
are preparing themselves to support and

as a hydrogen carrier or supply chains. bunker ammonia-fuelled ships, starting

with the first ones that are expected to

directly as a fuel in power The key uncertainties and challenges lie

in end-use applications of ammonia.
go into service in the second half of this
decade. Singapore has already started

generation. The ammonia For power generation, small-scale

efforts in this regard, as detailed in the
chapter above.

supply chain development direct ammonia-fuelled power

generation gas turbines are expected Besides technologies that direct enable

efforts undertaken to be commercially available by around

the middle of this decade. As it is a new
end-use applications, a key area of focus
for us is to pursue process and regulatory

through this project will technology, its operating parameters and

protocols will need to be established and
innovation, so that the land footprint
for the ammonia supply chain can be

also support marine its safety and efficiency ascertained for

Singapore’s context.
reduced without compromising safety
for a densely populated urban city like

bunkering needs. Ammonia can also be cracked back into

Singapore. This will go a long way in
improving the overall economic viability
hydrogen, and combusted in power of hydrogen and ammonia deployment
generation gas turbines. Today, gas in Singapore.
turbines that can take hydrogen at a 30
– 50% blend (by volume) with natural While we will be starting with ammonia
gas are already commercially available, power generation and marine bunkering,
and gas turbines that can combust 100% we are prepared to undertake more
hydrogen are expected to be available pathfinder projects as new technologies
by around 2030. The key technological and end-use applications demonstrate
uncertainty for this pathway is the promise, and welcome ideas and
cracking of ammonia; while the cracking suggestions from the industry. Through
technology already exists and has been in these pathfinder project(s), we will pave
use for some time, it is typically deployed the way for the adoption of low-carbon
at smaller scale for niche applications hydrogen in Singapore.
such as the production of heavy water.
Utilising ammonia as a hydrogen carrier

47
 NH
3
NH
Am d
pe
3

un mo pi
l n n t
ta oad ia i t he tha o
nk ed s is s t
er
s a fro n ia lant e it
ta m o
m er pnsu r.
m
pi m w
A po co w e
er o
.
NH
NH
y
to ectl te p
3 3

Ta i r ra
d e
n n
am ker ge
s en
ov mo bri h
er nia ng
se fr in at
i
on
as om
so m in ks.
ur A red tan
m
ce o e
s.
NH
3 st rag
o
st

to
k ed ess d
c c
c ra pro d an
is is n
n ia . Th be la
o
m e H2 to e.
A a cted siv
m s
le n
re xpe inte
e
is rgy
e
en

Hy
H2 of drog
f
pl take en i
an rs s
ts , e pip
/in .g e
du . p d t
st ow o
ry
us er
er
s

Ammonia Pipeline

Hydrogen Pipeline

49
I N V E S T I N R& D TO U N LOCK K E Y
T ECH NOLOGIC A L BOT T L EN ECK S
Even as we embark on the first small- 2020. The first phase of the programme
scale pathfinder projects, many awarded S$55 million to projects
technologies required to enable low- aiming to improve the technoeconomic
carbon hydrogen supply chains and viability of low-carbon technologies
end-use applications remain nascent such as carbon capture, utilisation,
or unavailable at scale. As we seek to and storage (CCUS) and hydrogen. For
leverage low-carbon hydrogen in our hydrogen, the LCER funded projects
transition towards net zero emissions, in areas such as the development of
the Government can accelerate the catalysts for ammonia cracking, and
development of technologies that methane pyrolysis.
are critical for Singapore, by bringing
together the research community and Given the rapid developments in the
industry, and providing targeted research global hydrogen economy, we will
funding to deepen our capabilities redouble our efforts in supporting
and catalyse new breakthroughs in hydrogen R&D and innovation. As a start,
key areas. we will set aside an additional S$129
million of research funding under LCER
Singapore has built up a strong base of to support the development of
R&D capabilities and a vibrant innovation low-carbon technologies including
ecosystem with strong academia industry hydrogen. We will assess the need
linkages, through consistent investment for further funding, depending on our
in research and innovation over the national needs.
decades. In addition to broad-based
research grants that have supported
low-carbon technology-related research
and innovation efforts in our Institutes
of Higher Learning and research
institutes over the years, Singapore
introduced the Low-Carbon Energy
Research (LCER) Funding Initiative in

51
In addition to increasing research widely handled in the chemicals industry P U RSU E I N T ER N AT ION A L
funding, we will also adjust our funding today, their deployment in novel
strategy, by taking a more directed applications and at larger scale will COL L A BOR AT ION S TO EN A B L E SU PPLY
approach in deciding which hydrogen- likely require new operating standards CH A I N S F OR LOW- C A R BON H Y DROGEN
related technologies we want to and regulatory frameworks. Research
direct R&D towards. This ensures that efforts, such as the development of
Climate change is a global challenge that the development of Guarantee of Origin
resources are devoted to areas that new processes and materials, can go a
requires global solutions. Partnerships certification methodologies, and ensuring
have the greatest impact to Singapore. long way in improving the safety of
between countries and international that methodologies are interoperable
handling and utilisation of hydrogen and
organisations, in close collaboration with across jurisdictions to facilitate cross-
Given that Singapore will be a net its carriers.
the business community from around the border trade; and third, supporting
hydrogen importer, being able to import,
world, are vital to the effective scaling up research collaborations and putting our
store, handle, and utilise hydrogen (and In addition to supporting the adoption
and deployment of sustainable solutions. best minds together to unlock common
all carrier forms deemed suitable for of hydrogen in Singapore, our continued
technological challenges.
Singapore) safely, economically and at investment into research and innovation
Today, the global low-carbon hydrogen
scale is a priority. will also support our researchers and
market is still nascent, as cross border We have already started building a
enterprises in creating novel products and
trading of low-carbon hydrogen by sea network of partnerships with countries
For the mid-stream segment of the solutions. In doing so, they can contribute
has yet to be established. Discussions that are keen on making the hydrogen
value chain, potential R&D areas to the development of a global hydrogen
around standards and Guarantee of transition. We have entered into
include ammonia cracking to liberate economy, and create new opportunities
Origin certifications for low-carbon Government-to-Government (G2G)
hydrogen, where we aim to improve for Singapore and Singaporeans.
hydrogen are also in early stages. agreements that cover cooperation in
the efficiency of the process, reduce cost,
Without an international set of standards low-carbon hydrogen with a number of
and find ways to scale with minimal To ensure that research projects are
or certification methodologies that can like-minded countries who are keen to
land footprint. We will also examine more relevant to industry and have a
credibly verify the emissions intensity advance the development of hydrogen
areas to improve the economics of higher chance of commercialisation,
of the hydrogen produced, low-carbon as a global decarbonisation pathway,
transporting and storing liquefied we will bring together our research
hydrogen trade could be impeded as on areas such as building up hydrogen
hydrogen, which has yet to be carried community and industry, to help shape
buyers cannot be certain that they are supply chains, Guarantee of Origin
out for large volumes and over long the research problems statements.
buying (likely with a green premium) for certification schemes, and joint research
distances. Collaborations with the international
a sustainable product. and development efforts. These are
research community will also be
important instruments that put low-
Downstream, we will build up our essential to bring research from the
As a small city-state with no physical carbon hydrogen squarely on the bilateral
R&D capabilities in areas required bench to market.
resources of any kind, it is in Singapore’s agenda, and provide a platform for both
for the use of hydrogen, and focus on
DNA to seek out international partners countries to engage each other’s business
areas that the industry or regulatory
and work collectively towards mutually communities and people sectors as well.
bodies do not have existing solutions
beneficial outcomes. The key areas we will We will endeavour to deepen these
given Singapore’s unique operating
focus on include – first, building a trading existing partnerships, while identifying
context (e.g. dense urban population,
and financing ecosystem for low-carbon new partners (including international
high humidity). Managing hydrogen
hydrogen to support the development of a organisations).
and ammonia deployment safely is a
global trading market; second, advancing
clear priority. While both molecules are

53
U N DERTA K E For low-carbon hydrogen to be Given the nascency of the hydrogen To prepare for longer-term deployment,
deployed or traded at a meaningful supply chain, we do not expect to build we will build on the experience and
LONG -T ER M scale, new infrastructure needs to up significant infrastructure in the near- findings of the pathfinder project(s),
L AND AND be built. These include import and term. However, we do expect careful to study the safety and land use
storage facilities, distribution networks, land planning to be required, including requirements for hydrogen, and work with
I N F R A S T RUC T U R E and infrastructure for new end-use for possible offshore solutions, given the the industry to develop plans to gradually
PL A N N I NG applications such as power generation significant footprint of the supply chain. build up the necessary infrastructure.
units and bunkering jetties.

55
SU PP ORT WOR K F ORCE T R A I N I NG
A N D DE V ELOPM EN T OF B ROA DER
H Y DROGEN ECONOM Y
The rise of a significant global The Government will work with the
hydrogen economy can open up industry, unions, and the education sector
many opportunities for Singapore to support workforce development, to
enterprises and workers. Our position equip Singaporeans with the skills
as an international financial, business and knowledge needed to thrive in a
and trading hub stands us in good hydrogen economy should they wish
stead to grow as a hydrogen services to. In particular, we look forward to the
hub. We already see examples pathfinder project(s) to uncover the
of global companies establishing new capabilities required in domestic
hydrogen-related business units end-use sectors. With early intervention
in Singapore, to tap into our deep and systematic training, these workers
international and regional networks can successfully pick up the new
and efficient business infrastructure. skills required.
Our strong innovation ecosystem
will also attract companies looking to
provide hydrogen-based technological
solutions to the region and beyond.

In addition, the adoption of low-carbon

hydrogen in end-use sectors will also
require upskilling and reskilling of our
workforce. In particular, workers in the
energy & chemicals, chemicals storage,
marine bunkering, power generation,
and aviation sectors may need to take
on new skills as our hydrogen supply
chain develops and hydrogen starts
being used in their sectors.

57
58
Singapore is committed to doing its Strong international partnership is a
part to combat climate change, through crucial enabler, without which we will not
decarbonising domestic emissions, be able to successfully make this journey.
as well as playing a catalytic role to Internationally operable Guarantee of
decarbonising the international maritime Origin certification methodologies
and aviation sectors. and emissions intensity standards is
critical in facilitating international trade
We view low-carbon hydrogen and its and hydrogen’s global acceptability
various carrier forms as a broad-based as a decarbonisation tool. Countries’
and scalable decarbonisation pathway commitment to allow the free trading of
for Singapore and the world. Given the low-carbon hydrogen and its carrier forms
uncertainties in global supply chains is also important to build confidence in
and key technologies as well as our the market and end-users.
limited size, we will take a calibrated and
progressive approach in developing our The journey ahead is an important and
domestic infrastructure and deployment. exciting one. Singapore welcomes ideas
We will focus on seeding pathfinder and suggestions from our industry and
projects and building up the capabilities international partners on how we can
of our regulatory agencies, industry and better navigate towards a low-carbon
workforce, and undertaking long-term hydrogen future. Together, we can build
infrastructure and workforce planning, a more sustainable world for generations
so that we are prepared to scale up to come.
deployment in tandem with global and
technological developments. We will
also invest in research and innovation
to solve key technological bottlenecks
that are most relevant to Singapore,
and facilitate the commercialisation of
these research outcomes.

CONCLUSION
©️ Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore
Published October 2022 59