Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9

Configuring basic system settings

A guide to configuring basic system settings in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9

Last Updated: 2022-11-16

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings
A guide to configuring basic system settings in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9
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Abstract
This document describes basics of system administration on Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9. The title
focuses on: basic tasks that a system administrator needs to do just after the operating system has
been successfully installed, installing software with DNF, using systemd for service management,
managing users, groups and file permissions, using chrony to configure NTP and others.
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
. . . . . . . . . .OPEN
MAKING . . . . . . SOURCE
. . . . . . . . . .MORE
. . . . . . .INCLUSIVE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK
PROVIDING . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
. . . .RED
. . . . .HAT
. . . . .DOCUMENTATION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. . . . . . . . . . . . .

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 1.. .PREPARING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .A. .CONTROL
. . . . . . . . . . . NODE
. . . . . . .AND
. . . . . MANAGED
. . . . . . . . . . . .NODES
. . . . . . . .TO
. . . USE
. . . . . RHEL
. . . . . . SYSTEM
. . . . . . . . . .ROLES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO RHEL SYSTEM ROLES 9
1.2. RHEL SYSTEM ROLES TERMINOLOGY 9
1.3. PREPARING A CONTROL NODE 10
1.4. PREPARING A MANAGED NODE 12
1.5. VERIFYING ACCESS FROM THE CONTROL NODE TO MANAGED NODES 13

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 2.
. . CHANGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .BASIC
. . . . . . .ENVIRONMENT
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SETTINGS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
..............
2.1. CONFIGURING THE DATE AND TIME 15
2.1.1. Displaying the current date and time 15
2.2. CONFIGURING THE SYSTEM LOCALE 15
2.3. CONFIGURING THE KEYBOARD LAYOUT 16
2.4. CHANGING THE LANGUAGE USING DESKTOP GUI 17
2.5. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 19

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 3.
. . CONFIGURING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AND
. . . . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . NETWORK
. . . . . . . . . . . .ACCESS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
..............
3.1. CONFIGURING THE NETWORK AND HOST NAME IN THE GRAPHICAL INSTALLATION MODE 20
3.2. CONFIGURING A STATIC ETHERNET CONNECTION USING NMCLI 21
3.3. CONFIGURING A DYNAMIC ETHERNET CONNECTION USING NMTUI 23
3.4. CONFIGURING A STATIC ETHERNET CONNECTION USING NMTUI 24
3.5. MANAGING NETWORKING IN THE RHEL WEB CONSOLE 27
3.6. MANAGING NETWORKING USING RHEL SYSTEM ROLES 28
3.7. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 29

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 4.
. . .REGISTERING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .THE
. . . . SYSTEM
. . . . . . . . . .AND
. . . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . SUBSCRIPTIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
..............
4.1. REGISTERING THE SYSTEM AFTER THE INSTALLATION 30
4.2. REGISTERING SUBSCRIPTIONS WITH CREDENTIALS IN THE WEB CONSOLE 31
4.3. REGISTERING A SYSTEM USING RED HAT ACCOUNT ON GNOME 32
4.4. REGISTERING A SYSTEM USING AN ACTIVATION KEY ON GNOME 33

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 5.
. . MAKING
. . . . . . . . . .SYSTEMD
. . . . . . . . . . .SERVICES
. . . . . . . . . . .START
. . . . . . .AT
. . . BOOT
. . . . . . . TIME
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
..............
5.1. ENABLING OR DISABLING SERVICES 35

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 6.
. . .CONFIGURING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SYSTEM
. . . . . . . . . .SECURITY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
..............
6.1. ENABLING THE FIREWALLD SERVICE 36
6.2. MANAGING BASIC SELINUX SETTINGS 37
6.3. ENSURING THE REQUIRED STATE OF SELINUX 37
6.4. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 38

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 7.
. . GETTING
. . . . . . . . . . .STARTED
. . . . . . . . . .WITH
. . . . . . MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .USER
. . . . . .ACCOUNTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
..............
7.1. MANAGING ACCOUNTS AND GROUPS USING COMMAND LINE TOOLS 39
7.2. SYSTEM USER ACCOUNTS MANAGED IN THE WEB CONSOLE 40
7.3. ADDING NEW ACCOUNTS USING THE WEB CONSOLE 40

. . . . . . . . . . . 8.
CHAPTER . . .DUMPING
..........A
. . CRASHED
. . . . . . . . . . . KERNEL
. . . . . . . . . FOR
. . . . . LATER
. . . . . . . .ANALYSIS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
..............
8.1. WHAT IS KDUMP 42
8.2. CONFIGURING KDUMP MEMORY USAGE AND TARGET LOCATION IN WEB CONSOLE 42
8.3. KDUMP USING RHEL SYSTEM ROLES 44
8.4. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 45

1
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 9.
. . .RECOVERING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . AND
. . . . . RESTORING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .A. .SYSTEM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
..............
9.1. SETTING UP REAR 46
9.2. USING A REAR RESCUE IMAGE ON THE 64-BIT IBM Z ARCHITECTURE 47

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 10.
. . . TROUBLESHOOTING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PROBLEMS
. . . . . . . . . . . . USING
. . . . . . . .LOG
. . . . .FILES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
..............
10.1. SERVICES HANDLING SYSLOG MESSAGES 50
10.2. SUBDIRECTORIES STORING SYSLOG MESSAGES 50
10.3. INSPECTING LOG FILES USING THE WEB CONSOLE 50
10.4. VIEWING LOGS USING THE COMMAND LINE 51
10.5. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 52

. . . . . . . . . . . 11.
CHAPTER . . .ACCESSING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .THE
. . . . .RED
. . . . HAT
. . . . . SUPPORT
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
..............
11.1. OBTAINING RED HAT SUPPORT THROUGH RED HAT CUSTOMER PORTAL 53
11.2. TROUBLESHOOTING PROBLEMS USING SOSREPORT 53

. . . . . . . . . . . 12.
CHAPTER . . . INTRODUCTION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TO
. . . .SYSTEMD
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
..............

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 13.
. . . MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .SYSTEM
. . . . . . . . . SERVICES
. . . . . . . . . . . WITH
. . . . . . SYSTEMCTL
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
..............
13.1. LISTING SYSTEM SERVICES 57
13.2. DISPLAYING SYSTEM SERVICE STATUS 58
13.3. STARTING A SYSTEM SERVICE 60
13.4. STOPPING A SYSTEM SERVICE 61
13.5. RESTARTING A SYSTEM SERVICE 62
13.6. ENABLING A SYSTEM SERVICE 63
13.7. DISABLING A SYSTEM SERVICE 64

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 14.
. . . WORKING
. . . . . . . . . . . WITH
. . . . . . SYSTEMD
. . . . . . . . . . . TARGETS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
..............
14.1. VIEWING THE DEFAULT TARGET 65
14.2. VIEWING THE TARGET UNITS 65
14.3. CHANGING THE DEFAULT TARGET 66
14.4. CHANGING THE DEFAULT TARGET USING A SYMBOLIC LINK 67
14.5. CHANGING THE CURRENT TARGET 68
14.6. BOOTING TO RESCUE MODE 68
14.7. BOOTING TO EMERGENCY MODE 69

. . . . . . . . . . . 15.
CHAPTER . . . SHUTTING
. . . . . . . . . . . .DOWN,
. . . . . . . .SUSPENDING,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .AND
. . . . . HIBERNATING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE
. . . . . SYSTEM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
..............
15.1. SYSTEM SHUTDOWN 70
15.2. SHUTTING DOWN THE SYSTEM USING THE SHUTDOWN COMMAND 70
15.3. SHUTTING DOWN THE SYSTEM USING THE SYSTEMCTL COMMAND 71
15.4. RESTARTING THE SYSTEM 71
15.5. SUSPENDING THE SYSTEM 72
15.6. HIBERNATING THE SYSTEM 72
15.7. OVERVIEW OF THE POWER MANAGEMENT COMMANDS WITH SYSTEMCTL 73

. . . . . . . . . . . 16.
CHAPTER . . . WORKING
. . . . . . . . . . . WITH
. . . . . . SYSTEMD
. . . . . . . . . . . UNIT
. . . . . .FILES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
..............
16.1. INTRODUCTION TO UNIT FILES 74
16.2. UNIT FILE STRUCTURE 74
16.3. IMPORTANT [UNIT] SECTION OPTIONS 75
16.4. IMPORTANT [SERVICE] SECTION OPTIONS 76
16.5. IMPORTANT [INSTALL] SECTION OPTIONS 77
16.6. CREATING CUSTOM UNIT FILES 77
16.7. CREATING A CUSTOM UNIT FILE BY USING THE SECOND INSTANCE OF THE SSHD SERVICE 79
16.8. CONVERTING SYSV INIT SCRIPTS TO UNIT FILES 80
16.9. FINDING THE SYSTEMD SERVICE DESCRIPTION 81
16.10. FINDING THE SYSTEMD SERVICE DEPENDENCIES 81

2
 Table of Contents

16.11. FINDING DEFAULT TARGETS OF THE SERVICE 82

16.12. FINDING FILES USED BY THE SERVICE 82
16.13. MODIFYING EXISTING UNIT FILES 84
16.14. EXTENDING THE DEFAULT UNIT CONFIGURATION 85
16.15. OVERRIDING THE DEFAULT UNIT CONFIGURATION 86
16.16. CHANGING THE TIMEOUT LIMIT 87
16.17. MONITORING OVERRIDDEN UNITS 87
16.18. WORKING WITH INSTANTIATED UNITS 88
16.19. IMPORTANT UNIT SPECIFIERS 89
16.20. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 90

. . . . . . . . . . . 17.
CHAPTER . . . OPTIMIZING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . SYSTEMD
. . . . . . . . . . . TO
. . . .SHORTEN
. . . . . . . . . . .THE
. . . . .BOOT
. . . . . . TIME
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
..............
17.1. EXAMINING SYSTEM BOOT PERFORMANCE 91
Analyzing overall boot time 91
Analyzing unit initialization time 91
Identifying critical units 91
17.2. A GUIDE TO SELECTING SERVICES THAT CAN BE SAFELY DISABLED 92
17.3. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 96

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 18.
. . . INTRODUCTION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TO
. . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .USER
. . . . . .AND
. . . . .GROUP
. . . . . . . . ACCOUNTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
..............
18.1. INTRODUCTION TO USERS AND GROUPS 97
18.2. CONFIGURING RESERVED USER AND GROUP IDS 97
18.3. USER PRIVATE GROUPS 98

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 19.
. . . MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .USER
. . . . . .ACCOUNTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . .IN
. . THE
. . . . . WEB
. . . . . .CONSOLE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
..............
19.1. SYSTEM USER ACCOUNTS MANAGED IN THE WEB CONSOLE 99
19.2. ADDING NEW ACCOUNTS USING THE WEB CONSOLE 99
19.3. ENFORCING PASSWORD EXPIRATION IN THE WEB CONSOLE 100
19.4. TERMINATING USER SESSIONS IN THE WEB CONSOLE 101

. . . . . . . . . . . 20.
CHAPTER . . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . USERS
. . . . . . . .FROM
. . . . . . .THE
. . . . .COMMAND
. . . . . . . . . . . .LINE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
...............
20.1. ADDING A NEW USER FROM THE COMMAND LINE 103
20.2. ADDING A NEW GROUP FROM THE COMMAND LINE 103
20.3. ADDING A USER TO A SUPPLEMENTARY GROUP FROM THE COMMAND LINE 104
20.4. CREATING A GROUP DIRECTORY 105

. . . . . . . . . . . 21.
CHAPTER . . . EDITING
. . . . . . . . . USER
. . . . . . .GROUPS
. . . . . . . . . USING
. . . . . . . .THE
. . . . COMMAND
. . . . . . . . . . . . .LINE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
...............
21.1. PRIMARY AND SUPPLEMENTARY USER GROUPS 107
21.2. LISTING THE PRIMARY AND SUPPLEMENTARY GROUPS OF A USER 107
21.3. CHANGING THE PRIMARY GROUP OF A USER 108
21.4. ADDING A USER TO A SUPPLEMENTARY GROUP FROM THE COMMAND LINE 109
21.5. REMOVING A USER FROM A SUPPLEMENTARY GROUP 109
21.6. CHANGING ALL OF THE SUPPLEMENTARY GROUPS OF A USER 110

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 22.
. . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . SUDO
. . . . . . .ACCESS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
..............
22.1. USER AUTHORIZATIONS IN SUDOERS 112
22.2. GRANTING SUDO ACCESS TO A USER 113
22.3. ENABLING UNPRIVILEGED USERS TO RUN CERTAIN COMMANDS 114
22.4. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 116

. . . . . . . . . . . 23.
CHAPTER . . . .CHANGING
. . . . . . . . . . . .AND
. . . . . RESETTING
. . . . . . . . . . . . .THE
. . . . .ROOT
. . . . . . PASSWORD
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
..............
23.1. CHANGING THE ROOT PASSWORD AS THE ROOT USER 117
23.2. CHANGING OR RESETTING THE FORGOTTEN ROOT PASSWORD AS A NON-ROOT USER 117
23.3. RESETTING THE ROOT PASSWORD ON BOOT 117

3
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 24.
. . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . FILE
. . . . . .PERMISSIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
...............
24.1. BASE FILE PERMISSIONS 120
24.2. USER FILE-CREATION MODE MASK 122
24.3. DEFAULT FILE PERMISSIONS 123
24.4. CHANGING FILE PERMISSIONS USING SYMBOLIC VALUES 125
24.5. CHANGING FILE PERMISSIONS USING OCTAL VALUES 127

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 25.
. . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . THE
. . . . .UMASK
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
...............
25.1. DISPLAYING THE CURRENT VALUE OF THE UMASK 128
25.2. DISPLAYING THE DEFAULT BASH UMASK 128
25.3. SETTING THE UMASK USING SYMBOLIC VALUES 129
25.4. SETTING THE UMASK USING OCTAL VALUES 130
25.5. CHANGING THE DEFAULT UMASK FOR THE NON-LOGIN SHELL 130
25.6. CHANGING THE DEFAULT UMASK FOR THE LOGIN SHELL 131
25.7. CHANGING THE DEFAULT UMASK FOR A SPECIFIC USER 131
25.8. SETTING DEFAULT PERMISSIONS FOR NEWLY CREATED HOME DIRECTORIES 132

. . . . . . . . . . . 26.
CHAPTER . . . .MANAGING
. . . . . . . . . . . . THE
. . . . . ACCESS
. . . . . . . . . CONTROL
. . . . . . . . . . . .LIST
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
...............
26.1. DISPLAYING THE CURRENT ACCESS CONTROL LIST 133
26.2. SETTING THE ACCESS CONTROL LIST 133

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 27.
. . . .USING
. . . . . . .THE
. . . . .CHRONY
. . . . . . . . . .SUITE
. . . . . . TO
. . . .CONFIGURE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . NTP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
...............
27.1. INTRODUCTION TO CHRONY SUITE 135
27.2. USING CHRONYC TO CONTROL CHRONYD 135

. . . . . . . . . . . 28.
CHAPTER . . . .USING
. . . . . . .CHRONY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
...............
28.1. MANAGING CHRONY 137
28.2. CHECKING IF CHRONY IS SYNCHRONIZED 137
28.3. MANUALLY ADJUSTING THE SYSTEM CLOCK 138
28.4. SETTING UP CHRONY FOR A SYSTEM IN AN ISOLATED NETWORK 139
28.5. CONFIGURING REMOTE MONITORING ACCESS 140
28.6. MANAGING TIME SYNCHRONIZATION USING RHEL SYSTEM ROLES 141
28.7. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 142

. . . . . . . . . . . 29.
CHAPTER . . . .CHRONY
. . . . . . . . . .WITH
. . . . . .HW
. . . .TIMESTAMPING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
...............
29.1. VERIFYING SUPPORT FOR HARDWARE TIMESTAMPING 143
29.2. ENABLING HARDWARE TIMESTAMPING 144
29.3. CONFIGURING CLIENT POLLING INTERVAL 144
29.4. ENABLING INTERLEAVED MODE 144
29.5. CONFIGURING SERVER FOR LARGE NUMBER OF CLIENTS 145
29.6. VERIFYING HARDWARE TIMESTAMPING 145
29.7. CONFIGURING PTP-NTP BRIDGE 146

.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 30.
. . . .OVERVIEW
. . . . . . . . . . . .OF
. . . NETWORK
. . . . . . . . . . . .TIME
. . . . . .SECURITY
. . . . . . . . . . .(NTS)
. . . . . . IN
. . .CHRONY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
...............
30.1. ENABLING NETWORK TIME SECURITY (NTS) IN THE CLIENT CONFIGURATION FILE 147
30.2. ENABLING NETWORK TIME SECURITY (NTS) ON THE SERVER 148

. . . . . . . . . . . 31.
CHAPTER . . . USING
. . . . . . . .SECURE
. . . . . . . . .COMMUNICATIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BETWEEN
. . . . . . . . . . .TWO
. . . . . SYSTEMS
. . . . . . . . . . .WITH
. . . . . .OPENSSH
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
...............
31.1. SSH AND OPENSSH 150
31.2. CONFIGURING AND STARTING AN OPENSSH SERVER 151
31.3. SETTING AN OPENSSH SERVER FOR KEY-BASED AUTHENTICATION 153
31.4. GENERATING SSH KEY PAIRS 154
31.5. USING SSH KEYS STORED ON A SMART CARD 155
31.6. MAKING OPENSSH MORE SECURE 156
31.7. CONNECTING TO A REMOTE SERVER USING AN SSH JUMP HOST 159

4
 Table of Contents

31.8. CONNECTING TO REMOTE MACHINES WITH SSH KEYS USING SSH-AGENT 160
31.9. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 161

5
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

6
 MAKING OPEN SOURCE MORE INCLUSIVE

MAKING OPEN SOURCE MORE INCLUSIVE

Red Hat is committed to replacing problematic language in our code, documentation, and web
properties. We are beginning with these four terms: master, slave, blacklist, and whitelist. Because of the
enormity of this endeavor, these changes will be implemented gradually over several upcoming releases.
For more details, see our CTO Chris Wright’s message .

7
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON RED HAT DOCUMENTATION

We appreciate your feedback on our documentation. Let us know how we can improve it.

Submitting comments on specific passages

1. View the documentation in the Multi-page HTML format and ensure that you see the
Feedback button in the upper right corner after the page fully loads.

2. Use your cursor to highlight the part of the text that you want to comment on.

3. Click the Add Feedback button that appears near the highlighted text.

4. Add your feedback and click Submit.

Submitting feedback through Bugzilla (account required)

1. Log in to the Bugzilla website.

2. Select the correct version from the Version menu.

3. Enter a descriptive title in the Summary field.

4. Enter your suggestion for improvement in the Description field. Include links to the relevant
parts of the documentation.

5. Click Submit Bug.

8
 CHAPTER 1. PREPARING A CONTROL NODE AND MANAGED NODES TO USE RHEL SYSTEM ROLES

CHAPTER 1. PREPARING A CONTROL NODE AND MANAGED

NODES TO USE RHEL SYSTEM ROLES
Before you can use individual RHEL System Roles to manage services and settings, prepare the involved
hosts.

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO RHEL SYSTEM ROLES

RHEL System Roles is a collection of Ansible roles and modules. RHEL System Roles provide a
configuration interface to remotely manage multiple RHEL systems. The interface enables managing
system configurations across multiple versions of RHEL, as well as adopting new major releases.

On Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9, the interface currently consists of the following roles:

Certificate Issuance and Renewal

Kernel Settings (kernel_settings)

Metrics (metrics)

Network Bound Disk Encryption client and Network Bound Disk Encryption server (nbde_client
and nbde_server)

Networking (network)

Postfix (postfix)

SSH client (ssh)

SSH server (sshd)

System-wide Cryptographic Policies (crypto_policies)

Terminal Session Recording (tlog)

All these roles are provided by the rhel-system-roles package available in the AppStream repository.

Additional resources

Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) System Roles

/usr/share/doc/rhel-system-roles/ provided by the rhel-system-roles package.

1.2. RHEL SYSTEM ROLES TERMINOLOGY

You can find the following terms across this documentation:

Ansible playbook
Playbooks are Ansible’s configuration, deployment, and orchestration language. They can describe a
policy you want your remote systems to enforce, or a set of steps in a general IT process.
Control node
Any machine with Ansible installed. You can run commands and playbooks, invoking /usr/bin/ansible
or /usr/bin/ansible-playbook, from any control node. You can use any computer that has Python
installed on it as a control node - laptops, shared desktops, and servers can all run Ansible. However,

9
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

you cannot use a Windows machine as a control node. You can have multiple control nodes.
Inventory
A list of managed nodes. An inventory file is also sometimes called a “hostfile”. Your inventory can
specify information like IP address for each managed node. An inventory can also organize managed
nodes, creating and nesting groups for easier scaling. To learn more about inventory, see the
Working with Inventory section.
Managed nodes
The network devices, servers, or both that you manage with Ansible. Managed nodes are also
sometimes called “hosts”. Ansible is not installed on managed nodes.

1.3. PREPARING A CONTROL NODE

RHEL includes Ansible Core in the AppStream repository with a limited scope of support. If you require
additional support for Ansible, contact Red Hat to learn more about the Ansible Automation Platform
subscription.

Prerequisites

You registered the system to the Customer Portal.

You attached a Red Hat Enterprise Linux Server subscription to the system.

If available in your Customer Portal account, you attached an Ansible Automation Platform
subscription to the system.

Procedure

1. Install the rhel-system-roles package:

[root@control-node]# dnf install rhel-system-roles

This command installs Ansible Core as a dependency.

2. Create a user that you later use to manage and execute playbooks:

[root@control-node]# useradd ansible

3. Switch to the newly created ansible user:

[root@control-node]# su - ansible

Perform the rest of the procedure as this user.

4. Create an SSH public and private key

[ansible@control-node]$ ssh-keygen
Generating public/private rsa key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/ansible/.ssh/id_rsa): password
...

Use the suggested default location for the key file.

5. Optional: Configure an SSH agent to prevent Ansible from prompting you for the SSH key

10
 CHAPTER 1. PREPARING A CONTROL NODE AND MANAGED NODES TO USE RHEL SYSTEM ROLES

5. Optional: Configure an SSH agent to prevent Ansible from prompting you for the SSH key
password each time you establish a connection.

6. Create the ~/.ansible.cfg file with the following content:

[defaults]
inventory = /home/ansible/inventory
remote_user = ansible

[privilege_escalation]
become = True
become_method = sudo
become_user = root
become_ask_pass = True

With these settings:

Ansible manages hosts in the specified inventory file.

Ansible uses the account set in the remote_user parameter when it establishes SSH
connections to managed nodes.

Ansible uses the sudo utility to execute tasks on managed nodes as the root user.
For security reasons, configure sudo on managed nodes to require entering the password
of the remote user to become root. By specifying the become_ask_pass=True setting in
~/.ansible.cfg, Ansible prompts for this password when you execute a playbook.

Settings in the ~/.ansible.cfg file have a higher priority and override settings from the global
/etc/ansible/ansible.cfg file.

7. Create the ~/inventory file. For example, the following is an inventory file in the INI format with
three hosts and one host group named US:

managed-node-01.example.com

[US]
managed-node-02.example.com ansible_host=192.0.2.100
managed-node-03.example.com

Note that the control node must be able to resolve the hostnames. If the DNS server cannot
resolve certain hostnames, add the ansible_host parameter next to the host entry to specify its
IP address.

Verification

1. Prepare a managed node .

2. Verify access from the control node to managed nodes

Additional resources

Scope of support for the Ansible Core package included in the RHEL 9 and RHEL 8.6 and later
AppStream repositories

How to register and subscribe a system to the Red Hat Customer Portal using subscription-
manager

11
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

The ssh-keygen(1) man page

Connecting to remote machines with SSH keys using ssh-agent

Ansible configuration settings

How to build your inventory

1.4. PREPARING A MANAGED NODE

Ansible does not use an agent on managed hosts. The only requirements are Python, which is installed by
default on RHEL, and SSH access to the managed host.

However, direct SSH access as the root user can be a security risk. Therefore, when you prepare a
managed node, you create a local user on this node and configure a sudo policy. Ansible on the control
node can then use this account to log in to the managed node and execute playbooks as different users,
such as root.

Prerequisites

You prepared the control node.

Procedure

1. Create a user:

[root@managed-node-01]# useradd ansible

The control node later uses this user to establish an SSH connection to this host.

2. Set a password to the ansible user:

[root@managed-node-01]# passwd ansible

Changing password for user ansible.
New password: password
Retype new password: password
passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully.

You must enter this password when Ansible uses sudo to perform tasks as the root user.

3. Install the ansible user’s SSH public key on the managed node:

a. Log into the control node as the ansible user, and copy the SSH public key to the managed
node:

[ansible@control-node]$ ssh-copy-id managed-node-01.example.com

/usr/bin/ssh-copy-id: INFO: Source of key(s) to be installed:
"/home/ansible/.ssh/id_rsa.pub"
The authenticity of host 'managed-node-01.example.com (192.0.2.100)' can't be
established.
ECDSA key fingerprint is
SHA256:9bZ33GJNODK3zbNhybokN/6Mq7hu3vpBXDrCxe7NAvo.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no/[fingerprint])? yes
/usr/bin/ssh-copy-id: INFO: attempting to log in with the new key(s), to filter out any that
are already installed

12
 CHAPTER 1. PREPARING A CONTROL NODE AND MANAGED NODES TO USE RHEL SYSTEM ROLES

/usr/bin/ssh-copy-id: INFO: 1 key(s) remain to be installed -- if you are prompted now it is

to install the new keys
[email protected]'s password: password

Number of key(s) added: 1

Now try logging into the machine, with: "ssh 'managed-node-01.example.com'"

and check to make sure that only the key(s) you wanted were added.

b. Remotely execute a command on the control node to verify the SSH connection:

[ansible@control-node]$ ssh managed-node-01.example.com whoami

ansible

4. Create a sudo configuration for the ansible user:

a. Use the visudo command to create and edit the /etc/sudoers.d/ansible file:

[root@managed-node-01]# visudo /etc/sudoers.d/ansible

The benefit of using visudo over a normal editor is that this utility provides basic sanity
checks and checks for parse errors before installing the file.

b. Enter the following content to the /etc/sudoers.d/ansible file:

ansible ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL

These settings grant permissions to the ansible user to run all commands as any user and
group on this host without entering the password of the ansible user.

Additional resources

Preparing the control node

The sudoers(5) man page

1.5. VERIFYING ACCESS FROM THE CONTROL NODE TO MANAGED

NODES
After you configured the control node and prepared managed nodes, test that Ansible can connect to
the managed nodes.

Perform this procedure as the ansible user on the control node.

Prerequisites

You prepared the control node as described in Preparing a control node .

You prepared at least one managed node as described in Preparing a managed node .

If you want to run playbooks on host groups, the managed node is listed in the inventory file on
the control node.

Procedure

13
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

1. Use the Ansible ping module to verify that you can execute commands on an all managed hosts:

[ansible@control-node]$ ansible all -m ping

BECOME password: password
managed-node-01.example.com | SUCCESS => {
"ansible_facts": {
"discovered_interpreter_python": "/usr/bin/python3"
},
"changed": false,
"ping": "pong"
}
...

The hard-coded all host group dynamically contains all hosts listed in the inventory file.

2. Use the Ansible command module to run the whoami utility on a managed host:

[ansible@control-node]$ ansible managed-node-01.example.com -m command -a

whoami
BECOME password: password
managed-node-01.example.com | CHANGED | rc=0 >>
root

If the command returns root, you configured sudo on the managed nodes correctly, and
privilege escalation works.

14
 CHAPTER 2. CHANGING BASIC ENVIRONMENT SETTINGS

CHAPTER 2. CHANGING BASIC ENVIRONMENT SETTINGS

Configuration of basic environment settings is a part of the installation process. The following sections
guide you when you change them later. The basic configuration of the environment includes:

Date and time

System locales

Keyboard layout

Language

2.1. CONFIGURING THE DATE AND TIME

Accurate timekeeping is important for a number of reasons. In Red Hat Enterprise Linux, timekeeping is
ensured by the NTP protocol, which is implemented by a daemon running in user space. The user-space
daemon updates the system clock running in the kernel. The system clock can keep time by using
various clock sources.

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 and later versions use the chronyd daemon to implement NTP. chronyd is
available from the chrony package. For more information, see Using the chrony suite to configure NTP .

2.1.1. Displaying the current date and time

To display the current date and time, use either of these steps.

Procedure

1. Enter the date command:

$ date
Mon Mar 30 16:02:59 CEST 2020

2. To see more details, use the timedatectl command:

$ timedatectl
Local time: Mon 2020-03-30 16:04:42 CEST
Universal time: Mon 2020-03-30 14:04:42 UTC
RTC time: Mon 2020-03-30 14:04:41
Time zone: Europe/Prague (CEST, +0200)
System clock synchronized: yes
NTP service: active
RTC in local TZ: no

Additional resources

Configuring time settings using the web console

man date(1) and man timedatectl(1)

2.2. CONFIGURING THE SYSTEM LOCALE

System-wide locale settings are stored in the /etc/locale.conf file, which is read at early boot by the
15
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

System-wide locale settings are stored in the /etc/locale.conf file, which is read at early boot by the
systemd daemon. Every service or user inherits the locale settings configured in /etc/locale.conf, unless
individual programs or individual users override them.

This section describes how to manage system locale.

Procedure

To list available system locale settings:

$ localectl list-locales
C.utf8
aa_DJ
aa_DJ.iso88591
aa_DJ.utf8
...

To display the current status of the system locales settings:

$ localectl status

To set or change the default system locale settings, use a localectl set-locale sub-command as
the root user. For example:

# localectl set-locale LANG=en_US

Additional resources

man localectl(1), man locale(7), and man locale.conf(5)

2.3. CONFIGURING THE KEYBOARD LAYOUT

The keyboard layout settings control the layout used on the text console and graphical user interfaces.

Procedure

To list available keymaps:

$ localectl list-keymaps
ANSI-dvorak
al
al-plisi
amiga-de
amiga-us
...

To display the current status of keymaps settings:

$ localectl status
...
VC Keymap: us
...

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 CHAPTER 2. CHANGING BASIC ENVIRONMENT SETTINGS

To set or change the default system keymap. For example:

# localectl set-keymap us

Additional resources

man localectl(1), man locale(7), and man locale.conf(5)

2.4. CHANGING THE LANGUAGE USING DESKTOP GUI

This section describes how to change the system language using the desktop GUI.

Prerequisites

Required language packages are installed on your system

Procedure

1. Open the GNOME Control Center from the System menu by clicking on its icon.

2. In the GNOME Control Center, choose Region & Language from the left vertical bar.

3. Click the Language menu.

4. Select the required region and language from the menu.

17
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

If your region and language are not listed, scroll down, and click More to select from available
regions and languages.

5. Click Done.

6. Click Restart for changes to take effect.

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 CHAPTER 2. CHANGING BASIC ENVIRONMENT SETTINGS

NOTE

Some applications do not support certain languages. The text of an application that
cannot be translated into the selected language remains in US English.

Additional resources

Launching applications in GNOME

2.5. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Performing a standard RHEL 9 installation

19
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 3. CONFIGURING AND MANAGING NETWORK

ACCESS
This section describes different options on how to add Ethernet connections in Red Hat
Enterprise Linux.

3.1. CONFIGURING THE NETWORK AND HOST NAME IN THE

GRAPHICAL INSTALLATION MODE
Follow the steps in this procedure to configure your network and host name.

Procedure

1. From the Installation Summary window, click Network and Host Name.

2. From the list in the left-hand pane, select an interface. The details are displayed in the right-
hand pane.

NOTE

There are several types of network device naming standards used to identify
network devices with persistent names, for example, em1 and wl3sp0. For
information about these standards, see the Configuring and managing
networking document.

3. Toggle the ON/OFF switch to enable or disable the selected interface.

NOTE

The installation program automatically detects locally accessible interfaces, and

you cannot add or remove them manually.

4. Click + to add a virtual network interface, which can be either: Team (deprecated), Bond, Bridge,
or VLAN.

5. Click - to remove a virtual interface.

6. Click Configure to change settings such as IP addresses, DNS servers, or routing configuration
for an existing interface (both virtual and physical).

7. Type a host name for your system in the Host Name field.

NOTE
20
 CHAPTER 3. CONFIGURING AND MANAGING NETWORK ACCESS

NOTE

The host name can be either a fully-qualified domain name (FQDN) in the
format hostname.domainname, or a short host name with no domain name.
Many networks have a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service
that automatically supplies connected systems with a domain name. To allow
the DHCP service to assign the domain name to this machine, specify only
the short host name. The value localhost means that no specific static host
name for the target system is configured, and the actual host name of the
installed system is configured during the processing of the network
configuration, for example, by NetworkManager using DHCP or DNS.

Host names can only contain alpha-numeric characters and - or .. Host

names cannot start or end with - and ..

8. Click Apply to apply the host name to the installer environment.

9. Alternatively, in the Network and Hostname window, you can choose the Wireless option. Click
Select network in the right-hand pane to select your wifi connection, enter the password if
required, and click Done.

Additional resources

Performing an advanced RHEL 9 installation

3.2. CONFIGURING A STATIC ETHERNET CONNECTION USING NMCLI

This procedure describes adding an Ethernet connection with the following settings using the nmcli
utility:

A static IPv4 address - 192.0.2.1 with a /24 subnet mask

A static IPv6 address - 2001:db8:1::1 with a /64 subnet mask

An IPv4 default gateway - 192.0.2.254

An IPv6 default gateway - 2001:db8:1::fffe

An IPv4 DNS server - 192.0.2.200

An IPv6 DNS server - 2001:db8:1::ffbb

A DNS search domain - example.com

Procedure

1. Add a new NetworkManager connection profile for the Ethernet connection:

# nmcli connection add con-name Example-Connection ifname enp7s0 type ethernet

The further steps modify the Example-Connection connection profile you created.

2. Set the IPv4 address:

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv4.addresses 192.0.2.1/24

21
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

3. Set the IPv6 address:

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv6.addresses 2001:db8:1::1/64

4. Set the IPv4 and IPv6 connection method to manual:

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv4.method manual

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv6.method manual

5. Set the IPv4 and IPv6 default gateways:

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv4.gateway 192.0.2.254

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv6.gateway 2001:db8:1::fffe

6. Set the IPv4 and IPv6 DNS server addresses:

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv4.dns "192.0.2.200"

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv6.dns "2001:db8:1::ffbb"

To set multiple DNS servers, specify them space-separated and enclosed in quotes.

7. Set the DNS search domain for the IPv4 and IPv6 connection:

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv4.dns-search example.com

# nmcli connection modify Example-Connection ipv6.dns-search example.com

8. Activate the connection profile:

# nmcli connection up Example-Connection

Connection successfully activated (D-Bus active path:
/org/freedesktop/NetworkManager/ActiveConnection/13)

Verification steps

1. Display the status of the devices and connections:

# nmcli device status

DEVICE TYPE STATE CONNECTION
enp7s0 ethernet connected Example-Connection

2. Use the ping utility to verify that this host can send packets to other hosts:

# ping host_name_or_IP_address

Troubleshooting

Make sure that the network cable is plugged-in to the host and a switch.

Check whether the link failure exists only on this host or also on other hosts connected to the
same switch.

Verify that the network cable and the network interface are working as expected. Perform

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 CHAPTER 3. CONFIGURING AND MANAGING NETWORK ACCESS

Verify that the network cable and the network interface are working as expected. Perform
hardware diagnosis steps and replace defect cables and network interface cards.

If the configuration on the disk does not match the configuration on the device, starting or
restarting NetworkManager creates an in-memory connection that reflects the configuration of
the device. For further details and how to avoid this problem, see NetworkManager duplicates a
connection after restart of NetworkManager service.

Additional resources

nm-settings(5) man page

nmcli(1) man page

Configuring NetworkManager to avoid using a specific profile to provide a default gateway

3.3. CONFIGURING A DYNAMIC ETHERNET CONNECTION USING

NMTUI
The nmtui application provides a text-based user interface for NetworkManager. You can use nmtui to
configure an Ethernet connection with a dynamic IP address on a host without a graphical interface.

NOTE

In nmtui:

Navigate by using the cursor keys.

Press a button by selecting it and hitting Enter.

Select and deselect checkboxes by using Space.

Procedure

1. If you do not know the network device name you want to use in the connection, display the
available devices:

# nmcli device status

DEVICE TYPE STATE CONNECTION
enp7s0 ethernet unavailable --
...

2. Start nmtui:

# nmtui

3. Select Edit a connection, and press Enter.

4. Press the Add button.

5. Select Ethernet from the list of network types, and press Enter.

6. Optional: Enter a name for the NetworkManager profile to be created.

23
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

7. Enter the network device name into the Device field.

8. Press the OK button to create and automatically activate the new connection.

9. Press the Back button to return to the main menu.

10. Select Quit, and press Enter to close the nmtui application.

Verification

1. Display the status of the devices and connections:

# nmcli device status

DEVICE TYPE STATE CONNECTION
enp7s0 ethernet connected Example-Connection

2. Use the ping utility to verify that this host can send packets to other hosts:

# ping host_name_or_IP_address

Troubleshooting

Make sure that the network cable is plugged-in to the host and a switch.

Check whether the link failure exists only on this host or also on other hosts connected to the
same switch.

Verify that the network cable and the network interface are working as expected. Perform
hardware diagnosis steps and replace defect cables and network interface cards.

If the configuration on the disk does not match the configuration on the device, starting or
restarting NetworkManager creates an in-memory connection that reflects the configuration of
the device. For further details and how to avoid this problem, see NetworkManager duplicates a
connection after restart of NetworkManager service.

Additional resources

Configuring NetworkManager to avoid using a specific profile to provide a default gateway

3.4. CONFIGURING A STATIC ETHERNET CONNECTION USING NMTUI

The nmtui application provides a text-based user interface for NetworkManager. You can use nmtui to
24
 CHAPTER 3. CONFIGURING AND MANAGING NETWORK ACCESS

The nmtui application provides a text-based user interface for NetworkManager. You can use nmtui to
configure an Ethernet connection with a static IP address on a host without a graphical interface.

NOTE

In nmtui:

Navigate by using the cursor keys.

Press a button by selecting it and hitting Enter.

Select and deselect checkboxes by using Space.

Procedure

1. If you do not know the network device name you want to use in the connection, display the
available devices:

# nmcli device status

DEVICE TYPE STATE CONNECTION
enp7s0 ethernet unavailable --
...

2. Start nmtui:

# nmtui

3. Select Edit a connection, and press Enter.

4. Press the Add button.

5. Select Ethernet from the list of network types, and press Enter.

6. Optional: Enter a name for the NetworkManager profile to be created.

7. Enter the network device name into the Device field.

8. Configure the IPv4 and IPv6 address settings in the IPv4 configuration and IPv6
configuration areas:

a. Press the Automatic button, and select Manual from the displayed list.

b. Press the Show button next to the protocol you want to configure to display additional
fields.

c. Press the Add button next to Addresses, and enter the IP address and the subnet mask in
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) format.
If you do not specify a subnet mask, NetworkManager sets a /32 subnet mask for IPv4
addresses and /64 for IPv6 addresses.

d. Enter the address of the default gateway.

e. Press the Add button next to DNS servers, and enter the DNS server address.

f. Press the Add button next to Search domains, and enter the DNS search domain.

Figure 3.1. Example of an Ethernet connection with static IP address settings

25
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Figure 3.1. Example of an Ethernet connection with static IP address settings

9. Press the OK button to create and automatically activate the new connection.

10. Press the Back button to return to the main menu.

11. Select Quit, and press Enter to close the nmtui application.

Verification

1. Display the status of the devices and connections:

# nmcli device status

DEVICE TYPE STATE CONNECTION
enp7s0 ethernet connected Example-Connection

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 CHAPTER 3. CONFIGURING AND MANAGING NETWORK ACCESS

2. Use the ping utility to verify that this host can send packets to other hosts:

# ping host_name_or_IP_address

Troubleshooting

Make sure that the network cable is plugged-in to the host and a switch.

Check whether the link failure exists only on this host or also on other hosts connected to the
same switch.

Verify that the network cable and the network interface are working as expected. Perform
hardware diagnosis steps and replace defect cables and network interface cards.

If the configuration on the disk does not match the configuration on the device, starting or
restarting NetworkManager creates an in-memory connection that reflects the configuration of
the device. For further details and how to avoid this problem, see NetworkManager duplicates a
connection after restart of NetworkManager service.

Additional resources

Configuring NetworkManager to avoid using a specific profile to provide a default gateway

3.5. MANAGING NETWORKING IN THE RHEL WEB CONSOLE

In the web console, the Networking menu enables you:

To display currently received and sent packets

To display the most important characteristics of available network interfaces

To display content of the networking logs.

To add various types of network interfaces (bond, team, bridge, VLAN)

Figure 3.2. Managing Networking in the RHEL web console

27
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

3.6. MANAGING NETWORKING USING RHEL SYSTEM ROLES

You can configure the networking connections on multiple target machines using the network role.

The network role allows to configure the following types of interfaces:

Ethernet

Bridge

Bonded

VLAN

MacVLAN

InfiniBand

The required networking connections for each host are provided as a list within the
network_connections variable.


WARNING

The network role updates or creates all connection profiles on the target system
exactly as specified in the network_connections variable. Therefore, the network
role removes options from the specified profiles if the options are only present on
the system but not in the network_connections variable.

The following example shows how to apply the network role to ensure that an Ethernet connection with
the required parameters exists:

An example playbook applying the network role to set up an Ethernet connection with the
required parameters

# SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause
---
- hosts: managed-node-01.example.com
vars:
network_connections:

# Create one Ethernet profile and activate it.

# The profile uses automatic IP addressing
# and is tied to the interface by MAC address.
- name: prod1
state: up
type: ethernet
autoconnect: yes
mac: "00:00:5e:00:53:00"
mtu: 1450

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 CHAPTER 3. CONFIGURING AND MANAGING NETWORK ACCESS

roles:
- rhel-system-roles.network

Additional resources

Preparing a control node and managed nodes to use RHEL System Roles

3.7. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Configuring and managing networking

29
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 4. REGISTERING THE SYSTEM AND MANAGING

SUBSCRIPTIONS
Subscriptions cover products installed on Red Hat Enterprise Linux, including the operating system
itself.

You can use a subscription to Red Hat Content Delivery Network to track:

Registered systems

Products installed on your systems

Subscriptions attached to the installed products

4.1. REGISTERING THE SYSTEM AFTER THE INSTALLATION

Use the following procedure to register your system if you have not registered it during the installation
process already.

Prerequisites

A valid user account in the Red Hat Customer Portal.

See the Create a Red Hat Login page.

An active subscription for the RHEL system.

For more information about the installation process, see Performing a standard RHEL 9
installation.

Procedure

1. Register and automatically subscribe your system in one step:

# subscription-manager register --username <username> --password <password> --auto-

attach
Registering to: subscription.rhsm.redhat.com:443/subscription
The system has been registered with ID: 37to907c-ece6-49ea-9174-20b87ajk9ee7
The registered system name is: client1.idm.example.com
Installed Product Current Status:
Product Name: Red Hat Enterprise Linux for x86_64
Status: Subscribed

The command prompts you to enter your Red Hat Customer Portal user name and password.

If the registration process fails, you can register your system with a specific pool. For guidance
on how to do it, proceed with the following steps:

a. Determine the pool ID of a subscription that you require:

# subscription-manager list --available

This command displays all available subscriptions for your Red Hat account. For every
subscription, various characteristics are displayed, including the pool ID.

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 CHAPTER 4. REGISTERING THE SYSTEM AND MANAGING SUBSCRIPTIONS

b. Attach the appropriate subscription to your system by replacing pool_id with the pool ID
determined in the previous step:

# subscription-manager attach --pool=pool_id

NOTE

To register the system with Red Hat Insights, you can use the rhc connect utility. See
Setting up Red Hat connector .

Additional resources

Understanding autoattaching subscriptions on the Customer Portal

Understanding the manual registration and subscription on the Customer Portal

4.2. REGISTERING SUBSCRIPTIONS WITH CREDENTIALS IN THE WEB

CONSOLE
Use the following steps to register a newly installed Red Hat Enterprise Linux with account credentials
using the RHEL web console.

Prerequisites

A valid user account on the Red Hat Customer Portal.

See the Create a Red Hat Login page.

Active subscription for your RHEL system.

Procedure

1. Log in to the RHEL web console. For details, see Logging in to the web console .

2. In the Health filed in the Overview page, click the Not registered warning, or click
Subscriptions in the main menu to move to page with your subscription information.

3. In the Overview filed, click Register.

31
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

4. In the Register system dialog box, select that you want to register using your account
credentials.

5. Enter your username.

6. Enter your password.

7. Optionally, enter your organization’s name or ID.

If your account belongs to more than one organization on the Red Hat Customer Portal, you
have to add the organization name or organization ID. To get the org ID, go to your Red Hat
contact point.

If you do not want to connect your system to Red Hat Insights, uncheck the Insights check
box.

8. Click the Register button.

At this point, your Red Hat Enterprise Linux system has been successfully registered.

4.3. REGISTERING A SYSTEM USING RED HAT ACCOUNT ON GNOME

Follow the steps in this procedure to enroll your system with your Red Hat account.

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 CHAPTER 4. REGISTERING THE SYSTEM AND MANAGING SUBSCRIPTIONS

Prerequisites

A valid account on Red Hat customer portal.

See the Create a Red Hat Login page for new user registration.

Procedure

1. Open the system menu, which is accessible from the upper-right screen corner, and click
Settings.

2. Go to About → Subscription.

3. If you are not using the Red Hat server:

a. In the Registration Server section, select Custom Address.

b. Enter the server address in the URL field.

4. In the Registration Type section, select Red Hat Account.

5. In the Registration Details section:

Enter your Red Hat account user name in the Login field.

Enter your Red Hat account password in the Password field.

Enter the name of your organization in the Organization field.

6. Click Register.

4.4. REGISTERING A SYSTEM USING AN ACTIVATION KEY ON GNOME

Follow the steps in this procedure to register your system with an activation key. You can get the
activation key from your organization administrator.

Prerequisites

Activation key or keys.

See the Activation Keys page for creating new activation keys.

Procedure

1. Open the system menu, which is accessible from the upper-right screen corner, and click
Settings.

2. Go to About → Subscription.

3. If you are not using the Red Hat server:

a. In the Registration Server section, select Custom Address.

b. Enter the server address in the URL field.

4. In the Registration Type section, select Activation Keys.

5. Under Registration Details:

33
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Enter your activation keys in the Activation Keys field.

Separate your keys by a comma (,).

Enter the name or ID of your organization in the Organization field.

6. Click Register.

34
 CHAPTER 5. MAKING SYSTEMD SERVICES START AT BOOT TIME

CHAPTER 5. MAKING SYSTEMD SERVICES START AT BOOT

TIME
As a system administrator, you can determine how services start on your system. For managing services,
you can use the systemctl command-line utility for controlling the systemd system and service
manager, or you can use the RHEL web console.

5.1. ENABLING OR DISABLING SERVICES

As a system administrator, you can enable or disable a service to start at boot, these changes apply with
the next reboot. If you want a service to start automatically at boot, you must enable this service. If you
disable a service, it will not start at boot, but you can start it manually. You can also mask a service, so
that it cannot be started manually. Masking is a way of disabling a service that makes the service
permanently unusable until it is unmasked again.

Prerequisites

You must have root access to the system.

The service you want to enable must not be masked. If you have a masked service, you must
unmask it first:

# systemctl unmask service_name

Procedure

1. Enable a service to start at boot:

# systemctl enable service_name

Replace service_name with the service you want to enable.

You can also enable and start a service in a single command:

# systemctl enable --now service_name

2. Disable a service to start at boot:

# systemctl disable service_name

Replace service_name with the service you want to disable.

If you want to make a service permanently unusable, mask the service:

# systemctl mask service_name

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 6. CONFIGURING SYSTEM SECURITY

Computer security is the protection of computer systems and their hardware, software, information, and
services from theft, damage, disruption, and misdirection. Ensuring computer security is an essential
task, in particular in enterprises that process sensitive data and handle business transactions.

This section covers only the basic security features that you can configure after installation of the
operating system.

6.1. ENABLING THE FIREWALLD SERVICE

A firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
according to configured security rules. A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted secure
internal network and another outside network.

The firewalld service, which provides a firewall in Red Hat Enterprise Linux, is automatically enabled
during installation.

To enable the firewalld service, follow this procedure.

Procedure

Display the current status of firewalld:

$ systemctl status firewalld

● firewalld.service - firewalld - dynamic firewall daemon
Loaded: loaded (/usr/lib/systemd/system/firewalld.service; disabled; vendor preset:
enabled)
Active: inactive (dead)
...

If firewalld is not enabled and running, switch to the root user, and start the firewalld service
and enable to start it automatically after the system restarts:

# systemctl enable --now firewalld

Verification steps

Check that firewalld is running and enabled:

$ systemctl status firewalld

● firewalld.service - firewalld - dynamic firewall daemon
Loaded: loaded (/usr/lib/systemd/system/firewalld.service; enabled; vendor preset:
enabled)
Active: active (running)
...

Additional resources

Using and configuring firewalld

man firewalld(1)

36
 CHAPTER 6. CONFIGURING SYSTEM SECURITY

6.2. MANAGING BASIC SELINUX SETTINGS

Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) is an additional layer of system security that determines which
processes can access which files, directories, and ports. These permissions are defined in SELinux
policies. A policy is a set of rules that guide the SELinux security engine.

SELinux has two possible states:

Disabled

Enabled

When SELinux is enabled, it runs in one of the following modes:

Enabled

Enforcing

Permissive

In enforcing mode, SELinux enforces the loaded policies. SELinux denies access based on SELinux
policy rules and enables only the interactions that are explicitly allowed. Enforcing mode is the safest
SELinux mode and is the default mode after installation.

In permissive mode, SELinux does not enforce the loaded policies. SELinux does not deny access, but
reports actions that break the rules to the /var/log/audit/audit.log log. Permissive mode is the default
mode during installation. Permissive mode is also useful in some specific cases, for example when
troubleshooting problems.

Additional resources

Using SELinux

6.3. ENSURING THE REQUIRED STATE OF SELINUX

By default, SELinux operates in enforcing mode. However, in specific scenarios, you can set SELinux to
permissive mode or even disable it.

IMPORTANT

Red Hat recommends to keep your system in enforcing mode. For debugging purposes,
you can set SELinux to permissive mode.

Follow this procedure to change the state and mode of SELinux on your system.

Procedure

1. Display the current SELinux mode:

$ getenforce

2. To temporarily set SELinux:

a. To Enforcing mode:

37
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

# setenforce Enforcing

b. To Permissive mode:

# setenforce Permissive

NOTE

After reboot, SELinux mode is set to the value specified in the

/etc/selinux/config configuration file.

3. To set SELinux mode to persist across reboots, modify the SELINUX variable in the
/etc/selinux/config configuration file.
For example, to switch SELinux to enforcing mode:

# This file controls the state of SELinux on the system.

# SELINUX= can take one of these three values:
# enforcing - SELinux security policy is enforced.
# permissive - SELinux prints warnings instead of enforcing.
# disabled - No SELinux policy is loaded.
SELINUX=enforcing
...


WARNING

Disabling SELinux reduces your system security. Avoid disabling SELinux

using the SELINUX=disabled option in the /etc/selinux/config file
because this can result in memory leaks and race conditions causing kernel
panics. Instead, disable SELinux by adding the selinux=0 parameter to the
kernel command line. For more information, see Changing SELinux modes
at boot time.

Additional resources

Changing SELinux states and modes

6.4. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Generating SSH key pairs

Setting an OpenSSH server for key-based authentication

Security hardening

Using SELinux

Securing networks

38
 CHAPTER 7. GETTING STARTED WITH MANAGING USER ACCOUNTS

CHAPTER 7. GETTING STARTED WITH MANAGING USER

ACCOUNTS
Red Hat Enterprise Linux is a multi-user operating system, which enables multiple users on different
computers to access a single system installed on one machine. Every user operates under its own
account, and managing user accounts thus represents a core element of Red Hat Enterprise Linux
system administration.

The following are the different types of user accounts:

Normal user accounts:

Normal accounts are created for users of a particular system. Such accounts can be added,
removed, and modified during normal system administration.

System user accounts:

System user accounts represent a particular applications identifier on a system. Such accounts
are generally added or manipulated only at software installation time, and they are not modified
later.


WARNING

System accounts are presumed to be available locally on a system. If these

accounts are configured and provided remotely, such as in the instance of
an LDAP configuration, system breakage and service start failures can
occur.

For system accounts, user IDs below 1000 are reserved. For normal accounts, you can use IDs
starting at 1000. However, the recommended practice is to assign IDs starting at 5000. For
assigning IDs, see the /etc/login.defs file.

Group:
A group is an entity which ties together multiple user accounts for a common purpose, such as
granting access to particular files.

7.1. MANAGING ACCOUNTS AND GROUPS USING COMMAND LINE

TOOLS
This section describes basic command-line tools to manage user accounts and groups.

To display user and group IDs:

$ id
uid=1000(example.user) gid=1000(example.user) groups=1000(example.user),10(wheel)
context=unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023

To create a new user account:

# useradd example.user

39
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

To assign a new password to a user account belonging to example.user:

# passwd example.user

To add a user to a group:

# usermod -a -G example.group example.user

Additional resources

man useradd(8), man passwd(1), and man usermod(8)

7.2. SYSTEM USER ACCOUNTS MANAGED IN THE WEB CONSOLE

With user accounts displayed in the RHEL web console you can:

Authenticate users when accessing the system.

Set the access rights to the system.

The RHEL web console displays all user accounts located in the system. Therefore, you can see at least
one user account just after the first login to the web console.

After logging into the RHEL web console, you can perform the following operations:

Create new users accounts.

Change their parameters.

Lock accounts.

Terminate user sessions.

7.3. ADDING NEW ACCOUNTS USING THE WEB CONSOLE

Use the following steps for adding user accounts to the system and setting administration rights to the
accounts through the RHEL web console.

Prerequisites

The RHEL web console must be installed and accessible. For details, see Installing the web
console.

Procedure

1. Log in to the RHEL web console.

2. Click Accounts.

3. Click Create New Account.

1. In the Full Name field, enter the full name of the user.

The RHEL web console automatically suggests a user name from the full name and fills it in the
40
 CHAPTER 7. GETTING STARTED WITH MANAGING USER ACCOUNTS

The RHEL web console automatically suggests a user name from the full name and fills it in the
User Name field. If you do not want to use the original naming convention consisting of the first
letter of the first name and the whole surname, update the suggestion.

2. In the Password/Confirm fields, enter the password and retype it for verification that your
password is correct.
The color bar placed below the fields shows you security level of the entered password, which
does not allow you to create a user with a weak password.

1. Click Create to save the settings and close the dialog box.

2. Select the newly created account.

3. Select Server Administrator in the Roles item.

Now you can see the new account in the Accounts settings and you can use the credentials to
connect to the system.

41
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 8. DUMPING A CRASHED KERNEL FOR LATER

ANALYSIS
To analyze why a system crashed, you can use the kdump service to save the contents of the system’s
memory for later analysis. This section provides a brief introduction to kdump, and information about
configuring kdump using the RHEL web console or using the corresponding RHEL system role.

8.1. WHAT IS KDUMP

kdump is a service which provides a crash dumping mechanism. The service enables you to save the
contents of the system memory for analysis. kdump uses the kexec system call to boot into the second
kernel (a capture kernel) without rebooting; and then captures the contents of the crashed kernel’s
memory (a crash dump or a vmcore) and saves it into a file. The second kernel resides in a reserved part
of the system memory.

IMPORTANT

A kernel crash dump can be the only information available in the event of a system failure
(a critical bug). Therefore, operational kdump is important in mission-critical
environments. Red Hat advise that system administrators regularly update and test
kexec-tools in your normal kernel update cycle. This is especially important when new
kernel features are implemented.

You can enable kdump for all installed kernels on a machine or only for specified kernels. This is useful
when there are multiple kernels used on a machine, some of which are stable enough that there is no
concern that they could crash.

When kdump is installed, a default /etc/kdump.conf file is created. The file includes the default
minimum kdump configuration. You can edit this file to customize the kdump configuration, but it is not
required.

8.2. CONFIGURING KDUMP MEMORY USAGE AND TARGET LOCATION

IN WEB CONSOLE
The procedure below shows you how to use the Kernel Dump tab in the RHEL web console interface to
configure the amount of memory that is reserved for the kdump kernel. The procedure also describes
how to specify the target location of the vmcore dump file and how to test your configuration.

Procedure

1. Open the Kernel Dump tab and start the kdump service.

2. Configure the kdump memory usage using the command line.

3. Click the link next to the Crash dump location option.

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 CHAPTER 8. DUMPING A CRASHED KERNEL FOR LATER ANALYSIS

4. Select the Local Filesystem option from the drop-down and specify the directory you want to
save the dump in.

Alternatively, select the Remote over SSH option from the drop-down to send the vmcore
to a remote machine using the SSH protocol.
Fill the Server, ssh key, and Directory fields with the remote machine address, ssh key
location, and a target directory.

Another choice is to select the Remote over NFS option from the drop-down and fill the
Mount field to send the vmcore to a remote machine using the NFS protocol.

NOTE

Tick the Compression check box to reduce the size of the vmcore file.

5. Test your configuration by crashing the kernel.

43
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

a. Click Test configuration.

b. In the Test kdump settings field, click Crash system.


WARNING

This step disrupts execution of the kernel and results in a system crash
and loss of data.

Additional resources

Supported kdump targets

Using secure communications between two systems with OpenSSH

8.3. KDUMP USING RHEL SYSTEM ROLES

RHEL System Roles is a collection of Ansible roles and modules that provide a consistent configuration
interface to remotely manage multiple RHEL systems. The kdump role enables you to set basic kernel
dump parameters on multiple systems.


WARNING

The kdump role replaces the kdump configuration of the managed hosts entirely
by replacing the /etc/kdump.conf file. Additionally, if the kdump role is applied, all
previous kdump settings are also replaced, even if they are not specified by the role
variables, by replacing the /etc/sysconfig/kdump file.

The following example playbook shows how to apply the kdump system role to set the location of the
44
 CHAPTER 8. DUMPING A CRASHED KERNEL FOR LATER ANALYSIS

The following example playbook shows how to apply the kdump system role to set the location of the
crash dump files:

---
- hosts: kdump-test
vars:
kdump_path: /var/crash
roles:
- rhel-system-roles.kdump

For a detailed reference on kdump role variables, install the rhel-system-roles package, and see the
README.md or README.html files in the /usr/share/doc/rhel-system-roles/kdump directory.

Additional resources

Introduction to RHEL System Roles

8.4. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Installing kdump

Configuring kdump on the command line

Configuring kdump in the web console

45
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 9. RECOVERING AND RESTORING A SYSTEM

To recover and restore a system using an existing backup, Red Hat Enterprise Linux provides the Relax-
and-Recover (ReaR) utility.

You can use the utility as a disaster recovery solution and also for system migration.

The utility enables you to perform the following tasks:

Produce a bootable image and restore the system from an existing backup, using the image.

Replicate the original storage layout.

Restore user and system files.

Restore the system to a different hardware.

Additionally, for disaster recovery, you can also integrate certain backup software with ReaR.

Setting up ReaR involves the following high-level steps:

1. Install ReaR.

2. Modify ReaR configuration file, to add backup method details.

3. Create rescue system.

4. Generate backup files.

9.1. SETTING UP REAR

Use the following steps to install the package for using the Relax-and-Recover (ReaR) utility, create a
rescue system, configure and generate a backup.

Prerequisites

Necessary configurations as per the backup restore plan are ready.

Note that you can use the NETFS backup method, a fully-integrated and built-in method with
ReaR.

Procedure

1. Install the ReaR utility by running the following command:

# dnf install rear

2. Modify the ReaR configuration file in an editor of your choice, for example:

# vi /etc/rear/local.conf

3. Add the backup setting details to /etc/rear/local.conf. For example, in the case of the NETFS
backup method, add the following lines:

BACKUP=NETFS
BACKUP_URL=backup.location

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 CHAPTER 9. RECOVERING AND RESTORING A SYSTEM

Replace backup.location by the URL of your backup location.

4. To configure ReaR to keep the previous backup archive when the new one is created, also add
the following line to the configuration file:

NETFS_KEEP_OLD_BACKUP_COPY=y

5. To make the backups incremental, meaning that only the changed files are backed up on each
run, add the following line:

BACKUP_TYPE=incremental

6. Create a rescue system:

# rear mkrescue

7. Take a backup as per the restore plan. For example, in the case of the NETFS backup method,
run the following command:

# rear mkbackuponly

Alternatively, you can create the rescue system and the backup in a single step by running the
following command:

# rear mkbackup

This command combines the functionality of the rear mkrescue and rear mkbackuponly
commands.

9.2. USING A REAR RESCUE IMAGE ON THE 64-BIT IBM Z

ARCHITECTURE
Basic Relax and Recover (ReaR) functionality is now available on the 64-bit IBM Z architecture as a
Technology Preview. You can create a ReaR rescue image on IBM Z only in the z/VM environment.
Backing up and recovering logical partitions (LPARs) has not been tested.

IMPORTANT

ReaR on the 64-bit IBM Z architecture is a Technology Preview feature only. Technology
Preview features are not supported with Red Hat production service level agreements
(SLAs) and might not be functionally complete. Red Hat does not recommend using
them in production. These features provide early access to upcoming product features,
enabling customers to test functionality and provide feedback during the development
process. For more information about the support scope of Red Hat Technology Preview
features, see https://access.redhat.com/support/offerings/techpreview.

The only output method currently available is Initial Program Load (IPL). IPL produces a kernel and an
initial ramdisk (initrd) that can be used with the zIPL bootloader.

Prerequisites

47
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

ReaR is installed.

To install ReaR, run the dnf install rear command

Procedure
Add the following variables to the /etc/rear/local.conf to configure ReaR for producing a rescue image
on the 64-bit IBM Z architecture:

1. To configure the IPL output method, add OUTPUT=IPL.

2. To configure the backup method and destination, add BACKUP and BACKUP_URL variables.
For example:

BACKUP=NETFS

BACKUP_URL=nfs://<nfsserver name>/<share path>

IMPORTANT

The local backup storage is currently not supported on the 64-bit IBM Z
architecture.

3. Optionally, you can also configure the OUTPUT_URL variable to save the kernel and initrd files.
By default, the OUTPUT_URL is aligned with BACKUP_URL.

4. To perform backup and rescue image creation:

rear mkbackup

5. This creates the kernel and initrd files at the location specified by the BACKUP_URL or
OUTPUT_URL (if set) variable, and a backup using the specified backup method.

6. To recover the system, use the ReaR kernel and initrd files created in step 3, and boot from a
Direct Attached Storage Device (DASD) or a Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP)-attached SCSI
device prepared with the zipl boot loader, kernel, and initrd. For more information, see Using a
Prepared DASD.

7. When the rescue kernel and initrd get booted, it starts the ReaR rescue environment. Proceed
with system recovery.


WARNING

Currently, the rescue process reformats all the DASDs (Direct Attached Storage
Devices) connected to the system. Do not attempt a system recovery if there is any
valuable data present on the system storage devices. This also includes the device
prepared with the zipl bootloader, ReaR kernel, and initrd that were used to boot
into the rescue environment. Ensure to keep a copy.

Additional resources

48
 CHAPTER 9. RECOVERING AND RESTORING A SYSTEM

Installing under z/VM

Using a Prepared DASD

49
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 10. TROUBLESHOOTING PROBLEMS USING LOG

FILES
Log files contain messages about the system, including the kernel, services, and applications running on
it. These contain information that helps troubleshoot issues or monitor system functions. The logging
system in Red Hat Enterprise Linux is based on the built-in syslog protocol. Particular programs use
this system to record events and organize them into log files, which are useful when auditing the
operating system and troubleshooting various problems.

10.1. SERVICES HANDLING SYSLOG MESSAGES

The following two services handle syslog messages:

The systemd-journald daemon

The Rsyslog service

The systemd-journald daemon collects messages from various sources and forwards them to Rsyslog
for further processing. The systemd-journald daemon collects messages from the following sources:

Kernel

Early stages of the boot process

Standard and error output of daemons as they start up and run

Syslog

The Rsyslog service sorts the syslog messages by type and priority and writes them to the files in the
/var/log directory. The /var/log directory persistently stores the log messages.

10.2. SUBDIRECTORIES STORING SYSLOG MESSAGES

The following subdirectories under the /var/log directory store syslog messages.

/var/log/messages - all syslog messages except the following

/var/log/secure - security and authentication-related messages and errors

/var/log/maillog - mail server-related messages and errors

/var/log/cron - log files related to periodically executed tasks

/var/log/boot.log - log files related to system startup

10.3. INSPECTING LOG FILES USING THE WEB CONSOLE

Follow the steps in this procedure to inspect the log files using the RHEL web console.

Procedure

1. Log into the RHEL web console. For details see Logging in to the web console .

2. Click Logs.

Figure 10.1. Inspecting the log files in the RHEL 9 web console
50
 CHAPTER 10. TROUBLESHOOTING PROBLEMS USING LOG FILES

Figure 10.1. Inspecting the log files in the RHEL 9 web console

10.4. VIEWING LOGS USING THE COMMAND LINE

The Journal is a component of systemd that helps to view and manage log files. It addresses problems
connected with traditional logging, closely integrated with the rest of the system, and supports various
logging technologies and access management for the log files.

You can use the journalctl command to view messages in the system journal using the command line,
for example:

$ journalctl -b | grep kvm

May 15 11:31:41 localhost.localdomain kernel: kvm-clock: Using msrs 4b564d01 and 4b564d00
May 15 11:31:41 localhost.localdomain kernel: kvm-clock: cpu 0, msr 76401001, primary cpu clock
...

Table 10.1. Viewing system information

Command Description

journalctl Shows all collected journal entries.

journalctl FILEPATH Shows logs related to a specific file. For example, the
journalctl /dev/sda command displays logs related
to the /dev/sda file system.

journalctl -b Shows logs for the current boot.

journalctl -k -b -1 Shows kernel logs for the current boot.

Table 10.2. Viewing information on specific services

Command Description

journalctl -b _SYSTEMD_UNIT=foo Filters log to see ones matching the "foo" systemd
service.

journalctl -b _SYSTEMD_UNIT=foo Combines matches. For example, this command

_PID=number shows logs for systemd-units that match foo and
the PID number.

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Command Description

journalctl -b _SYSTEMD_UNIT=foo The separator “+” combines two expressions in a

_PID=number + _SYSTEMD_UNIT=foo1 logical OR. For example, this command shows all
messages from the foo service process with thePID
plus all messages from the foo1 service (from any of
its processes).

journalctl -b _SYSTEMD_UNIT=foo This command shows all entries matching either

_SYSTEMD_UNIT=foo1 expression, referring to the same field. Here, this
command shows logs matching a systemd-unit foo
or a systemd-unit foo1.

Table 10.3. Viewing logs related to specific boots

Command Description

journalctl --list-boots Shows a tabular list of boot numbers, their IDs, and
the timestamps of the first and last message
pertaining to the boot. You can use the ID in the next
command to view detailed information.

journalctl --boot=ID _SYSTEMD_UNIT=foo Shows information about the specified boot ID.

10.5. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

man journalctl(1)

Configuring a remote logging solution

52
 CHAPTER 11. ACCESSING THE RED HAT SUPPORT

CHAPTER 11. ACCESSING THE RED HAT SUPPORT

This section describes how to effectively troubleshoot your problems using Red Hat support and
sosreport.

To obtain support from Red Hat, use the Red Hat Customer Portal, which provides access to everything
available with your subscription.

11.1. OBTAINING RED HAT SUPPORT THROUGH RED HAT CUSTOMER

PORTAL
The following section describes how to use the Red Hat Customer Portal to get help.

Prerequisites

A valid user account on the Red Hat Customer Portal. See Create a Red Hat Login .

An active subscription for the RHEL system.

Procedure

1. Access Red Hat support:

a. Open a new support case.

b. Initiate a live chat with a Red Hat expert.

c. Contact a Red Hat expert by making a call or sending an email.

11.2. TROUBLESHOOTING PROBLEMS USING SOSREPORT

The sosreport command collects configuration details, system information and diagnostic information
from a Red Hat Enterprise Linux system.

The following section describes how to use the sosreport command to produce reports for your support
cases.

Prerequisites

A valid user account on the Red Hat Customer Portal. See Create a Red Hat Login .

An active subscription for the RHEL system.

A support-case number.

Procedure

1. Install the sos package:

# dnf install sos

NOTE
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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

NOTE

The default minimal installation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux does not include the
sos package, which provides the sosreport command.

2. Generate a report:

# sosreport

3. Attach the report to your support case.

See the How can I attach a file to a Red Hat support case? Red Hat Knowledgebase article for
more information.

Note that when attaching the report, you are prompted to enter the number of the relevant
support case.

Additional resources

What is an sosreport and how to create one in Red Hat Enterprise Linux?

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 CHAPTER 12. INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMD

CHAPTER 12. INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMD

As a system administrator, you need to interact with systemd, the system and service manager for
Linux operating systems. The systemd software suite provides tools and services to control and report
the state of the system, to initialize your system during start and many more. Since Red Hat
Enterprise Linux 7, systemd is a replacement for Upstart as the default init system, and is backwards
compatible with SysV init scripts. The systemd software suite provides a number of features such as:

parallel start of system services at boot time,

on-demand activation of daemons,

dependency-based service control logic.

As a representation of system resources and services, systemd introduces the concept of systemd
units. A systemd unit, which performs or controls a particular task, is the basic object that systemd
manages. See the following examples of various systemd unit types:

service,

target,

device,

mount,

timer,

other types that are relevant to the init system.

NOTE

If you want to display all available unit types, use:

# systemctl -t help

A systemd unit consists of a name, type and a configuration file, which defines the task of the unit. The
unit configuration files are located in one of the directories listed in the following table:

Table 12.1. systemd unit files locations

Directory Description

/usr/lib/systemd/system/ systemd unit files distributed with installed RPM

packages.

/run/systemd/system/ systemd unit files created at run time. This directory

takes precedence over the directory with installed
service unit files.

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Directory Description

/etc/systemd/system/ systemd unit files created by systemctl enable as

well as unit files added for extending a service. This
directory takes precedence over the directory with
runtime unit files.

The default configuration of systemd is defined during the compilation and you can find the
configuration in the /etc/systemd/system.conf file. Use this file if you want to deviate from those
defaults and override selected default values for systemd units globally.

For example, to override the default value of the timeout limit, which is set to 90 seconds, use the
DefaultTimeoutStartSec parameter to input the required value in seconds.

DefaultTimeoutStartSec=required value

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 CHAPTER 13. MANAGING SYSTEM SERVICES WITH SYSTEMCTL

CHAPTER 13. MANAGING SYSTEM SERVICES WITH

SYSTEMCTL
As a system administrator, you want to manage system services and perform different tasks related to
different services, such as starting, stopping, restarting, enabling, and disabling services, listing services,
and displaying system services statuses. To interact with the systemd system and service manager, use
the systemctl utility.

13.1. LISTING SYSTEM SERVICES

You can list all currently loaded service units and the status of all available service units.

Procedure

To list all currently loaded service units, enter:

$ systemctl list-units --type service

UNIT LOAD ACTIVE SUB DESCRIPTION
abrt-ccpp.service loaded active exited Install ABRT coredump hook
abrt-oops.service loaded active running ABRT kernel log watcher
abrtd.service loaded active running ABRT Automated Bug Reporting Tool
----
systemd-vconsole-setup.service loaded active exited Setup Virtual Console
tog-pegasus.service loaded active running OpenPegasus CIM Server

LOAD = Reflects whether the unit definition was properly loaded.

ACTIVE = The high-level unit activation state, i.e. generalization of SUB.
SUB = The low-level unit activation state, values depend on unit type.

46 loaded units listed. Pass --all to see loaded but inactive units, too.
To show all installed unit files use 'systemctl list-unit-files'

By default, the systemctl list-units command displays only active units. For each service unit
file, the command displays:

UNIT: its full name

LOAD: information whether the unit file has been loaded

ACTIVE or SUB: its high-level and low-level unit file activation state

DESCRIPTION: a short description

To list all loaded units regardless of their state, enter the following command with the --all or
-a command line option:

$ systemctl list-units --type service --all

To list the status (enabled or disabled) of all available service units, enter:

$ systemctl list-unit-files --type service

UNIT FILE STATE
abrt-ccpp.service enabled
abrt-oops.service enabled

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

abrtd.service enabled
...
wpa_supplicant.service disabled
ypbind.service disabled

208 unit files listed.

For each service unit, this command displays:

UNIT FILE: its full name

STATE: information whether the service unit is enabled or disabled

Additional resources

Displaying system service status

13.2. DISPLAYING SYSTEM SERVICE STATUS

You can inspect any service unit to get its detailed information and verify the state of the service,
whether it is enabled or running. You can also view services that are ordered to start after or before a
particular service unit.

Procedure

To display detailed information about a service unit that corresponds to a system service, enter:

$ systemctl status <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service unit you want to inspect (for example, gdm).

This command displays the name of the selected service unit followed by its short description,
one or more fields described in Available service unit information , if it is executed by the root
user, and the most recent log entries.

Table 13.1. Available service unit information

Field Description

Loaded Information whether the service unit has been

loaded, the absolute path to the unit file, and a
note whether the unit is enabled.

Active Information whether the service unit is running

followed by a time stamp.

Main PID The PID of the corresponding system service

followed by its name.

Status Additional information about the corresponding

system service.

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 CHAPTER 13. MANAGING SYSTEM SERVICES WITH SYSTEMCTL

Field Description

Process Additional information about related processes.

CGroup Additional information about related Control

Groups (cgroups).

Example 13.1. Displaying service status

The service unit for the GNOME Display Manager is named gdm.service. To determine the
current status of this service unit, type the following at a shell prompt:

# systemctl status gdm.service

gdm.service - GNOME Display Manager
Loaded: loaded (/usr/lib/systemd/system/gdm.service; enabled)
Active: active (running) since Thu 2013-10-17 17:31:23 CEST; 5min ago
Main PID: 1029 (gdm)
CGroup: /system.slice/gdm.service
├─1029 /usr/sbin/gdm
├─1037 /usr/libexec/gdm-simple-slave --display-id /org/gno...
└─1047 /usr/bin/Xorg :0 -background none -verbose -auth /r...

Oct 17 17:31:23 localhost systemd[1]: Started GNOME Display Manager.

To only verify that a particular service unit is running, enter:

$ systemctl is-active <name>.service

To determine whether a particular service unit is enabled, enter:

$ systemctl is-enabled <name>.service

NOTE

Both systemctl is-active and systemctl is-enabled return an exit status of 0 if

the specified service unit is running or enabled.

To determine what services are ordered to start before the specified service unit, enter:

# systemctl list-dependencies --after <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service in the command.

For example, to view the list of services ordered to start before gdm, enter:

# systemctl list-dependencies --after gdm.service

gdm.service
├─dbus.socket
├─[email protected]

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

├─livesys.service
├─plymouth-quit.service
├─system.slice
├─systemd-journald.socket
├─systemd-user-sessions.service
└─basic.target
[output truncated]

To determine what services are ordered to start after the specified service unit, enter:

# systemctl list-dependencies --before <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service in the command.

For example, to view the list of services ordered to start after gdm, enter:

# systemctl list-dependencies --before gdm.service

gdm.service
├─dracut-shutdown.service
├─graphical.target
│ ├─systemd-readahead-done.service
│ ├─systemd-readahead-done.timer
│ └─systemd-update-utmp-runlevel.service
└─shutdown.target
├─systemd-reboot.service
└─final.target
└─systemd-reboot.service

Additional resources

Listing system services

13.3. STARTING A SYSTEM SERVICE

You can start system service in the current session using the start command.

Prerequisites

You must have root access to the system.

Procedure

To start a selected service unit corresponding to a system service, type the following command
as root:

# systemctl start <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service unit you want to start (for example,
httpd.service).

Example 13.2. Starting httpd.service

The service unit for the Apache HTTP Server is named httpd.service. To activate this service
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 CHAPTER 13. MANAGING SYSTEM SERVICES WITH SYSTEMCTL

The service unit for the Apache HTTP Server is named httpd.service. To activate this service
unit and start the httpd daemon in the current session, enter the following command as root:

# systemctl start httpd.service

NOTE

In systemd, positive and negative dependencies between services exist. Starting

a particular service may require starting one or more other services (positive
dependency) or stopping one or more services ( negative dependency).

When you attempt to start a new service, systemd resolves all dependencies
automatically, without explicit notification to the user. This means that if you are
already running a service, and you attempt to start another service with a
negative dependency, the first service is automatically stopped.

For example, if you are running the postfix service, and you attempt to start the
sendmail service, systemd first automatically stops postfix, because these two
services are conflicting and cannot run on the same port.

Additional resources

Positive and negative service dependencies

Enabling a system service

Displaying system service status

13.4. STOPPING A SYSTEM SERVICE

If you want to stop a system service in the current session, use the stop command.

Prerequisites

You must have root access to the system.

Procedure

To stop the service unit corresponding to a system service, enter the following command as
root:

# systemctl stop <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service unit you want to stop (for example, bluetooth).

Example 13.3. Stopping bluetoothd.service

The service unit for the bluetoothd daemon is named bluetooth.service. To deactivate this
service unit and stop the bluetoothd daemon in the current session, enter the following
command as root:

# systemctl stop bluetooth.service

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Additional resources

Disabling a system service

Displaying system service status

13.5. RESTARTING A SYSTEM SERVICE

You can restart system service in the current session using the restart command.

This procedure describes how to:

Stop the selected service unit in the current session and immediately start it again

Restart a service unit only if the corresponding service is already running

Reload configuration of a system service without interrupting its execution

Prerequisites

You must have root access to the system.

Procedure

Restart a service unit corresponding to a system service:

# systemctl restart <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service unit you want to restart (for example, httpd).

NOTE

If the selected service unit is not running, this command starts it too.

Alternatively, restart a service unit only if the corresponding service is already running:

# systemctl try-restart <name>.service

Alternatively, reload the configuration without interrupting service execution:

# systemctl reload <name>.service

NOTE

System services that do not support this feature, ignore this command. To restart
such services, use the reload-or-restart and reload-or-try-restart commands
instead.

Example 13.4. Reloading httpd.service

In order to prevent users from encountering unnecessary error messages or partially

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 CHAPTER 13. MANAGING SYSTEM SERVICES WITH SYSTEMCTL

rendered web pages, the Apache HTTP Server allows you to edit and reload its configuration
without the need to restart it and interrupt actively processed requests. To do so, use the
following command:

# systemctl reload httpd.service

Additional resources

Displaying system service status

13.6. ENABLING A SYSTEM SERVICE

You can configure service to start automatically at the system booting time. The enable command
reads the [Install] section of the selected service unit and creates appropriate symbolic links to the
/usr/lib/systemd/system/name.service file in the /etc/systemd/system/ directory and its sub-
directories. However, it does not rewrite links that already exist.

Prerequisites

You must have root access to the system.

Procedure

Configure a service unit that corresponds to a system service to be automatically started at

boot time:

# systemctl enable <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service unit you want to enable (for example, httpd).

Alternatively, if you want to ensure that the symbolic links are re-created, reenable the system
unit:

# systemctl reenable <name>.service

This command disables the selected service unit and immediately enables it again.

Example 13.5. Enabling httpd.service

To configure the Apache HTTP Server to start automatically at boot time, use the following
command:

# systemctl enable httpd.service

Created symlink from /etc/systemd/system/multi-user.target.wants/httpd.service to
/usr/lib/systemd/system/httpd.service.

Additional resources

Displaying system service status

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Starting a system service

13.7. DISABLING A SYSTEM SERVICE

You can prevent a service unit from starting automatically at boot time. The disable command reads
the [Install] section of the selected service unit and removes appropriate symbolic links to the
/usr/lib/systemd/system/name.service file from the /etc/systemd/system/ directory and its sub-
directories.

Prerequisites

You must have root access to the system.

Procedure

To configure a service unit that corresponds to a system service not to start automatically at
boot time, enter the following command as root:

# systemctl disable <name>.service

Replace <name> with the name of the service unit you want to disable (for example, bluetooth).

Example 13.6. Disabling bluetoothd.service

The service unit for the bluetoothd daemon is named bluetooth.service. To prevent this
service unit from starting at boot time, enter the following command as a root:

# systemctl disable bluetooth.service

Removed symlink /etc/systemd/system/bluetooth.target.wants/bluetooth.service.
Removed symlink /etc/systemd/system/dbus-org.bluez.service.

Alternatively, you can mask any service unit and prevent it from being started manually or by
another service:

# systemctl mask <name>.service

This command replaces the /etc/systemd/system/name.service file with a symbolic link to

/dev/null, rendering the actual unit file inaccessible to systemd.

To revert this action and unmask a service unit, enter:

# systemctl unmask <name>.service

Additional resources

Displaying system service status

Stopping a system service

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 CHAPTER 14. WORKING WITH SYSTEMD TARGETS

CHAPTER 14. WORKING WITH SYSTEMD TARGETS

Targets in systemd act as synchronization points during the start of your system. Target unit files, which
end with the .target file extension, represent the systemd targets. The purpose of target units is to
group together various systemd units through a chain of dependencies.

Consider the following examples:

The graphical.target unit for starting a graphical session, starts system services such as the
GNOME Display Manager (gdm.service) or Accounts Service (accounts-daemon.service),
and also activates the multi-user.target unit.

Similarly, the multi-user.target unit starts other essential system services such as
NetworkManager (NetworkManager.service) or D-Bus (dbus.service) and activates another
target unit named basic.target.

While working with systemd targets, you can view the default target, change it or change the current
target.

14.1. VIEWING THE DEFAULT TARGET

You can display the default target using the systemctl command or examine the
/etc/systemd/system/default.target file, which represents the default target unit.

Procedure

Determine, which target unit is used by default:

$ systemctl get-default
graphical.target

Determine the default target using the symbolic link:

$ ls -l /usr/lib/systemd/system/default.target

14.2. VIEWING THE TARGET UNITS

You can display all unit types or limit your search to the currently loaded target units. By default, the
systemctl list-units command displays only active units.

Procedure

List all loaded units regardless of their state:

$ systemctl list-units --type target --all

Alternatively, list all currently loaded target units:

$ systemctl list-units --type target

UNIT LOAD ACTIVE SUB DESCRIPTION

basic.target loaded active active Basic System
cryptsetup.target loaded active active Encrypted Volumes

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

getty.target loaded active active Login Prompts

graphical.target loaded active active Graphical Interface
local-fs-pre.target loaded active active Local File Systems (Pre)
local-fs.target loaded active active Local File Systems
multi-user.target loaded active active Multi-User System
network.target loaded active active Network
paths.target loaded active active Paths
remote-fs.target loaded active active Remote File Systems
sockets.target loaded active active Sockets
sound.target loaded active active Sound Card
spice-vdagentd.target loaded active active Agent daemon for Spice guests
swap.target loaded active active Swap
sysinit.target loaded active active System Initialization
time-sync.target loaded active active System Time Synchronized
timers.target loaded active active Timers

LOAD = Reflects whether the unit definition was properly loaded.

ACTIVE = The high-level unit activation state, i.e. generalization of SUB.
SUB = The low-level unit activation state, values depend on unit type.

17 loaded units listed.

14.3. CHANGING THE DEFAULT TARGET

The default target unit is represented by the /etc/systemd/system/default.target file. The following
procedure describes how to change the default target by using the systemctl command:

Procedure

1. To determine the default target unit:

# systemctl get-default

2. To configure the system to use a different target unit by default:

# systemctl set-default multi-user.target

rm /etc/systemd/system/default.target
ln -s /usr/lib/systemd/system/multi-user.target /etc/systemd/system/default.target

This command replaces the /etc/systemd/system/default.target file with a symbolic link to

/usr/lib/systemd/system/name.target, where name is the name of the target unit you want to
use. Replace multi-user with the name of the target unit you want to use by default.

Table 14.1. Common targets for set-default command

basic unit target covering basic boot-up

rescue unit target that pulls in the base system and

spawns a rescue shell

multi-user unit target for setting up a multi-user system

graphical unit target for setting up a graphical login screen

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 CHAPTER 14. WORKING WITH SYSTEMD TARGETS

emergency unit target that starts an emergency shell on the

main console

sysinit unit target that pulls in the services required for

system initialization

3. Reboot

# reboot

Additional resources

systemd.special man page

bootup man page

14.4. CHANGING THE DEFAULT TARGET USING A SYMBOLIC LINK

You can change the default target by creating a symbolic link to the target you want.

Procedure

1. Determine the default target unit:

# ls -l /etc/systemd/system/default.target

Note that in certain cases, the /etc/systemd/system/default.target link might not exist, and
systemd looks for the default target unit in /usr. In such cases, determine the default target unit
using the following command:

# ls -l /usr/lib/systemd/system/default.target

2. Delete the /etc/systemd/system/default.target link:

# rm /etc/systemd/system/default.target

3. Create a symbolic link:

# ln -sf /usr/lib/systemd/system/graphical.target /etc/systemd/system/default.target

4. Reboot the system:

# reboot

Verification steps

Verify the newly created default.target:

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

$ systemctl get-default
multi-user.target

14.5. CHANGING THE CURRENT TARGET

When you set a default target unit, the current target remains unchanged until the next reboot. If you
want to change the target unit in the current session without reboot, use the systemctl isolate
command.

Procedure

Change to a different target unit in the current session:

# systemctl isolate multi-user.target

This command starts the target unit named multi-user and all dependent units, and immediately
stops all others.

Replace multi-user with the name of the target unit you want to use by default.

Verification steps

Verify the newly created default.target:

$ systemctl get-default
multi-user.target

14.6. BOOTING TO RESCUE MODE

Rescue mode provides a convenient single-user environment and allows you to repair your system in
situations when it is unable to complete a regular booting process. In rescue mode, the system attempts
to mount all local file systems and start certain important system services, but it does not activate
network interfaces or allow more users to be logged into the system at the same time.

Procedure

To enter the rescue mode, change the current target in the current session:

# systemctl rescue

Broadcast message from root@localhost on pts/0 (Fri 2013-10-25 18:23:15 CEST):

The system is going down to rescue mode NOW!

NOTE
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 CHAPTER 14. WORKING WITH SYSTEMD TARGETS

NOTE

This command is similar to systemctl isolate rescue.target, but it also sends an

informative message to all users that are currently logged into the system.

To prevent systemd from sending a message, run the following command with
the --no-wall command-line option:

# systemctl --no-wall rescue

14.7. BOOTING TO EMERGENCY MODE

Emergency mode provides the most minimal environment possible and allows you to repair your system
even in situations when the system is unable to enter rescue mode. In emergency mode, the system
mounts the root file system only for reading, does not attempt to mount any other local file systems,
does not activate network interfaces, and only starts a few essential services.

Procedure

To enter the emergency mode, change the current target:

# systemctl emergency

NOTE

This command is similar to systemctl isolate emergency.target, but it also

sends an informative message to all users that are currently logged into the
system.

To prevent systemd from sending this message, run the following command with
the --no-wall command-line option:

# systemctl --no-wall emergency

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 15. SHUTTING DOWN, SUSPENDING, AND

HIBERNATING THE SYSTEM
This section contains instructions about shutting down, suspending, or hibernating your operating
system.

15.1. SYSTEM SHUTDOWN

To shut down the system, you can either use the systemctl utility directly, or call this utility through the
shutdown command.

The advantage of using the shutdown command is:

The support for time argument

This is particularly useful for scheduled maintenance. Also, users have more time to react to the
warning that a system shutdown has been scheduled.

The option to cancel the shutdown

Additional resources

Shutting down the system using the shutdown command

Shutting down the system using the systemctl command

Overview of the power management commands with systemctl

15.2. SHUTTING DOWN THE SYSTEM USING THE SHUTDOWN

COMMAND
By following this procedure, you can use the shutdown command to perform various operations. You
can either shut down the system and power off the machine at a certain time, or shut down and halt the
system without powering off the machine, or cancel a pending shutdown.

Prerequisites

Switch to the root user

Procedure

To shut down the system and power off the machine at a certain time, use the command in the
following format:

shutdown --poweroff hh:mm

Where hh:mm is the time in 24 hour clock format. The /run/nologin file is created 5 minutes
before system shutdown to prevent new logins.

When a time argument is used, an optional wall message can be appended to the command.

Alternatively, to shut down and halt the system after a delay, without powering off the machine,
use:

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 CHAPTER 15. SHUTTING DOWN, SUSPENDING, AND HIBERNATING THE SYSTEM

shutdown --halt +m

Where +m is the delay time in minutes. The now keyword is an alias for +0.

To cancel a pending shutdown, use:

shutdown -c

Additional resources

shutdown(8) manual page

Shutting down the system using the systemctl command

15.3. SHUTTING DOWN THE SYSTEM USING THE SYSTEMCTL

COMMAND
By following this procedure, you can use the systemctl command to perform various operations. You
can either shut down the system and power off the machine, or shut down and halt the system without
powering off the machine.

Prerequisites

Switch to the root user

Procedure

To shut down the system and power off the machine, use the command in the following format:

systemctl poweroff

Alternatively, to shut down and halt the system without powering off the machine, use:

systemctl halt

NOTE

By default, running either of these commands causes systemd to send an informative

message to all users that are currently logged into the system. To prevent systemd from
sending this message, run the selected command with the --no-wall command line
option.

Additional resources

Shutting down the system using the shutdown command

15.4. RESTARTING THE SYSTEM

You can restart the system by following this procedure.

Prerequisites

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Switch to the root user

Procedure

To restart the system, run the following command:

systemctl reboot

NOTE

By default, this command causes systemd to send an informative message to all users
that are currently logged into the system. To prevent systemd from sending this
message, run this command with the --no-wall command line option.

15.5. SUSPENDING THE SYSTEM

You can suspend the system by following this procedure.

Prerequisites

Switch to the root user.

Procedure

To suspend the system, run the following command:

systemctl suspend

This command saves the system state in RAM and with the exception of the RAM module,
powers off most of the devices in the machine. When you turn the machine back on, the system
then restores its state from RAM without having to boot again.

Because the system state is saved in RAM and not on the hard disk, restoring the system from
suspend mode is significantly faster than from hibernation. However, note that the suspended
system state is also vulnerable to power outages.

Additional resources

Hibernating the system

15.6. HIBERNATING THE SYSTEM

By following this procedure, you can either hibernate the system, or hibernate and suspend the system.

Prerequisites

Switch to the root user.

Procedure

To hibernate the system, run the following command:

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 CHAPTER 15. SHUTTING DOWN, SUSPENDING, AND HIBERNATING THE SYSTEM

systemctl hibernate

This command saves the system state on the hard disk drive and powers off the machine. When
you turn the machine back on, the system then restores its state from the saved data without
having to boot again.

Because the system state is saved on the hard disk and not in RAM, the machine does not have
to maintain electrical power to the RAM module. However, as a consequence, restoring the
system from hibernation is significantly slower than restoring it from suspend mode.

Alternatively, to hibernate and suspend the system, run the following command:

systemctl hybrid-sleep

Additional resources

Suspending the system

15.7. OVERVIEW OF THE POWER MANAGEMENT COMMANDS WITH

SYSTEMCTL
You can use the following list of the systemctl commands to control the power management of your
system.

Table 15.1. Overview of the systemctl power management commands

systemctl command Description

systemctl halt Halts the system.

systemctl poweroff Powers off the system.

systemctl reboot Restarts the system.

systemctl suspend Suspends the system.

systemctl hibernate Hibernates the system.

systemctl hybrid-sleep Hibernates and suspends the system.

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

CHAPTER 16. WORKING WITH SYSTEMD UNIT FILES

This chapter includes the description of systemd unit files. The following sections show you how to:

Create custom unit files

Convert SysV init scripts to unit files

Modify existing unit files

Work with instantiated units

16.1. INTRODUCTION TO UNIT FILES

A unit file contains configuration directives that describe the unit and define its behavior. Several
systemctl commands work with unit files in the background. To make finer adjustments, system
administrator must edit or create unit files manually. systemd unit files locations lists three main
directories where unit files are stored on the system, the /etc/systemd/system/ directory is reserved for
unit files created or customized by the system administrator.

Unit file names take the following form:

unit_name.type_extension

Here, unit_name stands for the name of the unit and type_extension identifies the unit type. For a
complete list of unit types, see systemd unit files

For example, there usually is sshd.service as well as sshd.socket unit present on your system.

Unit files can be supplemented with a directory for additional configuration files. For example, to add
custom configuration options to sshd.service, create the sshd.service.d/custom.conf file and insert
additional directives there. For more information on configuration directories, see Modifying existing unit
files.

Also, the sshd.service.wants/ and sshd.service.requires/ directories can be created. These

directories contain symbolic links to unit files that are dependencies of the sshd service. The symbolic
links are automatically created either during installation according to [Install] unit file options or at
runtime based on [Unit] options. It is also possible to create these directories and symbolic links
manually. For more details on [Install] and [Unit] options, see the tables below.

Many unit file options can be set using the so called unit specifiers – wildcard strings that are
dynamically replaced with unit parameters when the unit file is loaded. This enables creation of generic
unit files that serve as templates for generating instantiated units. See Working with instantiated units .

16.2. UNIT FILE STRUCTURE

Unit files typically consist of three sections:

The [Unit] section — contains generic options that are not dependent on the type of the unit.
These options provide unit description, specify the unit’s behavior, and set dependencies to
other units. For a list of most frequently used [Unit] options, see Important [Unit] section
options.

The [Unit type] section — if a unit has type-specific directives, these are grouped under a
section named after the unit type. For example, service unit files contain the [Service] section.

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The [Install] section — contains information about unit installation used by systemctl enable
and disable commands. For a list of options for the [Install] section, see Important [Install]
section options.

Additional resources

Important [Unit] section options

Important [Service] section options

Important [Install] section options

16.3. IMPORTANT [UNIT] SECTION OPTIONS

The following tables lists important options of the [Unit] section.

Table 16.1. Important [Unit] section options

Option [a] Description

Description A meaningful description of the unit. This text is

displayed for example in the output of the
systemctl status command.

Documentation Provides a list of URIs referencing documentation for

the unit.

After [b] Defines the order in which units are started. The unit
starts only after the units specified in After are
active. Unlike Requires, After does not explicitly
activate the specified units. The Before option has
the opposite functionality to After .

Requires Configures dependencies on other units. The units

listed in Requires are activated together with the
unit. If any of the required units fail to start, the unit is
not activated.

Wants Configures weaker dependencies than Requires. If

any of the listed units does not start successfully, it
has no impact on the unit activation. This is the
recommended way to establish custom unit
dependencies.

Conflicts Configures negative dependencies, an opposite to

Requires.

[a] For a complete list of options configurable in the [Unit] section, see the systemd.unit(5) manual page.

[b] In most cases, it is sufficient to set only the ordering dependencies with After and Before unit file options. If you also
set a requirement dependency with Wants (recommended) or Requires, the ordering dependency still needs to be
specified. That is because ordering and requirement dependencies work independently from each other.

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16.4. IMPORTANT [SERVICE] SECTION OPTIONS

The following tables lists important options of the [Service] section.

Table 16.2. Important [Service] section options

Option [a] Description

Type Configures the unit process startup type that affects

the functionality of ExecStart and related options.
One of:

* simple – The default value. The process started

with ExecStart is the main process of the service.

* forking – The process started withExecStart

spawns a child process that becomes the main
process of the service. The parent process exits
when the startup is complete.

* oneshot – This type is similar to simple, but the

process exits before starting consequent units.

* dbus – This type is similar to simple, but

consequent units are started only after the main
process gains a D-Bus name.

* notify – This type is similar to simple, but

consequent units are started only after a notification
message is sent via the sd_notify() function.

* idle – similar to simple, the actual execution of the

service binary is delayed until all jobs are finished,
which avoids mixing the status output with shell
output of services.

ExecStart Specifies commands or scripts to be executed when

the unit is started. ExecStartPre and
ExecStartPost specify custom commands to be
executed before and after ExecStart .
Type=oneshot enables specifying multiple custom
commands that are then executed sequentially.

ExecStop Specifies commands or scripts to be executed when

the unit is stopped.

ExecReload Specifies commands or scripts to be executed when

the unit is reloaded.

Restart With this option enabled, the service is restarted after

its process exits, with the exception of a clean stop
by the systemctl command.

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Option [a] Description

RemainAfterExit If set to True, the service is considered active even

when all its processes exited. Default value is False.
This option is especially useful if Type=oneshot is
configured.

[a] For a complete list of options configurable in the [Service] section, see the systemd.service(5) manual page.

16.5. IMPORTANT [INSTALL] SECTION OPTIONS

The following tables lists important options of the [Install] section.

Table 16.3. Important [Install] section options

Option [a] Description

Alias Provides a space-separated list of additional names

for the unit. Most systemctl commands, excluding
systemctl enable , can use aliases instead of the
actual unit name.

RequiredBy A list of units that depend on the unit. When this unit
is enabled, the units listed in RequiredBy gain a
Require dependency on the unit.

WantedBy A list of units that weakly depend on the unit. When

this unit is enabled, the units listed in WantedBy
gain a Want dependency on the unit.

Also Specifies a list of units to be installed or uninstalled

along with the unit.

DefaultInstance Limited to instantiated units, this option specifies the

default instance for which the unit is enabled. See
Working with instantiated units.

[a] For a complete list of options configurable in the [Install] section, see the systemd.unit(5) manual page.

16.6. CREATING CUSTOM UNIT FILES

There are several use cases for creating unit files from scratch: you could run a custom daemon, create a
second instance of some existing service as in Creating a custom unit file by using the second instance
of the sshd service

On the other hand, if you intend just to modify or extend the behavior of an existing unit, use the
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On the other hand, if you intend just to modify or extend the behavior of an existing unit, use the
instructions from Modifying existing unit files .

Procedure
The following procedure describes the general process of creating a custom service:

1. Prepare the executable file with the custom service. This can be a custom-created script, or an
executable delivered by a software provider. If required, prepare a PID file to hold a constant
PID for the main process of the custom service. It is also possible to include environment files to
store shell variables for the service. Make sure the source script is executable (by executing the
chmod a+x) and is not interactive.

2. Create a unit file in the /etc/systemd/system/ directory and make sure it has correct file
permissions. Execute as root:

touch /etc/systemd/system/name.service

chmod 664 /etc/systemd/system/name.service

Replace name with a name of the service to be created. Note that file does not need to be
executable.

3. Open the name.service file created in the previous step, and add the service configuration
options. There is a variety of options that can be used depending on the type of service you wish
to create, see Unit file structure.
The following is an example unit configuration for a network-related service:

[Unit]
Description=service_description
After=network.target

[Service]
ExecStart=path_to_executable
Type=forking
PIDFile=path_to_pidfile

[Install]
WantedBy=default.target

Where:

service_description is an informative description that is displayed in journal log files and in

the output of the systemctl status command.

the After setting ensures that the service is started only after the network is running. Add a
space-separated list of other relevant services or targets.

path_to_executable stands for the path to the actual service executable.

Type=forking is used for daemons that make the fork system call. The main process of the
service is created with the PID specified in path_to_pidfile. Find other startup types in
Important [Service] section options .

WantedBy states the target or targets that the service should be started under. Think of
these targets as of a replacement of the older concept of runlevels.

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4. Notify systemd that a new name.service file exists by executing the following command as
root:

systemctl daemon-reload

systemctl start name.service


WARNING

Always run the systemctl daemon-reload command after creating new

unit files or modifying existing unit files. Otherwise, the systemctl start or
systemctl enable commands could fail due to a mismatch between states
of systemd and actual service unit files on disk. Note, that on systems with
a large number of units this can take a long time, as the state of each unit
has to be serialized and subsequently deserialized during the reload.

16.7. CREATING A CUSTOM UNIT FILE BY USING THE SECOND

INSTANCE OF THE SSHD SERVICE
System Administrators often need to configure and run multiple instances of a service. This is done by
creating copies of the original service configuration files and modifying certain parameters to avoid
conflicts with the primary instance of the service. The following procedure shows how to create a
second instance of the sshd service.

Procedure

1. Create a copy of the sshd_config file that will be used by the second daemon:

# cp /etc/ssh/sshd{,-second}_config

2. Edit the sshd-second_config file created in the previous step to assign a different port number
and PID file to the second daemon:

Port 22220
PidFile /var/run/sshd-second.pid

See the sshd_config(5) manual page for more information on Port and PidFile options. Make
sure the port you choose is not in use by any other service. The PID file does not have to exist
before running the service, it is generated automatically on service start.

3. Create a copy of the systemd unit file for the sshd service:

# cp /usr/lib/systemd/system/sshd.service /etc/systemd/system/sshd-second.service

4. Alter the sshd-second.service created in the previous step as follows:

a. Modify the Description option:

Description=OpenSSH server second instance daemon

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b. Add sshd.service to services specified in the After option, so that the second instance starts
only after the first one has already started:

After=syslog.target network.target auditd.service sshd.service

c. The first instance of sshd includes key generation, therefore remove the
ExecStartPre=/usr/sbin/sshd-keygen line.

d. Add the -f /etc/ssh/sshd-second_config parameter to the sshd command, so that the

alternative configuration file is used:

ExecStart=/usr/sbin/sshd -D -f /etc/ssh/sshd-second_config $OPTIONS

e. After the above modifications, the sshd-second.service should look as follows:

[Unit]
Description=OpenSSH server second instance daemon
After=syslog.target network.target auditd.service sshd.service

[Service]
EnvironmentFile=/etc/sysconfig/sshd
ExecStart=/usr/sbin/sshd -D -f /etc/ssh/sshd-second_config $OPTIONS
ExecReload=/bin/kill -HUP $MAINPID
KillMode=process
Restart=on-failure
RestartSec=42s

[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.target

5. If using SELinux, add the port for the second instance of sshd to SSH ports, otherwise the
second instance of sshd will be rejected to bind to the port:

# semanage port -a -t ssh_port_t -p tcp 22220

6. Enable sshd-second.service, so that it starts automatically upon boot:

# systemctl enable sshd-second.service

7. Verify if the sshd-second.service is running by using the systemctl status command.

8. Verify if the port is enabled correctly by connecting to the service:

$ ssh -p 22220 user@server

If the firewall is in use, make sure that it is configured appropriately in order to allow connections
to the second instance of sshd.

16.8. CONVERTING SYSV INIT SCRIPTS TO UNIT FILES

Before taking time to convert a SysV init script to a unit file, make sure that the conversion was not
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Before taking time to convert a SysV init script to a unit file, make sure that the conversion was not
already done elsewhere. All core services installed on Red Hat Enterprise Linux come with default unit
files, and the same applies for many third-party software packages.

Converting an init script to a unit file requires analyzing the script and extracting the necessary
information from it. Based on this data you can create a unit file. As init scripts can vary greatly
depending on the type of the service, you might need to employ more configuration options for
translation than outlined in this chapter. Note that some levels of customization that were available with
init scripts are no longer supported by systemd units.

The majority of information needed for conversion is provided in the script’s header. The following
example shows the opening section of the init script used to start the postfix service on Red Hat
Enterprise Linux 6:

#!/bin/bash
# postfix Postfix Mail Transfer Agent
# chkconfig: 2345 80 30
# description: Postfix is a Mail Transport Agent, which is the program that moves mail from one
machine to another.
# processname: master
# pidfile: /var/spool/postfix/pid/master.pid
# config: /etc/postfix/main.cf
# config: /etc/postfix/master.cf
### BEGIN INIT INFO
# Provides: postfix MTA
# Required-Start: $local_fs $network $remote_fs
# Required-Stop: $local_fs $network $remote_fs
# Default-Start: 2 3 4 5
# Default-Stop: 0 1 6
# Short-Description: start and stop postfix
# Description: Postfix is a Mail Transport Agent, which is the program that moves mail from one
machine to another.
### END INIT INFO

In the above example, only lines starting with # chkconfig and # description are mandatory, so you
might not find the rest in different init files. The text enclosed between the BEGIN INIT INFO and END
INIT INFO lines is called Linux Standard Base (LSB) header. If specified, LSB headers contain
directives defining the service description, dependencies, and default runlevels. What follows is an
overview of analytic tasks aiming to collect the data needed for a new unit file. The postfix init script is
used as an example.

16.9. FINDING THE SYSTEMD SERVICE DESCRIPTION

You can find descriptive information about the script on the line starting with #description. Use this
description together with the service name in the Description option in the [Unit] section of the unit file.
The LSB header might contain similar data on the #Short-Description and #Description lines.

16.10. FINDING THE SYSTEMD SERVICE DEPENDENCIES

The LSB header might contain several directives that form dependencies between services. Most of
them are translatable to systemd unit options, see the following table:

Table 16.4. Dependency options from the LSB header

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LSB Option Description Unit File Equivalent

Provides Specifies the boot facility name –

of the service, that can be
referenced in other init scripts
(with the "$" prefix). This is no
longer needed as unit files refer to
other units by their file names.

Required-Start Contains boot facility names of After , Before

required services. This is
translated as an ordering
dependency, boot facility names
are replaced with unit file names
of corresponding services or
targets they belong to. For
example, in case of postfix, the
Required-Start dependency on
$network was translated to the
After dependency on
network.target.

Should-Start Constitutes weaker dependencies After , Before

than Required-Start. Failed
Should-Start dependencies do
not affect the service startup.

Required-Stop , Should-Stop Constitute negative Conflicts

dependencies.

16.11. FINDING DEFAULT TARGETS OF THE SERVICE

The line starting with #chkconfig contains three numerical values. The most important is the first
number that represents the default runlevels in which the service is started. Map these runlevels to
equivalent systemd targets. Then list these targets in the WantedBy option in the [Install] section of the
unit file. For example, postfix was previously started in runlevels 2, 3, 4, and 5, which translates to multi-
user.target and graphical.target. Note that the graphical.target depends on multiuser.target, therefore it
is not necessary to specify both. You might find information on default and forbidden runlevels also at
#Default-Start and #Default-Stop lines in the LSB header.

The other two values specified on the #chkconfig line represent startup and shutdown priorities of the
init script. These values are interpreted by systemd if it loads the init script, but there is no unit file
equivalent.

16.12. FINDING FILES USED BY THE SERVICE

Init scripts require loading a function library from a dedicated directory and allow importing
configuration, environment, and PID files. Environment variables are specified on the line starting with
#config in the init script header, which translates to the EnvironmentFile unit file option. The PID file
specified on the #pidfile init script line is imported to the unit file with the PIDFile option.

The key information that is not included in the init script header is the path to the service executable,

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and potentially some other files required by the service. In previous versions of Red Hat Enterprise Linux,
init scripts used a Bash case statement to define the behavior of the service on default actions, such as
start, stop, or restart, as well as custom-defined actions. The following excerpt from the postfix init
script shows the block of code to be executed at service start.

conf_check() {
[ -x /usr/sbin/postfix ] || exit 5
[ -d /etc/postfix ] || exit 6
[ -d /var/spool/postfix ] || exit 5
}

make_aliasesdb() {
if [ "$(/usr/sbin/postconf -h alias_database)" == "hash:/etc/aliases" ]
then
# /etc/aliases.db might be used by other MTA, make sure nothing
# has touched it since our last newaliases call
[ /etc/aliases -nt /etc/aliases.db ] ||
[ "$ALIASESDB_STAMP" -nt /etc/aliases.db ] ||
[ "$ALIASESDB_STAMP" -ot /etc/aliases.db ] || return
/usr/bin/newaliases
touch -r /etc/aliases.db "$ALIASESDB_STAMP"
else
/usr/bin/newaliases
fi
}

start() {
[ "$EUID" != "0" ] && exit 4
# Check that networking is up.
[ ${NETWORKING} = "no" ] && exit 1
conf_check
# Start daemons.
echo -n $"Starting postfix: "
make_aliasesdb >/dev/null 2>&1
[ -x $CHROOT_UPDATE ] && $CHROOT_UPDATE
/usr/sbin/postfix start 2>/dev/null 1>&2 && success || failure $"$prog start"
RETVAL=$?
[ $RETVAL -eq 0 ] && touch $lockfile
echo
return $RETVAL
}

The extensibility of the init script allowed specifying two custom functions, conf_check() and
make_aliasesdb(), that are called from the start() function block. On closer look, several external files
and directories are mentioned in the above code: the main service executable /usr/sbin/postfix, the
/etc/postfix/ and /var/spool/postfix/ configuration directories, as well as the /usr/sbin/postconf/
directory.

systemd supports only the predefined actions, but enables executing custom executables with
ExecStart, ExecStartPre, ExecStartPost, ExecStop, and ExecReload options. The /usr/sbin/postfix
together with supporting scripts are executed on service start. Converting complex init scripts requires
understanding the purpose of every statement in the script. Some of the statements are specific to the
operating system version, therefore you do not need to translate them. On the other hand, some
adjustments might be needed in the new environment, both in unit file as well as in the service
executable and supporting files.

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16.13. MODIFYING EXISTING UNIT FILES

Services installed on the system come with default unit files that are stored in the
/usr/lib/systemd/system/ directory. System Administrators should not modify these files directly,
therefore any customization must be confined to configuration files in the /etc/systemd/system/
directory.

Procedure

1. Depending on the extent of the required changes, pick one of the following approaches:

Create a directory for supplementary configuration files at /etc/systemd/system/unit.d/.

This method is recommended for most use cases. It enables extending the default
configuration with additional functionality, while still referring to the original unit file.
Changes to the default unit introduced with a package upgrade are therefore applied
automatically. See Extending the default unit configuration for more information.

Create a copy of the original unit file /usr/lib/systemd/system/ in /etc/systemd/system/

and make changes there. The copy overrides the original file, therefore changes introduced
with the package update are not applied. This method is useful for making significant unit
changes that should persist regardless of package updates. See Overriding the default unit
configuration for details.

2. To return to the default configuration of the unit, delete custom-created configuration files in
/etc/systemd/system/.

3. To apply changes to unit files without rebooting the system, execute:

systemctl daemon-reload

The daemon-reload option reloads all unit files and recreates the entire dependency tree, which
is needed to immediately apply any change to a unit file. As an alternative, you can achieve the
same result with the following command, which must be executed under the root user:

init q

4. If the modified unit file belongs to a running service, this service must be restarted to accept
new settings:

systemctl restart name.service

IMPORTANT
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IMPORTANT

To modify properties, such as dependencies or timeouts, of a service that is handled by a

SysV initscript, do not modify the initscript itself. Instead, create a systemd drop-in
configuration file for the service as described in: Extending the default unit configuration
and Overriding the default unit configuration .

Then manage this service in the same way as a normal systemd service.

For example, to extend the configuration of the network service, do not modify the
/etc/rc.d/init.d/network initscript file. Instead, create new directory
/etc/systemd/system/network.service.d/ and a systemd drop-in file
/etc/systemd/system/network.service.d/my_config.conf. Then, put the modified values
into the drop-in file. Note: systemd knows the network service as network.service,
which is why the created directory must be called network.service.d

16.14. EXTENDING THE DEFAULT UNIT CONFIGURATION

This section describes how to extend the default unit file with additional configuration options.

Procedure

1. To extend the default unit file with additional configuration options, first create a configuration
directory in /etc/systemd/system/. If extending a service unit, execute the following command
as root:

mkdir /etc/systemd/system/name.service.d/

Replace name with the name of the service you want to extend. The above syntax applies to all
unit types.

2. Create a configuration file in the directory made in the previous step. Note that the file name
must end with the .conf suffix. Type:

touch /etc/systemd/system/name.service.d/config_name.conf

Replace config_name with the name of the configuration file. This file adheres to the normal unit
file structure, therefore all directives must be specified under appropriate sections, see Unit file
structure.

For example, to add a custom dependency, create a configuration file with the following
content:

[Unit]
Requires=new_dependency
After=new_dependency

Where new_dependency stands for the unit to be marked as a dependency. Another example is a
configuration file that restarts the service after its main process exited, with a delay of 30
seconds:

[Service]
Restart=always
RestartSec=30

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

It is recommended to create small configuration files focused only on one task. Such files can be
easily moved or linked to configuration directories of other services.

3. To apply changes made to the unit, execute as root:

systemctl daemon-reload
systemctl restart name.service

Example 16.1. Extending the httpd.service configuration

To modify the httpd.service unit so that a custom shell script is automatically executed when starting
the Apache service, perform the following steps.

1. Create a directory and a custom configuration file:

# mkdir /etc/systemd/system/httpd.service.d/

# touch /etc/systemd/system/httpd.service.d/custom_script.conf

2. Provided that the script you want to start automatically with Apache is located at
/usr/local/bin/custom.sh, insert the following text to the custom_script.conf file:

[Service]
ExecStartPost=/usr/local/bin/custom.sh

3. To apply the unit changes, execute:

# systemctl daemon-reload

# systemctl restart httpd.service

NOTE

The configuration files from configuration directories in /etc/systemd/system/ take

precedence over unit files in /usr/lib/systemd/system/. Therefore, if the configuration
files contain an option that can be specified only once, such as Description or ExecStart,
the default value of this option is overridden. Note that in the output of the systemd-
delta command, described in Monitoring overridden units ,such units are always marked
as [EXTENDED], even though in sum, certain options are actually overridden.

16.15. OVERRIDING THE DEFAULT UNIT CONFIGURATION

This section describes how to override the default unit configuration.

Procedure

1. To make changes that will persist after updating the package that provides the unit file, first
copy the file to the /etc/systemd/system/ directory. To do so, execute the following command
as root:

cp /usr/lib/systemd/system/name.service /etc/systemd/system/name.service

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Where name stands for the name of the service unit you wish to modify. The above syntax
applies to all unit types.

2. Open the copied file with a text editor, and make the desired changes. To apply the unit
changes, execute as root:

systemctl daemon-reload
systemctl restart name.service

16.16. CHANGING THE TIMEOUT LIMIT

You can specify a timeout value per service to prevent a malfunctioning service from freezing the
system. Otherwise, timeout is set by default to 90 seconds for normal services and to 300 seconds for
SysV-compatible services.

For example, to extend timeout limit for the httpd service:

Procedure

1. Copy the httpd unit file to the /etc/systemd/system/ directory:

cp /usr/lib/systemd/system/httpd.service /etc/systemd/system/httpd.service

2. Open file /etc/systemd/system/httpd.service and specify the TimeoutStartUSec value in the

[Service] section:

…​
[Service]
…​
PrivateTmp=true
TimeoutStartSec=10

[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.target
…​

3. Reload the systemd daemon:

systemctl daemon-reload

4. Optional. Verify the new timeout value:

systemctl show httpd -p TimeoutStartUSec

NOTE

To change the timeout limit globally, input the DefaultTimeoutStartSec in the

/etc/systemd/system.conf file.

16.17. MONITORING OVERRIDDEN UNITS

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This section describes how to display an overview of overridden or modified unit files.

Procedure

To display an overview of overridden or modified unit files, use the following command:

systemd-delta

For example, the output of the above command can look as follows:

[EQUIVALENT] /etc/systemd/system/default.target → /usr/lib/systemd/system/default.target

[OVERRIDDEN] /etc/systemd/system/autofs.service →
/usr/lib/systemd/system/autofs.service

--- /usr/lib/systemd/system/autofs.service 2014-10-16 21:30:39.000000000 -0400

+ /etc/systemd/system/autofs.service 2014-11-21 10:00:58.513568275 -0500
@@ -8,7 +8,8 @@
EnvironmentFile=-/etc/sysconfig/autofs
ExecStart=/usr/sbin/automount $OPTIONS --pid-file /run/autofs.pid
ExecReload=/usr/bin/kill -HUP $MAINPID
-TimeoutSec=180
+TimeoutSec=240
+Restart=Always

[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.target

[MASKED] /etc/systemd/system/cups.service → /usr/lib/systemd/system/cups.service

[EXTENDED] /usr/lib/systemd/system/sssd.service →
/etc/systemd/system/sssd.service.d/journal.conf

4 overridden configuration files found.

16.18. WORKING WITH INSTANTIATED UNITS

It is possible to instantiate multiple units from a single template configuration file at runtime. The "@"
character is used to mark the template and to associate units with it. Instantiated units can be started
from another unit file (using Requires or Wants options), or with the systemctl start command.
Instantiated service units are named the following way:

template_name@instance_name.service

Where template_name stands for the name of the template configuration file. Replace instance_name
with the name for the unit instance. Several instances can point to the same template file with
configuration options common for all instances of the unit. Template unit name has the form of:

[email protected]

For example, the following Wants setting in a unit file:

[email protected] [email protected]

first makes systemd search for given service units. If no such units are found, the part between "@" and

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first makes systemd search for given service units. If no such units are found, the part between "@" and
the type suffix is ignored and systemd searches for the [email protected] file, reads the configuration
from it, and starts the services.

For example, the [email protected] template contains the following directives:

[Unit]
Description=Getty on %I
…​
[Service]
ExecStart=-/sbin/agetty --noclear %I $TERM
…​

When the [email protected] and [email protected] are instantiated from the above template,
Description= is resolved as Getty on ttyA and Getty on ttyB.

16.19. IMPORTANT UNIT SPECIFIERS

Wildcard characters, called unit specifiers, can be used in any unit configuration file. Unit specifiers
substitute certain unit parameters and are interpreted at runtime. The following table lists unit specifiers
that are particularly useful for template units.

Table 16.5. Important unit specifiers

Unit Specifier Meaning Description

%n Full unit name Stands for the full unit name

including the type suffix. %N has
the same meaning but also
replaces the forbidden characters
with ASCII codes.

%p Prefix name Stands for a unit name with type

suffix removed. For instantiated
units %p stands for the part of the
unit name before the "@"
character.

%i Instance name Is the part of the instantiated unit

name between the "@" character
and the type suffix. %I has the
same meaning but also replaces
the forbidden characters for ASCII
codes.

%H Host name Stands for the hostname of the

running system at the point in
time the unit configuration is
loaded.

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Unit Specifier Meaning Description

%t Runtime directory Represents the runtime directory,

which is either /run for the root
user, or the value of the
XDG_RUNTIME_DIR variable for
unprivileged users.

For a complete list of unit specifiers, see the systemd.unit(5) manual page.

16.20. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

How to write a service unit file which enforces that particular services have to be started

How to decide what dependencies a systemd service unit definition should have

Is there any useful information about writing unit files?

How to set limits for services in RHEL 7 and systemd

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 CHAPTER 17. OPTIMIZING SYSTEMD TO SHORTEN THE BOOT TIME

CHAPTER 17. OPTIMIZING SYSTEMD TO SHORTEN THE BOOT

TIME
There is a list of systemd unit files that are enabled by default. System services that are defined by these
unit files are automatically run at boot, which influences the boot time.

This section describes:

The tools to examine system boot performance.

The purpose of systemd units enabled by default, and circumstances under which you can safely
disable such systemd units in order to shorten the boot time.

17.1. EXAMINING SYSTEM BOOT PERFORMANCE

To examine system boot performance, you can use the systemd-analyze command. This command has
many options available. However, this section covers only the selected ones that may be important for
systemd tuning in order to shorten the boot time.

For a complete list and detailed description of all options, see the systemd-analyze man page.

Prerequisites

Before starting to examine systemd in order to tune the boot time, you may want to list all
enabled services:

Procedure

$ systemctl list-unit-files --state=enabled

Analyzing overall boot time

Procedure

For the overall information about the time that the last successful boot took, use:

$ systemd-analyze

Analyzing unit initialization time

Procedure

For the information about the initialization time of each systemd unit, use:

$ systemd-analyze blame

The output lists the units in descending order according to the time they took to initialize during the last
successful boot.

Identifying critical units

Procedure

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

To identify the units that took most time to initialize at the last successful boot, use:

$ systemd-analyze critical-chain

The output highlights the units that critically slow down the boot with the red color.

Figure 17.1. The output of the systemd-analyze critical-chain command

17.2. A GUIDE TO SELECTING SERVICES THAT CAN BE SAFELY

DISABLED
If you find the boot time of your system long, you can shorten it by disabling some of the services
enabled on boot by default.

To list such services, run:

$ systemctl list-unit-files --state=enabled

To disable a service, run:

# systemctl disable service_name

However, certain services must stay enabled in order that your operating system is safe and functions in
the way you need.

You can use the table below as a guide to selecting the services that you can safely disable. The table
lists all services enabled by default on a minimal installation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux, and for each
service it states whether this service can be safely disabled.

The table also provides more information about the circumstances under which the service can be
disabled, or the reason why you should not disable the service.

Table 17.1. Services enabled by default on a minimal installation of RHEL

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 CHAPTER 17. OPTIMIZING SYSTEMD TO SHORTEN THE BOOT TIME

Service Can it be disabled? More information

name

auditd.servic yes Disable auditd.service only if you do not need audit messages
e from the kernel. Be aware that if you disable auditd.service, the
/var/log/audit/audit.log file is not produced. Consequently, you
are not able to retroactively review some commonly-reviewed
actions or events, such as user logins, service starts or password
changes. Also note that auditd has two parts: a kernel part, and a
service itself. By using the systemctl disable auditd command,
you only disable the service, but not the kernel part. To disable
system auditing in its entirety, set audit=0 on kernel command
line.

[email protected] no This service runs only when it is really needed, so it does not need
ce to be disabled.

crond.service yes Be aware that no items from crontab will run if you disable
crond.service.

dbus- yes A symlink to firewalld.service

org.fedorapr
oject.Firewall
D1.service

dbus- yes A symlink to NetworkManager.service

org.freedeskt
op.NetworkM
anager.servic
e

dbus- yes A symlink to NetworkManager-dispatcher.service

org.freedeskt
op.nm-
dispatcher.se
rvice

firewalld.servi yes Disable firewalld.service only if you do not need firewall.

ce

[email protected] no This service runs only when it is really needed, so it does not need
e to be disabled.

import- yes Disable import-state.service only if you do not need to boot

state.service from a network storage.

irqbalance.se yes Disable irqbalance.service only if you have just one CPU. Do not
rvice disable irqbalance.service on systems with multiple CPUs.

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

Service Can it be disabled? More information

name

kdump.servic yes Disable kdump.service only if you do not need reports from
e kernel crashes.

loadmodules. yes This service is not started unless the /etc/rc.modules or

service /etc/sysconfig/modules directory exists, which means that it is
not started on a minimal RHEL installation.

lvm2- yes Disable lvm2-monitor.service only if you do not use Logical

monitor.servi Volume Manager (LVM).
ce

microcode.se no Do not be disable the service because it provides updates of the

rvice microcode software in CPU.

NetworkMan yes Disable NetworkManager-dispatcher.service only if you do

ager- not need notifications on network configuration changes (for
dispatcher.se example in static networks).
rvice

NetworkMan yes Disable NetworkManager-wait-online.service only if you do

ager-wait- not need working network connection available right after the
online.service boot. If the service is enabled, the system does not finish the boot
before the network connection is working. This may prolong the
boot time significantly.

NetworkMan yes Disable NetworkManager.service only if you do not need

ager.service connection to a network.

nis- yes Disable nis-domainname.service only if you do not use

domainname. Network Information Service (NIS).
service

rhsmcertd.se no
rvice

rngd.service yes Disable rngd.service only if you do not need a lot of entropy on
your system, or you do not have any sort of hardware generator.
Note that the service is necessary in environments that require a
lot of good entropy, such as systems used for generation of X.509
certificates (for example the FreeIPA server).

rsyslog.servic yes Disable rsyslog.service only if you do not need persistent logs,
e or you set systemd-journald to persistent mode.

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Service Can it be disabled? More information

name

selinux- yes Disable selinux-autorelabel-mark.service only if you do not

autorelabel- use SELinux.
mark.service

sshd.service yes Disable sshd.service only if you do not need remote logins by
OpenSSH server.

sssd.service yes Disable sssd.service only if there are no users who log in the
system over the network (for example by using LDAP or Kerberos).
Red Hat recommends to disable all sssd-* units if you disable
sssd.service.

syslog.servic yes An alias for rsyslog.service

e

tuned.service yes Disable tuned.service only if you do need to use performance

tuning.

lvm2- yes Disable lvm2-lvmpolld.socket only if you do not use Logical

lvmpolld.sock Volume Manager (LVM).
et

dnf- yes Disable dnf-makecache.timer only if you do not need your

makecache.ti package metadata to be updated automatically.
mer

unbound- yes Disable unbound-anchor.timer only if you do not need daily

anchor.timer update of the root trust anchor for DNS Security Extensions
(DNSSEC). This root trust anchor is used by Unbound resolver and
resolver library for DNSSEC validation.

To find more information about a service, you can run one of the following commands:

$ systemctl cat <service_name>

$ systemctl help <service_name>

The systemctl cat command provides the content of the service file located under
/usr/lib/systemd/system/<service>, as well as all applicable overrides. The applicable overrides include
unit file overrides from the /etc/systemd/system/<service> file or drop-in files from a corresponding
unit.type.d directory.

For more information on drop-in files, see the systemd.unit man page.

The systemctl help command shows the man page of the particular service.

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17.3. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

systemctl(1) man page

systemd(1) man page

systemd-delta(1) man page

systemd.directives(7) man page

systemd.unit(5) man page

systemd.service(5) man page

systemd.target(5) man page

systemd.kill(5) man page

systemd Home Page

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 CHAPTER 18. INTRODUCTION TO MANAGING USER AND GROUP ACCOUNTS

CHAPTER 18. INTRODUCTION TO MANAGING USER AND

GROUP ACCOUNTS
The control of users and groups is a core element of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) system
administration. Each RHEL user has distinct login credentials and can be assigned to various groups to
customize their system privileges.

18.1. INTRODUCTION TO USERS AND GROUPS

A user who creates a file is the owner of that file and the group owner of that file. The file is assigned
separate read, write, and execute permissions for the owner, the group, and those outside that group.
The file owner can be changed only by the root user. Access permissions to the file can be changed by
both the root user and the file owner. A regular user can change group ownership of a file they own to a
group of which they are a member of.

Each user is associated with a unique numerical identification number called user ID (UID). Each group is
associated with a group ID (GID). Users within a group share the same permissions to read, write, and
execute files owned by that group.

18.2. CONFIGURING RESERVED USER AND GROUP IDS

RHEL reserves user and group IDs below 1000 for system users and groups. You can find the reserved
user and group IDs in the setup package. To view reserved user and group IDs, use:

cat /usr/share/doc/setup*/uidgid

It is recommended to assign IDs to the new users and groups starting at 5000, as the reserved range
can increase in the future.

To make the IDs assigned to new users start at 5000 by default, modify the UID_MIN and GID_MIN
parameters in the /etc/login.defs file.

Procedure
To modify and make the IDs assigned to new users start at 5000 by default:

1. Open the /etc/login.defs file in an editor of your choice.

2. Find the lines that define the minimum value for automatic UID selection.

# Min/max values for automatic uid selection in useradd

#
UID_MIN 1000

3. Modify the UID_MIN value to start at 5000.

# Min/max values for automatic uid selection in useradd

#
UID_MIN 5000

4. Find the lines that define the minimum value for automatic GID selection.

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

# Min/max values for automatic gid selection in groupadd

#
GID_MIN 1000

5. Modify the GID_MIN value to start at 5000.

# Min/max values for automatic gid selection in groupadd

#
GID_MIN 5000

The dynamically assigned UIDs and GIDs for the regular users now start at 5000.

NOTE

The UID’s and GID’s of users and groups created before you changed the
UID_MIN and GID_MIN values do not change.

This will allow new user’s group to have same 5000+ ID as UID and GID.


WARNING

Do not raise IDs reserved by the system above 1000 by changing

SYS_UID_MAX to avoid conflict with systems that retain the 1000 limit.

18.3. USER PRIVATE GROUPS

RHEL uses the user private group (UPG) system configuration, which makes UNIX groups easier to
manage. A user private group is created whenever a new user is added to the system. The user private
group has the same name as the user for which it was created and that user is the only member of the
user private group.

UPGs simplify the collaboration on a project between multiple users. In addition, UPG system
configuration makes it safe to set default permissions for a newly created file or directory, as it allows
both the user, and the group this user is a part of, to make modifications to the file or directory.

A list of all groups is stored in the /etc/group configuration file.

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 CHAPTER 19. MANAGING USER ACCOUNTS IN THE WEB CONSOLE

CHAPTER 19. MANAGING USER ACCOUNTS IN THE WEB

CONSOLE
The RHEL web console offers a graphical interface that enables you to execute a wide range of
administrative tasks without accessing your terminal directly. For example, you can add, edit or remove
system user accounts.

After reading this section, you will know:

From where the existing accounts come from.

How to add new accounts.

How to set password expiration.

How and when to terminate user sessions.

Prerequisites

Set up the RHEL web console. For details, see Getting started using the RHEL web console .

Log in to the RHEL web console with an account that has administrator permissions assigned.
For details, see Logging in to the RHEL web console .

19.1. SYSTEM USER ACCOUNTS MANAGED IN THE WEB CONSOLE

With user accounts displayed in the RHEL web console you can:

Authenticate users when accessing the system.

Set the access rights to the system.

The RHEL web console displays all user accounts located in the system. Therefore, you can see at least
one user account just after the first login to the web console.

After logging into the RHEL web console, you can perform the following operations:

Create new users accounts.

Change their parameters.

Lock accounts.

Terminate user sessions.

19.2. ADDING NEW ACCOUNTS USING THE WEB CONSOLE

Use the following steps for adding user accounts to the system and setting administration rights to the
accounts through the RHEL web console.

Prerequisites

The RHEL web console must be installed and accessible. For details, see Installing the web
console.

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Procedure

1. Log in to the RHEL web console.

2. Click Accounts.

3. Click Create New Account.

1. In the Full Name field, enter the full name of the user.
The RHEL web console automatically suggests a user name from the full name and fills it in the
User Name field. If you do not want to use the original naming convention consisting of the first
letter of the first name and the whole surname, update the suggestion.

2. In the Password/Confirm fields, enter the password and retype it for verification that your
password is correct.
The color bar placed below the fields shows you security level of the entered password, which
does not allow you to create a user with a weak password.

1. Click Create to save the settings and close the dialog box.

2. Select the newly created account.

3. Select Server Administrator in the Roles item.

Now you can see the new account in the Accounts settings and you can use the credentials to
connect to the system.

19.3. ENFORCING PASSWORD EXPIRATION IN THE WEB CONSOLE

By default, user accounts have set passwords to never expire. You can set system passwords to expire
after a defined number of days. When the password expires, the next login attempt will prompt for a
password change.

Procedure

1. Log in to the RHEL 9 web console.

2. Click Accounts.

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3. Select the user account for which to enforce password expiration.

4. In the user account settings, click the second edit.

5. In the Password Expiration dialog box, select Require password change every …​ days and
enter a positive whole number representing the number of days after which the password
expires.

6. Click Change.

Verification steps

To verify that the password expiration is set, open the account settings.
The RHEL 9 web console displays a link with the date of expiration.

19.4. TERMINATING USER SESSIONS IN THE WEB CONSOLE

A user creates user sessions when logging into the system. Terminating user sessions means to log the
user out from the system. It can be helpful if you need to perform administrative tasks sensitive to
configuration changes, for example, system upgrades.

In each user account in the RHEL 9 web console, you can terminate all sessions for the account except
for the web console session you are currently using. This prevents you from loosing access to your
system.

Procedure

1. Log in to the RHEL 9 web console.

2. Click Accounts.

3. Click the user account for which you want to terminate the session.

4. Click Terminate Session.

If the Terminate Session button is inactive, the user is not logged in to the system.

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The RHEL web console terminates the sessions.

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 CHAPTER 20. MANAGING USERS FROM THE COMMAND LINE

CHAPTER 20. MANAGING USERS FROM THE COMMAND LINE

You can manage users and groups using the command-line interface (CLI). This enables you to add,
remove, and modify users and user groups in Red Hat Enterprise Linux environment.

20.1. ADDING A NEW USER FROM THE COMMAND LINE

This section describes how to use the useradd utility to add a new user.

Prerequisites

Root access

Procedure

To add a new user, use:

# useradd options username

Replace options with the command-line options for the useradd command, and replace
username with the name of the user.

Example 20.1. Adding a new user

To add the user sarah with user ID 5000, use:

# useradd -u 5000 sarah

Verification steps

To verify the new user is added, use the id utility.

# id sarah

The output returns:

uid=5000(sarah) gid=5000(sarah) groups=5000(sarah)

Additional resources

useradd man page

20.2. ADDING A NEW GROUP FROM THE COMMAND LINE

This section describes how to use the groupadd utility to add a new group.

Prerequisites

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Root access

Procedure

To add a new group, use:

# groupadd options group-name

Replace options with the command-line options for the groupadd command, and replace
group-name with the name of the group.

Example 20.2. Adding a new group

To add the group sysadmins with group ID 5000, use:

# groupadd -g 5000 sysadmins

Verification steps

To verify the new group is added, use the tail utility.

# tail /etc/group

The output returns:

sysadmins:x:5000:

Additional resources

groupadd man page

20.3. ADDING A USER TO A SUPPLEMENTARY GROUP FROM THE

COMMAND LINE
You can add a user to a supplementary group to manage permissions or enable access to certain files or
devices.

Prerequisites

root access

Procedure

To add a group to the supplementary groups of the user, use:

# usermod --append -G group-name username

Replace group-name with the name of the group, and replace username with the name of the
user.

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Example 20.3. Adding a user to a supplementary group

To add the user sysadmin to the group system-administrators, use:

# usermod --append -G system-administrators sysadmin

Verification steps

To verify the new groups is added to the supplementary groups of the user sysadmin, use:

# groups sysadmin

The output displays:

sysadmin : sysadmin system-administrators

20.4. CREATING A GROUP DIRECTORY

Under the UPG system configuration, you can apply the set-group identification permission (setgid bit)
to a directory. The setgid bit makes managing group projects that share a directory simpler. When you
apply the setgid bit to a directory, files created within that directory are automatically assigned to a
group that owns the directory. Any user that has the permission to write and execute within this group
can now create, modify, and delete files in the directory.

The following section describes how to create group directories.

Prerequisites

Root access

Procedure

1. Create a directory:

# mkdir directory-name

Replace directory-name with the name of the directory.

2. Create a group:

# groupadd group-name

Replace group-name with the name of the group.

3. Add users to the group:

# usermod --append -G group-name username

Replace group-name with the name of the group, and replace username with the name of the
user.

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4. Associate the user and group ownership of the directory with the group-name group:

# chown :group-name directory-name

Replace group-name with the name of the group, and replace directory-name with the name of
the directory.

5. Set the write permissions to allow the users to create and modify files and directories and set
the setgid bit to make this permission be applied within the directory-name directory:

# chmod g+rwxs directory-name

Replace directory-name with the name of the directory.

Now all members of the group-name group can create and edit files in the directory-name
directory. Newly created files retain the group ownership of group-name group.

Verification steps

To verify the correctness of set permissions, use:

# ls -ld directory-name

Replace directory-name with the name of the directory.

The output returns:

drwxrwsr-x. 2 root group-name 6 Nov 25 08:45 directory-name

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 CHAPTER 21. EDITING USER GROUPS USING THE COMMAND LINE

CHAPTER 21. EDITING USER GROUPS USING THE COMMAND

LINE
A user belongs to a certain set of groups that allow a logical collection of users with a similar access to
files and folders. You can edit the primary and supplementary user groups from the command line to
change the user’s permissions.

21.1. PRIMARY AND SUPPLEMENTARY USER GROUPS

A group is an entity which ties together multiple user accounts for a common purpose, such as granting
access to particular files.

On Linux, user groups can act as primary or supplementary. Primary and supplementary groups have the
following properties:

Primary group

Every user has just one primary group at all times.

You can change the user’s primary group.

Supplementary groups

You can add an existing user to an existing supplementary group to manage users with the
same security and access privileges within the group.

Users can be members of zero or multiple supplementary groups.

21.2. LISTING THE PRIMARY AND SUPPLEMENTARY GROUPS OF A

USER
You can list the groups of users to see which primary and supplementary groups they belong to.

Procedure

Display the names of the primary and any supplementary group of a user:

$ groups user-name

Replace user-name with the name of the user. If you do not provide a user name, the command
displays the group membership for the current user. The first group is the primary group
followed by the optional supplementary groups.

Example 21.1. Listing of groups for user sarah:

$ groups sarah

The output displays:

sarah : sarah wheel developer

User sarah has a primary group sarah and is a member of supplementary groups wheel and

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User sarah has a primary group sarah and is a member of supplementary groups wheel and
developer.

Example 21.2. Listing of groups for user marc:

$ groups marc

The output displays:

marc : marc

User marc has only a primary group marc and no supplementary groups.

21.3. CHANGING THE PRIMARY GROUP OF A USER

You can change the primary group of an existing user to a new group.

Prerequisites:

1. root access

2. The new group must exist

Procedure

Change the primary group of a user:

# usermod -g group-name user-name

Replace group-name with the name of the new primary group, and replace user-name with the
name of the user.

NOTE

When you change a user’s primary group, the command also automatically
changes the group ownership of all files in the user’s home directory to the new
primary group. You must fix the group ownership of files outside of the user’s
home directory manually.

Example 21.3. Example of changing the primary group of a user:

If the user sarah belongs to the primary group sarah1, and you want to change the primary
group of the user to sarah2, use:

# usermod -g sarah2 sarah

Verification steps

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Verify that you changed the primary group of the user:

$ groups sarah

The output displays:

sarah : sarah2

21.4. ADDING A USER TO A SUPPLEMENTARY GROUP FROM THE

COMMAND LINE
You can add a user to a supplementary group to manage permissions or enable access to certain files or
devices.

Prerequisites

root access

Procedure

To add a group to the supplementary groups of the user, use:

# usermod --append -G group-name username

Replace group-name with the name of the group, and replace username with the name of the
user.

Example 21.4. Adding a user to a supplementary group

To add the user sysadmin to the group system-administrators, use:

# usermod --append -G system-administrators sysadmin

Verification steps

To verify the new groups is added to the supplementary groups of the user sysadmin, use:

# groups sysadmin

The output displays:

sysadmin : sysadmin system-administrators

21.5. REMOVING A USER FROM A SUPPLEMENTARY GROUP

You can remove an existing user from a supplementary group to limit their permissions or access to files
and devices.

Prerequisites

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 9 Configuring basic system settings

root access

Procedure

Remove a user from a supplementary group:

# gpasswd -d user-name group-name

Replace user-name with the name of the user, and replace group-name with the name of the
supplementary group.

Example 21.5. Removing user from a supplementary group

If the user sarah has a primary group sarah2, and belongs to the secondary groups wheel
and developers, and you want to remove that user from the group developers, use:

# gpasswd -d sarah developers

Verification steps

Verify that you removed the user sarah from the secondary group developers:

$ groups sarah

The output displays:

sarah : sarah2 wheel

21.6. CHANGING ALL OF THE SUPPLEMENTARY GROUPS OF A USER

You can overwrite the list of supplementary groups that you want the user to remain a member of.

Prerequisites

root access

The supplementary groups must exist

Procedure

Overwrite a list of user’s supplementary groups:

# usermod -G group-names username

Replace group-names with the name of one or more supplementary groups. To add the user to
several supplementary groups at once, separate the group names using commas and no
intervening spaces. For example: wheel,developer.

Replace user-name with the name of the user.

IMPORTANT
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IMPORTANT

If the user is currently a member of a group that you do not specify, the
command removes the user from the group.

Example 21.6. Changing the list of supplementary groups of a user

If the user sarah has a primary group sarah2, and belongs to the supplementary group
wheel, and you want the user to belong to three more supplementary groups developer,
sysadmin, and security, use:

# usermod -G wheel,developer,sysadmin,security sarah

Verification steps

Verify that you set the list of the supplementary groups correct:

# groups sarah

The output displays:

sarah : sarah2 wheel developer sysadmin security

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CHAPTER 22. MANAGING SUDO ACCESS

System administrators can grant sudo access to allow non-root users to execute administrative
commands that are normally reserved for the root user. As a result, non-root users can execute such
commands without logging in to the root user account.

22.1. USER AUTHORIZATIONS IN SUDOERS

The /etc/sudoers file specifies which users can run which commands using the sudo command. The
rules can apply to individual users and user groups. You can also use aliases to simplify defining rules for
groups of hosts, commands, and even users. Default aliases are defined in the first part of the
/etc/sudoers file.

When a user tries to use sudo privileges to run a command that is not allowed in the /etc/sudoers file,
the system records a message containing username : user NOT in sudoers to the journal log.

The default /etc/sudoers file provides information and examples of authorizations. You can activate a
specific example rule by removing the # comment character from the beginning of the line. The
authorizations section relevant for user is marked with the following introduction:

## Next comes the main part: which users can run what software on
## which machines (the sudoers file can be shared between multiple
## systems).

You can use the following format to create new sudoers authorizations and to modify existing
authorizations:

username hostname=path/to/command

Where:

username is the name of the user or group, for example, user1 or %group1.

hostname is the name of the host on which the rule applies.

path/to/command is the complete absolute path to the command. You can also limit the user to
only performing a command with specific options and arguments by adding those options after
the command path. If you do not specify any options, the user can use the command with all
options.

You can replace any of these variables with ALL to apply the rule to all users, hosts, or commands.


WARNING

With overly permissive rules, such as ALL ALL=(ALL) ALL, all users are able to run
all commands as all users on all hosts. This can lead to security risks.

You can specify the arguments negatively using the ! operator. For example, use !root to specify all
users except the root user. Note that using the allowlists to allow specific users, groups, and commands,

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is more secure than using the blocklists to disallowing specific users, groups, and commands. By using
the allowlists you also block new unauthorized users or groups.


WARNING

Avoid using negative rules for commands because users can overcome such rules by
renaming commands using the alias command.

The system reads the /etc/sudoers file from beginning to end. Therefore, if the file contains multiple
entries for a user, the entries are applied in order. In case of conflicting values, the system uses the last
match, even if it is not the most specific match.

The preferred way of adding new rules to sudoers is by creating new files in the /etc/sudoers.d/
directory instead of entering rules directly to the /etc/sudoers file. This is because the contents of this
directory are preserved during system updates. In addition, it is easier to fix any errors in the separate
files than in the /etc/sudoers file. The system reads the files in the /etc/sudoers.d directory when it
reaches the following line in the /etc/sudoers file:

#includedir /etc/sudoers.d

Note that the number sign # at the beginning of this line is part of the syntax and does not mean the line
is a comment. The names of files in that directory must not contain a period . and must not end with a
tilde ~.

22.2. GRANTING SUDO ACCESS TO A USER

System administrators can grant sudo access to allow non-root users to execute administrative
commands. The sudo command provides users with administrative access without using the password
of the root user.

When users need to perform an administrative command, they can precede that command with sudo.
The command is then executed as if they were the root user.

Be aware of the following limitations:

Only users listed in the /etc/sudoers configuration file can use the sudo command.

The command is executed in the shell of the user, not in the root shell.

Prerequisites

root access

Procedure

1. As root, open the /etc/sudoers file.

# visudo

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The /etc/sudoers file defines the policies applied by the sudo command.

2. In the /etc/sudoers file, find the lines that grant sudo access to users in the administrative
wheel group.

## Allows people in group wheel to run all commands

%wheel ALL=(ALL) ALL

3. Make sure the line that starts with %wheel does not have the # comment character before it.

4. Save any changes, and exit the editor.

5. Add users you want to grant sudo access to into the administrative wheel group.

# usermod --append -G wheel username

Replace username with the name of the user.

Verification steps

Verify that the user is added to the administrative wheel group:

# id username
uid=5000(username) gid=5000(_username) groups=5000(username),10(wheel)

22.3. ENABLING UNPRIVILEGED USERS TO RUN CERTAIN

COMMANDS
You can configure a policy that allows unprivileged user to run certain command on a specific
workstation. To configure this policy, you need to create and edit file in the sudoers.d directory.

Prerequisites

root access

Procedure

1. As root, create a new sudoers.d directory under /etc/:

# mkdir -p /etc/sudoers.d/

2. Create a new file in the /etc/sudoers.d directory:

# visudo -f /etc/sudoers.d/file-name

Replace file-name with the name of the file you want to create. The file will open automatically.

3. Add the following line to the newly created file:

username hostname = /path/to/the/command

Replace username with the name of the user. Replace hostname with the name of the host.

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Replace username with the name of the user. Replace hostname with the name of the host.
Replace /path/to/the/command with the absolute path to the command (for example,
/usr/bin/dnf).

4. Save any changes, and exit the editor.

Example 22.1. Enabling an unprivileged user to install programs with dnf

To enable the user sarah to install programs on the localhost.localdomain workstation

using the dnf utilities with sudo privileges, use:

1. As root, create a new sudoers.d directory under /etc/:

# mkdir -p /etc/sudoers.d/

2. Create a new file in the /etc/sudoers.d directory:

# visudo -f /etc/sudoers.d/sarah

The file will open automatically.

3. Add the following line to the /etc/sudoers.d/sarah file:

sarah localhost.localdomain = /usr/bin/dnf

Ensure that the two command paths are separated by a , comma followed by a space.

4. Optional: To receive email notifications every time the user sarah attempts to use sudo
privileges, add the following lines to the file:

Defaults mail_always
Defaults mailto="[email protected]"

5. To verify if the user sarah can run the dnf command with sudo privileges, switch the
account:

# su sarah -

6. Enter the sudo dnf command:

$ sudo dnf
[sudo] password for sarah:

Enter the sudo password for the user sarah.

7. The system displays the list of dnf commands and options:

...
usage: dnf [options] COMMAND
...

If you receive the sarah is not in the sudoers file. This incident will be reported.
message, the configuration was not completed correctly. Ensure that you are executing
this procedure as root and that you followed the steps thoroughly.

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22.4. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

The sudo(8) man page

The visudo(8) man page

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CHAPTER 23. CHANGING AND RESETTING THE ROOT

PASSWORD
If the existing root password is no longer satisfactory or is forgotten, you can change or reset it both as
the root user and a non-root user.

23.1. CHANGING THE ROOT PASSWORD AS THE ROOT USER

This section describes how to use the passwd command to change the root password as the root user.

Prerequisites

Root access

Procedure

To change the root password, use:

# passwd

You are prompted to enter your current password before you can change it.

23.2. CHANGING OR RESETTING THE FORGOTTEN ROOT PASSWORD

AS A NON-ROOT USER
This section describes how to use the passwd command to change or reset the forgotten root
password as a non-root user.

Prerequisites

You are able to log in as a non-root user.

You are a member of the administrative wheel group.

Procedure

To change or reset the root password as a non-root user that belongs to the wheel group, use:

$ sudo passwd root

You are prompted to enter your current non-root password before you can change the root
password.

23.3. RESETTING THE ROOT PASSWORD ON BOOT

If you are unable to log in as a non-root user or do not belong to the administrative wheel group, you can
reset the root password on boot by switching into a specialized chroot jail environment.

Procedure

1. Reboot the system and, on the GRUB 2 boot screen, press the e key to interrupt the boot
process.

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The kernel boot parameters appear.

load_video
set gfx_payload=keep
insmod gzio
linux ($root)/vmlinuz-5.14.0-70.22.1.e19_0.x86_64 root=/dev/mapper/rhel-root ro crash\
kernel=auto resume=/dev/mapper/rhel-swap rd.lvm.lv/swap rhgb quiet
initrd ($root)/initramfs-5.14.0-70.22.1.e19_0.x86_64.img $tuned_initrd

2. Go to the end of the line that starts with linux.

linux ($root)/vmlinuz-5.14.0-70.22.1.e19_0.x86_64 root=/dev/mapper/rhel-root ro crash\

kernel=auto resume=/dev/mapper/rhel-swap rd.lvm.lv/swap rhgb quiet

Press Ctrl+e to jump to the end of the line.

3. Add rd.break to the end of the line that starts with linux.

linux ($root)/vmlinuz-5.14.0-70.22.1.e19_0.x86_64 root=/dev/mapper/rhel-root ro crash\

kernel=auto resume=/dev/mapper/rhel-swap rd.lvm.lv/swap rhgb quiet rd.break

4. Press Ctrl+x to start the system with the changed parameters.

The switch_root prompt appears.

5. Remount the file system as writable:

mount -o remount,rw /sysroot

The file system is mounted as read-only in the /sysroot directory. Remounting the file system
as writable allows you to change the password.

6. Enter the chroot environment:

chroot /sysroot

The sh-4.4# prompt appears.

7. Reset the root password:

passwd

Follow the instructions displayed by the command line to finalize the change of the root
password.

8. Enable the SELinux relabeling process on the next system boot:

touch /.autorelabel

9. Exit the chroot environment:

exit

10. Exit the switch_root prompt:

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exit

11. Wait until the SELinux relabeling process is finished. Note that relabeling a large disk might take
a long time. The system reboots automatically when the process is complete.

Verification steps

1. To verify that the root password is successfully changed, log in as a normal user and open the
Terminal.

2. Run the interactive shell as root:

$ su

3. Enter your new root password.

4. Print the user name associated with the current effective user ID:

whoami

The output returns:

root

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CHAPTER 24. MANAGING FILE PERMISSIONS

File permissions control the ability of user and group accounts to view, modify, access, and execute the
contents of the files and directories.

Every file or directory has three levels of ownership:

User owner (u).

Group owner (g).

Others (o).

Each level of ownership can be assigned the following permissions:

Read (r).

Write (w).

Execute (x).

Note that the execute permission for a file allows you to execute that file. The execute permission for a
directory allows you to access the contents of the directory, but not execute it.

When a new file or directory is created, the default set of permissions are automatically assigned to it.
The default permissions for a file or directory are based on two factors:

Base permission.

The user file-creation mode mask (umask).

24.1. BASE FILE PERMISSIONS

Whenever a new file or directory is created, a base permission is automatically assigned to it. Base
permissions for a file or directory can be expressed in symbolic or octal values.

Permission Symbolic value Octal value

No permission --- 0

Execute --x 1

Write -w- 2

Write and execute -wx 3

Read r-- 4

Read and execute r-x 5

Read and write rw- 6

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Read, write, execute rwx 7

The base permission for a directory is 777 (drwxrwxrwx), which grants everyone the permissions to
read, write, and execute. This means that the directory owner, the group, and others can list the
contents of the directory, create, delete, and edit items within the directory, and descend into it.

Note that individual files within a directory can have their own permission that might prevent you from
editing them, despite having unrestricted access to the directory.

The base permission for a file is 666 (-rw-rw-rw-), which grants everyone the permissions to read and
write. This means that the file owner, the group, and others can read and edit the file.

Example 24.1. Permissions for a file

If a file has the following permissions:

$ ls -l
-rwxrw----. 1 sysadmins sysadmins 2 Mar 2 08:43 file

- indicates it is a file.

rwx indicates that the file owner has permissions to read, write, and execute the file.

rw- indicates that the group has permissions to read and write, but not execute the file.

--- indicates that other users have no permission to read, write, or execute the file.

. indicates that the SELinux security context is set for the file.

Example 24.2. Permissions for a directory

If a directory has the following permissions:

$ ls -dl directory
drwxr-----. 1 sysadmins sysadmins 2 Mar 2 08:43 directory

d indicates it is a directory.

rwx indicates that the directory owner has the permissions to read, write, and access the
contents of the directory.
As a directory owner, you can list the items (files, subdirectories) within the directory, access
the content of those items, and modify them.

r-- indicates that the group has permissions to read, but not write or access the contents of
the directory.
As a member of the group that owns the directory, you can list the items within the directory.
You cannot access information about the items within the directory or modify them.

--- indicates that other users have no permission to read, write, or access the contents of the
directory.
As someone who is not a user owner, or as group owner of the directory, you cannot list the
items within the directory, access information about those items, or modify them.

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. indicates that the SELinux security context is set for the directory.

NOTE

The base permission that is automatically assigned to a file or directory is not the default
permission the file or directory ends up with. When you create a file or directory, the base
permission is altered by the umask. The combination of the base permission and the
umask creates the default permission for files and directories.

24.2. USER FILE-CREATION MODE MASK

The user file-creation mode mask (umask) is variable that controls how file permissions are set for newly
created files and directories. The umask automatically removes permissions from the base permission
value to increase the overall security of a linux system. The umask can be expressed in symbolic or octal
values.

Permission Symbolic value Octal value

Read, write, and execute rwx 0

Read and write rw- 1

Read and execute r-x 2

Read r-- 3

Write and execute -wx 4

Write -w- 5

Execute --x 6

No permissions --- 7

The default umask for a standard user is 0002. The default umask for a root user is 0022.

The first digit of the umask represents special permissions (sticky bit, ). The last three digits of the
umask represent the permissions that are removed from the user owner ( u), group owner (g), and
others (o) respectively.

Example 24.3. Applying the umask when creating a file

The following example illustrates how the umask with an octal value of 0137 is applied to the file with
the base permission of 777, to create the file with the default permission of 640.

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24.3. DEFAULT FILE PERMISSIONS

The default permissions are set automatically for all newly created files and directories. The value of the
default permissions is determined by applying the umask to the base permission.

Example 24.4. Default permissions for a directory created by a standard user

When a standard user creates a new directory, the umask is set to 002 (rwxrwxr-x), and the base
permissions for a directory are set to 777 (rwxrwxrwx). This brings the default permissions to 775
(drwxrwxr-x).

Symbolic value Octal value

Base permission rwxrwxrwx 777

Umask rwxrwxr-x 002

Default permission rwxrwxr-x 775

This means that the directory owner and the group can list the contents of the directory, create, delete,
and edit items within the directory, and descend into it. Other users can only list the contents of the
directory and descend into it.

Example 24.5. Default permissions for a file created by a standard user

When a standard user creates a new file, the umask is set to 002 (rwxrwxr-x), and the base
permissions for a file are set to 666 (rw-rw-rw-). This brings the default permissions to 664 (-rw-rw-r-
-).

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Symbolic value Octal value

Base permission rw-rw-rw- 666

Umask rwxrwxr-x 002

Default permission rw-rw-r-- 664

This means that the file owner and the group can read and edit the file, while other users can only
read the file.

Example 24.6. Default permissions for a directory created by the root user

When a root user creates a new directory, the umask is set to 022 (rwxr-xr-x), and the base
permissions for a directory are set to 777 (rwxrwxrwx). This brings the default permissions to 755
(rwxr-xr-x).

Symbolic value Octal value

Base permission rwxrwxrwx 777

Umask rwxr-xr-x 022

Default permission rwxr-xr-x 755

This means that the directory owner can list the contents of the directory, create, delete, and edit
items within the directory, and descend into it. The group and others can only list the contents of the
directory and descend into it.

Example 24.7. Default permissions for a file created by the root user

When a root user creates a new file, the umask is set to 022 (rwxr-xr-x), and the base permissions
for a file are set to 666 (rw-rw-rw-). This brings the default permissions to 644 (-rw-r—​r--).

Symbolic value Octal value

Base permission rw-rw-rw- 666

Umask rwxr-xr-x 022

Default permission rw-r—​r-- 644

This means that the file owner can read and edit the file, while the group and others can only read
the file.

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NOTE

For security reasons, regular files cannot have execute permissions by default, even if the
umask is set to 000 (rwxrwxrwx). However, directories can be created with execute
permissions.

24.4. CHANGING FILE PERMISSIONS USING SYMBOLIC VALUES

You can use the chmod utility with symbolic values (a combination letters and signs) to change file
permissions for a file or directory.

You can assign the following permissions:

Read (r)

Write (w)

Execute (x)

Permissions can be assigned to the following levels of ownership:

User owner (u)

Group owner (g)

Other (o)

All (a)

To add or remove permissions you can use the following signs:

+ to add the permissions on top of the existing permissions

- to remove the permissions from the existing permission

= to remove the existing permissions and explicitly define the new ones

Procedure

To change the permissions for a file or directory, use:

$ chmod <level><operation><permission> file-name

Replace <level> with the level of ownership you want to set the permissions for. Replace
<operation> with one of the signs. Replace <permission> with the permissions you want to
assign. Replace file-name with the name of the file or directory. For example, to grant everyone
the permissions to read, write, and execute (rwx) my-script.sh, use the chmod a=rwx my-
script.sh command.

See Base file permissions for more details.

Verification steps

To see the permissions for a particular file, use:

$ ls -l file-name

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Replace file-name with the name of the file.

To see the permissions for a particular directory, use:

$ ls -dl directory-name

Replace directory-name with the name of the directory.

To see the permissions for all the files within a particular directory, use:

$ ls -l directory-name

Replace directory-name with the name of the directory.

Example 24.8. Changing permissions for files and directories

To change file permissions for my-file.txt from -rw-rw-r-- to -rw------, use:

1. Display the current permissions for my-file.txt:

$ ls -l my-file.txt
-rw-rw-r--. 1 username username 0 Feb 24 17:56 my-file.txt

2. Remove the permissions to read, write, and execute (rwx) the file from group owner ( g)
and others (o):

$ chmod go= my-file.txt

Note that any permission that is not specified after the equals sign (=) is automatically
prohibited.

3. Verify that the permissions for my-file.txt were set correctly:

$ ls -l my-file.txt
-rw-------. 1 username username 0 Feb 24 17:56 my-file.txt

To change file permissions for my-directory from drwxrwx--- to drwxrwxr-x, use:

1. Display the current permissions for my-directory:

$ ls -dl my-directory
drwxrwx---. 2 username username 4096 Feb 24 18:12 my-directory

2. Add the read and execute (r-x) access for all users ( a):

$ chmod o+rx my-directory

3. Verify that the permissions for my-directory and its content were set correctly:

$ ls -dl my-directory
drwxrwxr-x. 2 username username 4096 Feb 24 18:12 my-directory

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24.5. CHANGING FILE PERMISSIONS USING OCTAL VALUES

You can use the chmod utility with octal values (numbers) to change file permissions for a file or
directory.

Procedure

To change the file permissions for an existing file or directory, use:

$ chmod octal_value file-name

Replace file-name with the name of the file or directory. Replace octal_value with an octal value.
See Base file permissions for more details.

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CHAPTER 25. MANAGING THE UMASK

You can use the umask utility to display, set, or change the current or default value of the umask.

25.1. DISPLAYING THE CURRENT VALUE OF THE UMASK

You can use the umask utility to display the current value of the umask in symbolic or octal mode.

Procedure

To display the current value of the umask in symbolic mode, use:

$ umask -S

To display the current value of the umask in the octal mode, use:

$ umask

NOTE

When displaying the umask in octal mode, you may notice it displayed as a four
digit number (0002 or 0022). The first digit of the umask represents a special bit
(sticky bit, SGID bit, or SUID bit). If the first digit is set to 0, the special bit is not
set.

25.2. DISPLAYING THE DEFAULT BASH UMASK

There are a number of shells you can use, such as bash, ksh, zsh and tcsh. Those shells can behave as
login or non-login shells. You can invoke the login shell by opening a native or a GUI terminal.

To determine whether you are executing a command in a login or a non-login shell, use the echo $0
command.

Example 25.1. Determining if you are working in a login or a non-login bash shell

If the output of the echo $0 command returns bash, you are executing the command in a
non-login shell.

$ echo $0
bash

The default umask for the non-login shell is set in the /etc/bashrc configuration file.

If the output of the echo $0 command returns -bash, you are executing the command in a
login shell.

# echo $0
-bash

The default umask for the login shell is set in the /etc/login.defs configuration file.

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Procedure

To display the default bash umask for the non-login shell, use:

$ grep umask /etc/bashrc

The output returns:

# By default, we want umask to get set. This sets it for non-login shell.
umask 002
umask 022

To display the default bash umask for the login shell, use:

grep "UMASK" /etc/login.defs

The output returns:

# UMASK is also used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new
UMASK 022
# If HOME_MODE is not set, the value of UMASK is used to create the mode.

25.3. SETTING THE UMASK USING SYMBOLIC VALUES

You can use the umask utility with symbolic values (a combination letters and signs) to set the umask
for the current shell session

You can assign the following permissions:

Read (r)

Write (w)

Execute (x)

Permissions can be assigned to the following levels of ownership:

User owner (u)

Group owner (g)

Other (o)

All (a)

To add or remove permissions you can use the following signs:

+ to add the permissions on top of the existing permissions

- to remove the permissions from the existing permission

= to remove the existing permissions and explicitly define the new ones

NOTE
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NOTE

Any permission that is not specified after the equals sign (=) is automatically
prohibited.

Procedure

To set the umask for the current shell session, use:

$ umask -S <level><operation><permission>

Replace <level> with the level of ownership you want to set the umask for. Replace
<operation> with one of the signs. Replace <permission> with the permissions you want to
assign. For example, to set the umask to u=rwx,g=rwx,o=rwx, use umask -S a=rwx.

See User file-creation mode for more details.

NOTE

The umask is only valid for the current shell session.

25.4. SETTING THE UMASK USING OCTAL VALUES

You can use the umask utility with octal values (numbers) to set the umask for the current shell session.

Procedure

To set the umask for the current shell session, use:

$ umask octal_value

Replace octal_value with an octal value. See User file-creation mode mask for more details.

NOTE

The umask is only valid for the current shell session.

25.5. CHANGING THE DEFAULT UMASK FOR THE NON-LOGIN SHELL

You can change the default bash umask for standard users by modifying the /etc/bashrc file.

Prerequisites

root access

Procedure

1. As root, open the /etc/bashrc file in the editor.

2. Modify the following sections to set a new default bash umask:

if [ $UID -gt 199 ] && [ “id -gn” = “id -un” ]; then

umask 002

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else
umask 022
fi

Replace the default octal value of the umask (002) with another octal value. See User file-
creation mode mask for more details.

3. Save the changes and exit the editor.

25.6. CHANGING THE DEFAULT UMASK FOR THE LOGIN SHELL

You can change the default bash umask for the root user by modifying the /etc/login.defs file.

Prerequisites

root access

Procedure

1. As root, open the /etc/login.defs file in the editor.

2. Modify the following sections to set a new default bash umask:

# Default initial "umask" value used by login(1) on non-PAM enabled systems.

# Default "umask" value for pam_umask(8) on PAM enabled systems.
# UMASK is also used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new
# home directories if HOME_MODE is not set.
# 022 is the default value, but 027, or even 077, could be considered
# for increased privacy. There is no One True Answer here: each sysadmin
# must make up their mind.

UMASK 022

Replace the default octal value of the umask (022) with another octal value. See User file-
creation mode mask for more details.

3. Save the changes and exit the editor.

25.7. CHANGING THE DEFAULT UMASK FOR A SPECIFIC USER

You can change the default umask for a specific user by modifying the .bashrc for that user.

Procedure

Append the line that specifies the octal value of the umask into the .bashrc file for the
particular user.

$ echo 'umask octal_value' >> /home/username/.bashrc

Replace octal_value with an octal value and replace username with the name of the user. See
User file-creation mode mask for more details.

25.8. SETTING DEFAULT PERMISSIONS FOR NEWLY CREATED HOME

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25.8. SETTING DEFAULT PERMISSIONS FOR NEWLY CREATED HOME

DIRECTORIES
You can change the permission modes for home directories of newly created users by modifying the
/etc/login.defs file.

Procedure

1. As root, open the /etc/login.defs file in the editor.

2. Modify the following section to set a new default HOME_MODE:

# HOME_MODE is used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new
# home directories.
# If HOME_MODE is not set, the value of UMASK is used to create the mode.
HOME_MODE 0700

Replace the default octal value (0700) with another octal value. The selected mode will be used
to create the permissions for the home directory.

3. If HOME_MODE is set, save the changes and exit the editor.

4. If HOME_MODE is not set, modify the UMASK to set the mode for the newly created home
directories:

# Default initial "umask" value used by login(1) on non-PAM enabled systems.

# Default "umask" value for pam_umask(8) on PAM enabled systems.
# UMASK is also used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new
# home directories if HOME_MODE is not set.
# 022 is the default value, but 027, or even 077, could be considered
# for increased privacy. There is no One True Answer here: each sysadmin
# must make up their mind.

UMASK 022

Replace the default octal value (022) with another octal value. See User file-creation mode
mask for more details.

5. Save the changes and exit the editor.

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CHAPTER 26. MANAGING THE ACCESS CONTROL LIST

Each file and directory can only have one user owner and one group owner at a time. If you want to grant
a user permissions to access specific files or directories that belong to a different user or group while
keeping other files and directories private, you can utilize Linux Access Control Lists (ACLs).

26.1. DISPLAYING THE CURRENT ACCESS CONTROL LIST

You can use the getfacl utility to display the current ACL.

Procedure

To display the current ACL for a particular file or directory, use:

$ getfacl file-name

Replace file-name with the name of the file or directory.

26.2. SETTING THE ACCESS CONTROL LIST

You can use the setfacl utility to set the ACL for a file or directory.

Prerequisites

root access.

Procedure

To set the ACL for a file or directory, use:

# setfacl -m u:username:symbolic_value file-name

Replace username with the name of the user, symbolic_value with a symbolic value, and file-name with
the name of the file or directory. For more information see the setfacl man page.

Example 26.1. Modifying permissions for a group project

The following example describes how to modify permissions for the group-project file owned by the
root user that belongs to the root group so that this file is:

Not executable by anyone.

The user andrew has the rw- permissions.

The user susan has the --- permissions.

Other users have the r-- permissions.

Procedure

# setfacl -m u:andrew:rw- group-project

# setfacl -m u:susan:--- group-project

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Verification steps

To verify that the user andrew has the rw- permission, the user susan has the ---
permission, and other users have the r-- permission, use:

$ getfacl group-project

The output returns:

# file: group-project
# owner: root
# group: root
user:andrew:rw-
user:susan:---
group::r--
mask::rw-
other::r--

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CHAPTER 27. USING THE CHRONY SUITE TO CONFIGURE

NTP
Accurate timekeeping is important for a number of reasons in IT. In networking for example, accurate
time stamps in packets and logs are required. In Linux systems, the NTP protocol is implemented by a
daemon running in user space.

The user space daemon updates the system clock running in the kernel. The system clock can keep time
by using various clock sources. Usually, the Time Stamp Counter (TSC) is used. The TSC is a CPU
register which counts the number of cycles since it was last reset. It is very fast, has a high resolution,
and there are no interruptions.

Starting with Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, the NTP protocol is implemented by the chronyd daemon,
available from the repositories in the chrony package.

The following sections describe how to use the chrony suite to configure NTP.

27.1. INTRODUCTION TO CHRONY SUITE

chrony is an implementation of the Network Time Protocol (NTP). You can use chrony:

To synchronize the system clock with NTP servers

To synchronize the system clock with a reference clock, for example a GPS receiver

To synchronize the system clock with a manual time input

As an NTPv4(RFC 5905) server or peer to provide a time service to other computers in the
network

chrony performs well in a wide range of conditions, including intermittent network connections, heavily
congested networks, changing temperatures (ordinary computer clocks are sensitive to temperature),
and systems that do not run continuously, or run on a virtual machine.

Typical accuracy between two machines synchronized over the Internet is within a few milliseconds, and
for machines on a LAN within tens of microseconds. Hardware timestamping or a hardware reference
clock may improve accuracy between two machines synchronized to a sub-microsecond level.

chrony consists of chronyd, a daemon that runs in user space, and chronyc, a command line program
which can be used to monitor the performance of chronyd and to change various operating parameters
when it is running.

The chrony daemon, chronyd, can be monitored and controlled by the command line utility chronyc.
This utility provides a command prompt which allows entering a number of commands to query the
current state of chronyd and make changes to its configuration. By default, chronyd accepts only
commands from a local instance of chronyc, but it can be configured to accept monitoring commands
also from remote hosts. The remote access should be restricted.

27.2. USING CHRONYC TO CONTROL CHRONYD

This section describes how to control chronyd using the chronyc command line utility.

Procedure

1. To make changes to the local instance of chronyd using the command line utility chronyc in

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1. To make changes to the local instance of chronyd using the command line utility chronyc in
interactive mode, enter the following command as root:

# chronyc

chronyc must run as root if some of the restricted commands are to be used.

The chronyc command prompt will be displayed as follows:

chronyc>

2. To list all of the commands, type help.

3. Alternatively, the utility can also be invoked in non-interactive command mode if called together
with a command as follows:

chronyc command

NOTE

Changes made using chronyc are not permanent, they will be lost after a chronyd
restart. For permanent changes, modify /etc/chrony.conf.

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CHAPTER 28. USING CHRONY

The following sections describe how to install, start, and stop chronyd, and how to check if chrony is
synchronized. Sections also describe how to manually adjust System Clock.

28.1. MANAGING CHRONY

The following procedure describes how to install, start, stop, and check the status of chronyd.

Procedure

1. The chrony suite is installed by default on Red Hat Enterprise Linux. To ensure that it is, run the
following command as root:

# dnf install chrony

The default location for the chrony daemon is /usr/sbin/chronyd. The command line utility will
be installed to /usr/bin/chronyc.

2. To check the status of chronyd, issue the following command:

$ systemctl status chronyd

chronyd.service - NTP client/server
Loaded: loaded (/usr/lib/systemd/system/chronyd.service; enabled)
Active: active (running) since Wed 2013-06-12 22:23:16 CEST; 11h ago

3. To start chronyd, issue the following command as root:

# systemctl start chronyd

To ensure chronyd starts automatically at system start, issue the following command as root:

# systemctl enable chronyd

4. To stop chronyd, issue the following command as root:

# systemctl stop chronyd

To prevent chronyd from starting automatically at system start, issue the following command
as root:

# systemctl disable chronyd

28.2. CHECKING IF CHRONY IS SYNCHRONIZED

The following procedure describes how to check if chrony is synchronized with the use of the tracking,
sources, and sourcestats commands.

Procedure

1. To check chrony tracking, issue the following command:

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$ chronyc tracking
Reference ID : CB00710F (foo.example.net)
Stratum :3
Ref time (UTC) : Fri Jan 27 09:49:17 2017
System time : 0.000006523 seconds slow of NTP time
Last offset : -0.000006747 seconds
RMS offset : 0.000035822 seconds
Frequency : 3.225 ppm slow
Residual freq : 0.000 ppm
Skew : 0.129 ppm
Root delay : 0.013639022 seconds
Root dispersion : 0.001100737 seconds
Update interval : 64.2 seconds
Leap status : Normal

2. The sources command displays information about the current time sources that chronyd is
accessing. To check chrony sources, issue the following command:

$ chronyc sources
210 Number of sources = 3
MS Name/IP address Stratum Poll Reach LastRx Last sample
===========================================================================
====
#* GPS0 0 4 377 11 -479ns[ -621ns] /- 134ns
^? a.b.c 2 6 377 23 -923us[ -924us] +/- 43ms
^ d.e.f 1 6 377 21 -2629us[-2619us] +/- 86ms

The optional argument -v can be specified, meaning verbose. In this case, extra caption lines are
shown as a reminder of the meanings of the columns.

3. The sourcestats command displays information about the drift rate and offset estimation
process for each of the sources currently being examined by chronyd. To check chrony source
statistics, issue the following command:

$ chronyc sourcestats
210 Number of sources = 1
Name/IP Address NP NR Span Frequency Freq Skew Offset Std Dev
===========================================================================
====
abc.def.ghi 11 5 46m -0.001 0.045 1us 25us

The optional argument -v can be specified, meaning verbose. In this case, extra caption lines are
shown as a reminder of the meanings of the columns.

Additional resources

chronyc(1) man page

28.3. MANUALLY ADJUSTING THE SYSTEM CLOCK

The following procedure describes how to manually adjust the System Clock.

Procedure

1. To step the system clock immediately, bypassing any adjustments in progress by slewing, issue
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1. To step the system clock immediately, bypassing any adjustments in progress by slewing, issue
the following command as root:

# chronyc makestep

If the rtcfile directive is used, the real-time clock should not be manually adjusted. Random adjustments
would interfere with chrony's need to measure the rate at which the real-time clock drifts.

28.4. SETTING UP CHRONY FOR A SYSTEM IN AN ISOLATED

NETWORK
For a network that is never connected to the Internet, one computer is selected to be the master
timeserver. The other computers are either direct clients of the master, or clients of clients. On the
master, the drift file must be manually set with the average rate of drift of the system clock. If the
master is rebooted, it will obtain the time from surrounding systems and calculate an average to set its
system clock. Thereafter it resumes applying adjustments based on the drift file. The drift file will be
updated automatically when the settime command is used.

The following procedure describes how to set up chrony for asystem in an isolated network.

Procedure

1. On the system selected to be the master, using a text editor running as root, edit
/etc/chrony.conf as follows:

driftfile /var/lib/chrony/drift
commandkey 1
keyfile /etc/chrony.keys
initstepslew 10 client1 client3 client6
local stratum 8
manual
allow 192.0.2.0

Where 192.0.2.0 is the network or subnet address from which the clients are allowed to connect.

2. On the systems selected to be direct clients of the master, using a text editor running as root,
edit the /etc/chrony.conf as follows:

server master
driftfile /var/lib/chrony/drift
logdir /var/log/chrony
log measurements statistics tracking
keyfile /etc/chrony.keys
commandkey 24
local stratum 10
initstepslew 20 master
allow 192.0.2.123

Where 192.0.2.123 is the address of the master, and master is the host name of the master.
Clients with this configuration will resynchronize the master if it restarts.

On the client systems which are not to be direct clients of the master, the /etc/chrony.conf file should
be the same except that the local and allow directives should be omitted.

In an isolated network, you can also use the local directive that enables a local reference mode, which
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In an isolated network, you can also use the local directive that enables a local reference mode, which
allows chronyd operating as an NTP server to appear synchronized to real time, even when it was never
synchronized or the last update of the clock happened a long time ago.

To allow multiple servers in the network to use the same local configuration and to be synchronized to
one another, without confusing clients that poll more than one server, use the orphan option of the
local directive which enables the orphan mode. Each server needs to be configured to poll all other
servers with local. This ensures that only the server with the smallest reference ID has the local
reference active and other servers are synchronized to it. When the server fails, another one will take
over.

28.5. CONFIGURING REMOTE MONITORING ACCESS

chronyc can access chronyd in two ways:

Internet Protocol, IPv4 or IPv6.

Unix domain socket, which is accessible locally by the root or chrony user.

By default, chronyc connects to the Unix domain socket. The default path is
/var/run/chrony/chronyd.sock. If this connection fails, which can happen for example when chronyc is
running under a non-root user, chronyc tries to connect to 127.0.0.1 and then ::1.

Only the following monitoring commands, which do not affect the behavior of chronyd, are allowed from
the network:

activity

manual list

rtcdata

smoothing

sources

sourcestats

tracking

waitsync

The set of hosts from which chronyd accepts these commands can be configured with the cmdallow
directive in the configuration file of chronyd, or the cmdallow command in chronyc. By default, the
commands are accepted only from localhost (127.0.0.1 or ::1).

All other commands are allowed only through the Unix domain socket. When sent over the network,
chronyd responds with a Not authorised error, even if it is from localhost.

The following procedure describes how to access chronyd remotely with chronyc.

Procedure

1. Allow access from both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses by adding the following to the
/etc/chrony.conf file:

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bindcmdaddress 0.0.0.0

or

bindcmdaddress ::

2. Allow commands from the remote IP address, network, or subnet by using the cmdallow
directive.
Add the following content to the /etc/chrony.conf file:

cmdallow 192.168.1.0/24

3. Open port 323 in the firewall to connect from a remote system:

# firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-port=323/udp

Optionally, you can open port 323 permanently using the --permanent option:

# firewall-cmd --permanent --zone=public --add-port=323/udp

4. If you opened port 323 permanently, reload the firewall configuration:

firewall-cmd --reload

Additional resources

chrony.conf(5) man page

28.6. MANAGING TIME SYNCHRONIZATION USING RHEL SYSTEM

ROLES
You can manage time synchronization on multiple target machines using the timesync role. The
timesync role installs and configures an NTP or PTP implementation to operate as an NTP client or PTP
slave in order to synchronize the system clock with NTP servers or grandmasters in PTP domains.


WARNING

The timesync role replaces the configuration of the given or detected provider
service on the managed host. Previous settings are lost, even if they are not
specified in the role variables. The only preserved setting is the choice of provider if
the timesync_ntp_provider variable is not defined.

The following example shows how to apply the timesync role in a situation with just one pool of servers.

Example 28.1. An example playbook applying the timesync role for a single pool of servers

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---
- hosts: timesync-test
vars:
timesync_ntp_servers:
- hostname: 2.rhel.pool.ntp.org
pool: yes
iburst: yes
roles:
- rhel-system-roles.timesync

For a detailed reference on timesync role variables, install the rhel-system-roles package, and see the
README.md or README.html files in the /usr/share/doc/rhel-system-roles/timesync directory.

Additional resources

Preparing a control node and managed nodes to use RHEL System Roles

28.7. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

chronyc(1) man page

chronyd(8) man page

Frequently Asked Questions

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CHAPTER 29. CHRONY WITH HW TIMESTAMPING

Hardware timestamping is a feature supported in some Network Interface Controller (NICs) which
provides accurate timestamping of incoming and outgoing packets. NTP timestamps are usually created
by the kernel and chronyd with the use of the system clock. However, when HW timestamping is
enabled, the NIC uses its own clock to generate the timestamps when packets are entering or leaving
the link layer or the physical layer. When used with NTP, hardware timestamping can significantly
improve the accuracy of synchronization. For best accuracy, both NTP servers and NTP clients need to
use hardware timestamping. Under ideal conditions, a sub-microsecond accuracy may be possible.

Another protocol for time synchronization that uses hardware timestamping is PTP.

Unlike NTP, PTP relies on assistance in network switches and routers. If you want to reach the best
accuracy of synchronization, use PTP on networks that have switches and routers with PTP support, and
prefer NTP on networks that do not have such switches and routers.

The following sections describe how to:

Verify support for hardware timestamping

Enable hardware timestamping

Configure client polling interval

Enable interleaved mode

Configure server for large number of clients

Verify hardware timestamping

Configure PTP-NTP bridge

29.1. VERIFYING SUPPORT FOR HARDWARE TIMESTAMPING

To verify that hardware timestamping with NTP is supported by an interface, use the ethtool -T
command. An interface can be used for hardware timestamping with NTP if ethtool lists the
SOF_TIMESTAMPING_TX_HARDWARE and SOF_TIMESTAMPING_TX_SOFTWARE capabilities
and also the HWTSTAMP_FILTER_ALL filter mode.

Example 29.1. Verifying support for hardware timestamping on a specific interface

# ethtool -T eth0

Output:

Timestamping parameters for eth0:

Capabilities:
hardware-transmit (SOF_TIMESTAMPING_TX_HARDWARE)
software-transmit (SOF_TIMESTAMPING_TX_SOFTWARE)
hardware-receive (SOF_TIMESTAMPING_RX_HARDWARE)
software-receive (SOF_TIMESTAMPING_RX_SOFTWARE)
software-system-clock (SOF_TIMESTAMPING_SOFTWARE)
hardware-raw-clock (SOF_TIMESTAMPING_RAW_HARDWARE)
PTP Hardware Clock: 0
Hardware Transmit Timestamp Modes:

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off (HWTSTAMP_TX_OFF)
on (HWTSTAMP_TX_ON)
Hardware Receive Filter Modes:
none (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_NONE)
all (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_ALL)
ptpv1-l4-sync (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V1_L4_SYNC)
ptpv1-l4-delay-req (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V1_L4_DELAY_REQ)
ptpv2-l4-sync (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V2_L4_SYNC)
ptpv2-l4-delay-req (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V2_L4_DELAY_REQ)
ptpv2-l2-sync (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V2_L2_SYNC)
ptpv2-l2-delay-req (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V2_L2_DELAY_REQ)
ptpv2-event (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V2_EVENT)
ptpv2-sync (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V2_SYNC)
ptpv2-delay-req (HWTSTAMP_FILTER_PTP_V2_DELAY_REQ)

29.2. ENABLING HARDWARE TIMESTAMPING

To enable hardware timestamping, use the hwtimestamp directive in the /etc/chrony.conf file. The
directive can either specify a single interface, or a wildcard character can be used to enable hardware
timestamping on all interfaces that support it. Use the wildcard specification in case that no other
application, like ptp4l from the linuxptp package, is using hardware timestamping on an interface.
Multiple hwtimestamp directives are allowed in the chrony configuration file.

Example 29.2. Enabling hardware timestamping by using the hwtimestamp directive

hwtimestamp eth0
hwtimestamp eth1
hwtimestamp *

29.3. CONFIGURING CLIENT POLLING INTERVAL

The default range of a polling interval (64-1024 seconds) is recommended for servers on the Internet.
For local servers and hardware timestamping, a shorter polling interval needs to be configured in order
to minimize offset of the system clock.

The following directive in /etc/chrony.conf specifies a local NTP server using one second polling
interval:

server ntp.local minpoll 0 maxpoll 0

29.4. ENABLING INTERLEAVED MODE

NTP servers that are not hardware NTP appliances, but rather general purpose computers running a
software NTP implementation, like chrony, will get a hardware transmit timestamp only after sending a
packet. This behavior prevents the server from saving the timestamp in the packet to which it
corresponds. In order to enable NTP clients receiving transmit timestamps that were generated after
the transmission, configure the clients to use the NTP interleaved mode by adding the xleave option to
the server directive in /etc/chrony.conf:

server ntp.local minpoll 0 maxpoll 0 xleave

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29.5. CONFIGURING SERVER FOR LARGE NUMBER OF CLIENTS

The default server configuration allows a few thousands of clients at most to use the interleaved mode
concurrently. To configure the server for a larger number of clients, increase the clientloglimit directive
in /etc/chrony.conf. This directive specifies the maximum size of memory allocated for logging of
clients' access on the server:

clientloglimit 100000000

29.6. VERIFYING HARDWARE TIMESTAMPING

To verify that the interface has successfully enabled hardware timestamping, check the system log. The
log should contain a message from chronyd for each interface with successfully enabled hardware
timestamping.

Example 29.3. Log messages for interfaces with enabled hardware timestamping

chronyd[4081]: Enabled HW timestamping on eth0

chronyd[4081]: Enabled HW timestamping on eth1

When chronyd is configured as an NTP client or peer, you can have the transmit and receive
timestamping modes and the interleaved mode reported for each NTP source by the chronyc ntpdata
command:

Example 29.4. Reporting the transmit, receive timestamping and interleaved mode for each
NTP source

# chronyc ntpdata

Output:

Remote address : 203.0.113.15 (CB00710F)

Remote port : 123
Local address : 203.0.113.74 (CB00714A)
Leap status : Normal
Version :4
Mode : Server
Stratum :1
Poll interval : 0 (1 seconds)
Precision : -24 (0.000000060 seconds)
Root delay : 0.000015 seconds
Root dispersion : 0.000015 seconds
Reference ID : 47505300 (GPS)
Reference time : Wed May 03 13:47:45 2017
Offset : -0.000000134 seconds
Peer delay : 0.000005396 seconds
Peer dispersion : 0.000002329 seconds
Response time : 0.000152073 seconds
Jitter asymmetry: +0.00
NTP tests : 111 111 1111
Interleaved : Yes
Authenticated : No

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TX timestamping : Hardware
RX timestamping : Hardware
Total TX : 27
Total RX : 27
Total valid RX : 27

Example 29.5. Reporting the stability of NTP measurements

# chronyc sourcestats

With hardware timestamping enabled, stability of NTP measurements should be in tens or hundreds
of nanoseconds, under normal load. This stability is reported in the Std Dev column of the output of
the chronyc sourcestats command:

Output:

210 Number of sources = 1

Name/IP Address NP NR Span Frequency Freq Skew Offset Std Dev
ntp.local 12 7 11 +0.000 0.019 +0ns 49ns

29.7. CONFIGURING PTP-NTP BRIDGE

If a highly accurate Precision Time Protocol (PTP) grandmaster is available in a network that does not
have switches or routers with PTP support, a computer may be dedicated to operate as a PTP slave and
a stratum-1 NTP server. Such a computer needs to have two or more network interfaces, and be close to
the grandmaster or have a direct connection to it. This will ensure highly accurate synchronization in the
network.

Configure the ptp4l and phc2sys programs from the linuxptp packages to use one interface to
synchronize the system clock using PTP.

Configure chronyd to provide the system time using the other interface:

Example 29.6. Configuring chronyd to provide the system time using the other interface

bindaddress 203.0.113.74
hwtimestamp eth1
local stratum 1

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CHAPTER 30. OVERVIEW OF NETWORK TIME SECURITY

(NTS) IN CHRONY
Network Time Security (NTS) is an authentication mechanism for Network Time Protocol (NTP),
designed to scale substantial clients. It verifies that the packets received from the server machines are
unaltered while moving to the client machine. Network Time Security (NTS) includes a Key
Establishment (NTS-KE) protocol that automatically creates the encryption keys used between the
server and its clients.

30.1. ENABLING NETWORK TIME SECURITY (NTS) IN THE CLIENT

CONFIGURATION FILE
By default, Network Time Security (NTS) is not enabled. You can enable NTS in the /etc/chrony.conf.
For that, perform the following steps:

Prerequisites

Server with the NTS support

Procedure
In the client configuration file:

1. Specify the server with the nts option in addition to the recommended iburst option.

For example:
server time.example.com iburst nts
server nts.netnod.se iburst nts
server ptbtime1.ptb.de iburst nts

2. To avoid repeating the Network Time Security-Key Establishment (NTS-KE) session during
system boot, add the following line to chrony.conf, if it is not present:

ntsdumpdir /var/lib/chrony

3. To disable synchronization with Network Time Protocol (NTP) servers provided by DHCP,
comment out or remove the following line in chrony.conf, if it is present:

sourcedir /run/chrony-dhcp

4. Save your changes.

5. Restart the chronyd service:

systemctl restart chronyd

Verification

Verify if the NTS keys were successfully established:

# chronyc -N authdata

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Name/IP address Mode KeyID Type KLen Last Atmp NAK Cook CLen
================================================================
time.example.com NTS 1 15 256 33m 0 0 8 100
nts.sth1.ntp.se NTS 1 15 256 33m 0 0 8 100
nts.sth2.ntp.se NTS 1 15 256 33m 0 0 8 100

The KeyID, Type, and KLen should have non-zero values. If the value is zero, check the system
log for error messages from chronyd.

Verify the client is making NTP measurements:

# chronyc -N sources

MS Name/IP address Stratum Poll Reach LastRx Last sample

=========================================================
time.example.com 3 6 377 45 +355us[ +375us] +/- 11ms
nts.sth1.ntp.se 1 6 377 44 +237us[ +237us] +/- 23ms
nts.sth2.ntp.se 1 6 377 44 -170us[ -170us] +/- 22ms

The Reach column should have a non-zero value; ideally 377. If the value rarely gets 377 or
never gets to 377, it indicates that NTP requests or responses are getting lost in the network.

Additional resources

chrony.conf(5) man page

30.2. ENABLING NETWORK TIME SECURITY (NTS) ON THE SERVER

If you run your own Network Time Protocol (NTP) server, you can enable the server Network Time
Security (NTS) support to facilitate its clients to synchronize securely.

If the NTP server is a client of other servers, that is, it is not a Stratum 1 server, it should use NTS or
symmetric key for its synchronization.

Prerequisites

Server private key in PEM format

Server certificate with required intermediate certificates in PEM format

Procedure

1. Specify the private key and the certificate file in chrony.conf

For example:
ntsserverkey /etc/pki/tls/private/foo.example.net.key
ntsservercert /etc/pki/tls/certs/foo.example.net.crt

2. Ensure that both the key and certificate files are readable by the chrony system user, by setting
the group ownership.

For example:
chown :chrony /etc/pki/tls/*/foo.example.net.*

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3. Ensure the ntsdumpdir /var/lib/chrony directive is present in the chrony.conf.

4. Restart the chronyd service:

systemctl restart chronyd

IMPORTANT

If the server has a firewall, it needs to allow both the UDP 123 and TCP 4460
ports for NTP and Network Time Security-Key Establishment (NTS-KE).

Verification

Perform a quick test from a client machine with the following command:

$ chronyd -Q -t 3 'server

foo.example.net iburst nts maxsamples 1'

2021-09-15T13:45:26Z chronyd version 4.1 starting (+CMDMON +NTP +REFCLOCK +RTC
+PRIVDROP +SCFILTER +SIGND +ASYNCDNS +NTS +SECHASH +IPV6 +DEBUG)
2021-09-15T13:45:26Z Disabled control of system clock
2021-09-15T13:45:28Z System clock wrong by 0.002205 seconds (ignored)
2021-09-15T13:45:28Z chronyd exiting

The System clock wrong message indicates the NTP server is accepting NTS-KE connections
and responding with NTS-protected NTP messages.

Verify the NTS-KE connections and authenticated NTP packets observed on the server:

# chronyc serverstats

NTP packets received :7

NTP packets dropped :0
Command packets received : 22
Command packets dropped : 0
Client log records dropped : 0
NTS-KE connections accepted: 1
NTS-KE connections dropped : 0
Authenticated NTP packets: 7

If the value of the NTS-KE connections accepted and Authenticated NTP packets field is a
non-zero value, it means that at least one client was able to connect to the NTS-KE port and
send an authenticated NTP request.

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CHAPTER 31. USING SECURE COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN

TWO SYSTEMS WITH OPENSSH
SSH (Secure Shell) is a protocol which provides secure communications between two systems using a
client-server architecture and allows users to log in to server host systems remotely. Unlike other
remote communication protocols, such as FTP or Telnet, SSH encrypts the login session, which prevents
intruders to collect unencrypted passwords from the connection.

Red Hat Enterprise Linux includes the basic OpenSSH packages: the general openssh package, the
openssh-server package and the openssh-clients package. Note that the OpenSSH packages require
the OpenSSL package openssl-libs, which installs several important cryptographic libraries that enable
OpenSSH to provide encrypted communications.

31.1. SSH AND OPENSSH

SSH (Secure Shell) is a program for logging into a remote machine and executing commands on that
machine. The SSH protocol provides secure encrypted communications between two untrusted hosts
over an insecure network. You can also forward X11 connections and arbitrary TCP/IP ports over the
secure channel.

The SSH protocol mitigates security threats, such as interception of communication between two
systems and impersonation of a particular host, when you use it for remote shell login or file copying.
This is because the SSH client and server use digital signatures to verify their identities. Additionally, all
communication between the client and server systems is encrypted.

A host key authenticates hosts in the SSH protocol. Host keys are cryptographic keys that are
generated automatically when OpenSSH is first installed, or when the host boots for the first time.

OpenSSH is an implementation of the SSH protocol supported by Linux, UNIX, and similar operating
systems. It includes the core files necessary for both the OpenSSH client and server. The OpenSSH
suite consists of the following user-space tools:

ssh is a remote login program (SSH client).

sshd is an OpenSSH SSH daemon.

scp is a secure remote file copy program.

sftp is a secure file transfer program.

ssh-agent is an authentication agent for caching private keys.

ssh-add adds private key identities to ssh-agent.

ssh-keygen generates, manages, and converts authentication keys for ssh.

ssh-copy-id is a script that adds local public keys to the authorized_keys file on a remote SSH
server.

ssh-keyscan gathers SSH public host keys.

NOTE
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NOTE

In RHEL 9, the Secure copy protocol (SCP) is replaced with the SSH File Transfer
Protocol (SFTP) by default. This is because SCP has already caused security issues, for
example CVE-2020-15778.

If SFTP is unavailable or incompatible in your scenario, you can use the -O option to force
use of the original SCP/RCP protocol.

For additional information, see the OpenSSH SCP protocol deprecation in Red Hat
Enterprise Linux 9 article.

Two versions of SSH currently exist: version 1, and the newer version 2. The OpenSSH suite in RHEL
supports only SSH version 2. It has an enhanced key-exchange algorithm that is not vulnerable to
exploits known in version 1.

OpenSSH, as one of core cryptographic subsystems of RHEL, uses system-wide crypto policies. This
ensures that weak cipher suites and cryptographic algorithms are disabled in the default configuration.
To modify the policy, the administrator must either use the update-crypto-policies command to adjust
the settings or manually opt out of the system-wide crypto policies.

The OpenSSH suite uses two sets of configuration files: one for client programs (that is, ssh, scp, and
sftp), and another for the server (the sshd daemon).

System-wide SSH configuration information is stored in the /etc/ssh/ directory. User-specific SSH
configuration information is stored in ~/.ssh/ in the user’s home directory. For a detailed list of
OpenSSH configuration files, see the FILES section in the sshd(8) man page.

Additional resources

Man pages listed by using the man -k ssh command

Using system-wide cryptographic policies

31.2. CONFIGURING AND STARTING AN OPENSSH SERVER

Use the following procedure for a basic configuration that might be required for your environment and
for starting an OpenSSH server. Note that after the default RHEL installation, the sshd daemon is
already started and server host keys are automatically created.

Prerequisites

The openssh-server package is installed.

Procedure

1. Start the sshd daemon in the current session and set it to start automatically at boot time:

# systemctl start sshd

# systemctl enable sshd

2. To specify different addresses than the default 0.0.0.0 (IPv4) or :: (IPv6) for the
ListenAddress directive in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config configuration file and to use a slower
dynamic network configuration, add the dependency on the network-online.target target unit

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to the sshd.service unit file. To achieve this, create the

/etc/systemd/system/sshd.service.d/local.conf file with the following content:

[Unit]
Wants=network-online.target
After=network-online.target

3. Review if OpenSSH server settings in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config configuration file meet the
requirements of your scenario.

4. Optionally, change the welcome message that your OpenSSH server displays before a client
authenticates by editing the /etc/issue file, for example:

Welcome to ssh-server.example.com
Warning: By accessing this server, you agree to the referenced terms and conditions.

Ensure that the Banner option is not commented out in /etc/ssh/sshd_config and its value
contains /etc/issue:

# less /etc/ssh/sshd_config | grep Banner

Banner /etc/issue

Note that to change the message displayed after a successful login you have to edit the
/etc/motd file on the server. See the pam_motd man page for more information.

5. Reload the systemd configuration and restart sshd to apply the changes:

# systemctl daemon-reload
# systemctl restart sshd

Verification

1. Check that the sshd daemon is running:

# systemctl status sshd

● sshd.service - OpenSSH server daemon
Loaded: loaded (/usr/lib/systemd/system/sshd.service; enabled; vendor preset: enabled)
Active: active (running) since Mon 2019-11-18 14:59:58 CET; 6min ago
Docs: man:sshd(8)
man:sshd_config(5)
Main PID: 1149 (sshd)
Tasks: 1 (limit: 11491)
Memory: 1.9M
CGroup: /system.slice/sshd.service
└─1149 /usr/sbin/sshd -D -oCiphers=aes128-ctr,aes256-ctr,aes128-cbc,aes256-cbc -
oMACs=hmac-sha2-256,>

Nov 18 14:59:58 ssh-server-example.com systemd[1]: Starting OpenSSH server daemon...

Nov 18 14:59:58 ssh-server-example.com sshd[1149]: Server listening on 0.0.0.0 port 22.
Nov 18 14:59:58 ssh-server-example.com sshd[1149]: Server listening on :: port 22.
Nov 18 14:59:58 ssh-server-example.com systemd[1]: Started OpenSSH server daemon.

2. Connect to the SSH server with an SSH client.

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# ssh [email protected]
ECDSA key fingerprint is SHA256:dXbaS0RG/UzlTTku8GtXSz0S1++lPegSy31v3L/FAEc.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no/[fingerprint])? yes
Warning: Permanently added 'ssh-server-example.com' (ECDSA) to the list of known hosts.

[email protected]'s password:

Additional resources

sshd(8) and sshd_config(5) man pages.

31.3. SETTING AN OPENSSH SERVER FOR KEY-BASED

AUTHENTICATION
To improve system security, enforce key-based authentication by disabling password authentication on
your OpenSSH server.

Prerequisites

The openssh-server package is installed.

The sshd daemon is running on the server.

Procedure

1. Open the /etc/ssh/sshd_config configuration in a text editor, for example:

# vi /etc/ssh/sshd_config

2. Change the PasswordAuthentication option to no:

PasswordAuthentication no

On a system other than a new default installation, check that PubkeyAuthentication no has not
been set and the ChallengeResponseAuthentication directive is set to no. If you are
connected remotely, not using console or out-of-band access, test the key-based login process
before disabling password authentication.

3. To use key-based authentication with NFS-mounted home directories, enable the

use_nfs_home_dirs SELinux boolean:

# setsebool -P use_nfs_home_dirs 1

4. Reload the sshd daemon to apply the changes:

# systemctl reload sshd

Additional resources

sshd(8), sshd_config(5), and setsebool(8) man pages.

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31.4. GENERATING SSH KEY PAIRS

Use this procedure to generate an SSH key pair on a local system and to copy the generated public key
to an OpenSSH server. If the server is configured accordingly, you can log in to the OpenSSH server
without providing any password.

IMPORTANT

If you complete the following steps as root, only root is able to use the keys.

Procedure

1. To generate an ECDSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol:

$ ssh-keygen -t ecdsa
Generating public/private ecdsa key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/joesec/.ssh/id_ecdsa):
Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase):
Enter same passphrase again:
Your identification has been saved in /home/joesec/.ssh/id_ecdsa.
Your public key has been saved in /home/joesec/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
SHA256:Q/x+qms4j7PCQ0qFd09iZEFHA+SqwBKRNaU72oZfaCI
[email protected]
The key's randomart image is:
+---[ECDSA 256]---+
|.oo..o=++ |
|.. o .oo . |
|. .. o. o |
|....o.+... |
|o.oo.o +S . |
|.=.+. .o |
|E.*+. . . . |
|.=..+ +.. o |
| . oo*+o. |
+----[SHA256]-----+

You can also generate an RSA key pair by using the -t rsa option with the ssh-keygen
command or an Ed25519 key pair by entering the ssh-keygen -t ed25519 command.

2. To copy the public key to a remote machine:

$ ssh-copy-id [email protected]
/usr/bin/ssh-copy-id: INFO: attempting to log in with the new key(s), to filter out any that are
already installed
[email protected]'s password:
...
Number of key(s) added: 1

Now try logging into the machine, with: "ssh '[email protected]'" and check to
make sure that only the key(s) you wanted were added.

If you do not use the ssh-agent program in your session, the previous command copies the
most recently modified ~/.ssh/id*.pub public key if it is not yet installed. To specify another
public-key file or to prioritize keys in files over keys cached in memory by ssh-agent, use the

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ssh-copy-id command with the -i option.

NOTE

If you reinstall your system and want to keep previously generated key pairs, back up the
~/.ssh/ directory. After reinstalling, copy it back to your home directory. You can do this
for all users on your system, including root.

Verification

1. Log in to the OpenSSH server without providing any password:

$ ssh [email protected]
Welcome message.
...
Last login: Mon Nov 18 18:28:42 2019 from ::1

Additional resources

ssh-keygen(1) and ssh-copy-id(1) man pages.

31.5. USING SSH KEYS STORED ON A SMART CARD

Red Hat Enterprise Linux enables you to use RSA and ECDSA keys stored on a smart card on OpenSSH
clients. Use this procedure to enable authentication using a smart card instead of using a password.

Prerequisites

On the client side, the opensc package is installed and the pcscd service is running.

Procedure

1. List all keys provided by the OpenSC PKCS #11 module including their PKCS #11 URIs and save
the output to the keys.pub file:

$ ssh-keygen -D pkcs11: > keys.pub

$ ssh-keygen -D pkcs11:
ssh-rsa AAAAB3NzaC1yc2E...KKZMzcQZzx
pkcs11:id=%02;object=SIGN%20pubkey;token=SSH%20key;manufacturer=piv_II?module-
path=/usr/lib64/pkcs11/opensc-pkcs11.so
ecdsa-sha2-nistp256 AAA...J0hkYnnsM=
pkcs11:id=%01;object=PIV%20AUTH%20pubkey;token=SSH%20key;manufacturer=piv_II?
module-path=/usr/lib64/pkcs11/opensc-pkcs11.so

2. To enable authentication using a smart card on a remote server (example.com), transfer the
public key to the remote server. Use the ssh-copy-id command with keys.pub created in the
previous step:

$ ssh-copy-id -f -i keys.pub [email protected]

3. To connect to example.com using the ECDSA key from the output of the ssh-keygen -D
command in step 1, you can use just a subset of the URI, which uniquely references your key, for
example:

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$ ssh -i "pkcs11:id=%01?module-path=/usr/lib64/pkcs11/opensc-pkcs11.so" example.com

Enter PIN for 'SSH key':
[example.com] $

4. You can use the same URI string in the ~/.ssh/config file to make the configuration permanent:

$ cat ~/.ssh/config
IdentityFile "pkcs11:id=%01?module-path=/usr/lib64/pkcs11/opensc-pkcs11.so"
$ ssh example.com
Enter PIN for 'SSH key':
[example.com] $

Because OpenSSH uses the p11-kit-proxy wrapper and the OpenSC PKCS #11 module is
registered to PKCS#11 Kit, you can simplify the previous commands:

$ ssh -i "pkcs11:id=%01" example.com

Enter PIN for 'SSH key':
[example.com] $

If you skip the id= part of a PKCS #11 URI, OpenSSH loads all keys that are available in the proxy module.
This can reduce the amount of typing required:

$ ssh -i pkcs11: example.com

Enter PIN for 'SSH key':
[example.com] $

Additional resources

Fedora 28: Better smart card support in OpenSSH

p11-kit(8), opensc.conf(5), pcscd(8), ssh(1), and ssh-keygen(1) man pages

31.6. MAKING OPENSSH MORE SECURE

The following tips help you to increase security when using OpenSSH. Note that changes in the
/etc/ssh/sshd_config OpenSSH configuration file require reloading the sshd daemon to take effect:

# systemctl reload sshd

IMPORTANT

The majority of security hardening configuration changes reduce compatibility with

clients that do not support up-to-date algorithms or cipher suites.

Disabling insecure connection protocols

To make SSH truly effective, prevent the use of insecure connection protocols that are replaced
by the OpenSSH suite. Otherwise, a user’s password might be protected using SSH for one
session only to be captured later when logging in using Telnet. For this reason, consider
disabling insecure protocols, such as telnet, rsh, rlogin, and ftp.

Enabling key-based authentication and disabling password-based authentication

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Disabling passwords for authentication and allowing only key pairs reduces the attack surface
and it also might save users’ time. On clients, generate key pairs using the ssh-keygen tool and
use the ssh-copy-id utility to copy public keys from clients on the OpenSSH server. To disable
password-based authentication on your OpenSSH server, edit /etc/ssh/sshd_config and
change the PasswordAuthentication option to no:

PasswordAuthentication no

Key types

Although the ssh-keygen command generates a pair of RSA keys by default, you can instruct it
to generate ECDSA or Ed25519 keys by using the -t option. The ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digital
Signature Algorithm) offers better performance than RSA at the equivalent symmetric key
strength. It also generates shorter keys. The Ed25519 public-key algorithm is an implementation
of twisted Edwards curves that is more secure and also faster than RSA, DSA, and ECDSA.
OpenSSH creates RSA, ECDSA, and Ed25519 server host keys automatically if they are missing.
To configure the host key creation in RHEL, use the [email protected] instantiated
service. For example, to disable the automatic creation of the RSA key type:

# systemctl mask [email protected]

To exclude particular key types for SSH connections, comment out the relevant lines in
/etc/ssh/sshd_config, and reload the sshd service. For example, to allow only Ed25519 host
keys:

# HostKey /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key
# HostKey /etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key
HostKey /etc/ssh/ssh_host_ed25519_key

Non-default port

By default, the sshd daemon listens on TCP port 22. Changing the port reduces the exposure
of the system to attacks based on automated network scanning and thus increase security
through obscurity. You can specify the port using the Port directive in the
/etc/ssh/sshd_config configuration file.
You also have to update the default SELinux policy to allow the use of a non-default port. To do
so, use the semanage tool from the policycoreutils-python-utils package:

# semanage port -a -t ssh_port_t -p tcp port_number

Furthermore, update firewalld configuration:

# firewall-cmd --add-port port_number/tcp

# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent

In the previous commands, replace port_number with the new port number specified using the
Port directive.

Root login

PermitRootLogin is set to prohibit-password by default. This enforces the use of key-based

authentication instead of the use of passwords for logging in as root and reduces risks by
preventing brute-force attacks.

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CAUTION

Enabling logging in as the root user is not a secure practice because the administrator cannot
audit which users run which privileged commands. For using administrative commands, log in
and use sudo instead.

Using the X Security extension

The X server in Red Hat Enterprise Linux clients does not provide the X Security extension.
Therefore, clients cannot request another security layer when connecting to untrusted SSH
servers with X11 forwarding. Most applications are not able to run with this extension enabled
anyway.
By default, the ForwardX11Trusted option in the /etc/ssh/ssh_config.d/05-redhat.conf file is
set to yes, and there is no difference between the ssh -X remote_machine (untrusted host)
and ssh -Y remote_machine (trusted host) command.

If your scenario does not require the X11 forwarding feature at all, set the X11Forwarding
directive in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config configuration file to no.

Restricting access to specific users, groups, or domains

The AllowUsers and AllowGroups directives in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config configuration file

server enable you to permit only certain users, domains, or groups to connect to your OpenSSH
server. You can combine AllowUsers and AllowGroups to restrict access more precisely, for
example:

AllowUsers *@192.168.1.*,*@10.0.0.*,!*@192.168.1.2
AllowGroups example-group

The previous configuration lines accept connections from all users from systems in 192.168.1.*
and 10.0.0.* subnets except from the system with the 192.168.1.2 address. All users must be in
the example-group group. The OpenSSH server denies all other connections.

Note that using allowlists (directives starting with Allow) is more secure than using blocklists
(options starting with Deny) because allowlists block also new unauthorized users or groups.

Changing system-wide cryptographic policies

OpenSSH uses RHEL system-wide cryptographic policies, and the default system-wide
cryptographic policy level offers secure settings for current threat models. To make your
cryptographic settings more strict, change the current policy level:

# update-crypto-policies --set FUTURE

Setting system policy to FUTURE

To opt-out of the system-wide crypto policies for your OpenSSH server, uncomment the line
with the CRYPTO_POLICY= variable in the /etc/sysconfig/sshd file. After this change, values
that you specify in the Ciphers, MACs, KexAlgoritms, and GSSAPIKexAlgorithms sections in
the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file are not overridden. Note that this task requires deep expertise in
configuring cryptographic options.

See Using system-wide cryptographic policies in the Security hardening title for more
information.

Additional resources

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sshd_config(5), ssh-keygen(1), crypto-policies(7), and update-crypto-policies(8) man pages.

31.7. CONNECTING TO A REMOTE SERVER USING AN SSH JUMP

HOST
Use this procedure for connecting your local system to a remote server through an intermediary server,
also called jump host.

Prerequisites

A jump host accepts SSH connections from your local system.

A remote server accepts SSH connections only from the jump host.

Procedure

1. Define the jump host by editing the ~/.ssh/config file on your local system, for example:

Host jump-server1
HostName jump1.example.com

The Host parameter defines a name or alias for the host you can use in ssh commands. The
value can match the real host name, but can also be any string.

The HostName parameter sets the actual host name or IP address of the jump host.

2. Add the remote server jump configuration with the ProxyJump directive to ~/.ssh/config file
on your local system, for example:

Host remote-server
HostName remote1.example.com
ProxyJump jump-server1

3. Use your local system to connect to the remote server through the jump server:

$ ssh remote-server

The previous command is equivalent to the ssh -J jump-server1 remote-server command if

you omit the configuration steps 1 and 2.

NOTE
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NOTE

You can specify more jump servers and you can also skip adding host definitions to the
configurations file when you provide their complete host names, for example:

$ ssh -J jump1.example.com,jump2.example.com,jump3.example.com
remote1.example.com

Change the host name-only notation in the previous command if the user names or SSH
ports on the jump servers differ from the names and ports on the remote server, for
example:

$ ssh -J
[email protected]:75,[email protected]:75,[email protected]
xample.com:75 [email protected]:220

Additional resources

ssh_config(5) and ssh(1) man pages.

31.8. CONNECTING TO REMOTE MACHINES WITH SSH KEYS USING

SSH-AGENT
To avoid entering a passphrase each time you initiate an SSH connection, you can use the ssh-agent
utility to cache the private SSH key. The private key and the passphrase remain secure.

Prerequisites

You have a remote host with SSH daemon running and reachable through the network.

You know the IP address or hostname and credentials to log in to the remote host.

You have generated an SSH key pair with a passphrase and transferred the public key to the
remote machine.

For more information, see Generating SSH key pairs .

Procedure

1. Optional: Verify you can use the key to authenticate to the remote host:

a. Connect to the remote host using SSH:

$ ssh [email protected] hostname

b. Enter the passphrase you set while creating the key to grant access to the private key.

$ ssh [email protected] hostname

host.example.com

2. Start the ssh-agent.

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$ eval $(ssh-agent)
Agent pid 20062

3. Add the key to ssh-agent.

$ ssh-add ~/.ssh/id_rsa
Enter passphrase for ~/.ssh/id_rsa:
Identity added: ~/.ssh/id_rsa ([email protected])

Verification

Optional: Log in to the host machine using SSH.

$ ssh [email protected]

Last login: Mon Sep 14 12:56:37 2020

Note that you did not have to enter the passphrase.

31.9. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

sshd(8), ssh(1), scp(1), sftp(1), ssh-keygen(1), ssh-copy-id(1), ssh_config(5),
sshd_config(5), update-crypto-policies(8), and crypto-policies(7) man pages.

OpenSSH Home Page

Configuring SELinux for applications and services with non-standard configurations

Controlling network traffic using firewalld

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