Revision Notes

Class 10 Science
Chapter 1 - Chemical Reactions and Equations

● Chemical change: A change that results in the formation of one or more

new compounds. Chemical changes are also known as chemical
reactions.
In a chemical change—
A. New substances are produced during a chemical reaction.
B. Changes in energy are involved.
C. During the reaction, there occurs a change in mass.
D. There is a permanent alteration.
Examples –
A. Cooking of food
B. Rusting of iron
C. Heating of Lead nitrate
D. Souring of milk
E. Ripening of fruit.

● Rusting of iron is a chemical change because

A. A new substance, iron oxide, is created as iron rusts, it undergoes a
chemical transition.
B. The modification is permanent; the article now has a rust layer (which
may only peel off).
C. When rust forms, the mass of the object increases.
D. A shift in energy has occurred (which may not be visible).

● Exothermic Reaction - Exothermic reaction is a chemical process that

results in the release of heat energy.
Examples:
C(s) +O2(g)  CO2(g) +393.5kJ

N2(g) +3H2(g)  2NH3(g) +92.3kJ

Along with the products, the amount of heat (energy) produced is recorded.
This means that heat is being emitted.
● Endothermic Reactions - Endothermic reaction is a chemical reaction
that involves the absorption of heat energy.
Examples:
N2(g) +O2(g) +180.5kJ  2NO(g)

2HgO(g) +180kJ  2Hg(l) +O2(g)

Along with the reactants, the amount of heat (energy) produced is mentioned.
This means that heat has been absorbed.

● Chemical Formulae - A substance's chemical formula is a symbolic

representation of the number of atoms present in a single molecule of
that material.
a) One water molecule has the formula H2 O. It demonstrates that one
molecule of water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom.
b) One molecule of sulphuric acid has the formula H2SO4 . It illustrates

that one molecule of sulphuric acid has 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 sulphur

atom, and 4 oxygen atoms.

● Chemical Equations - The chemical equation of the reaction is the

representation of a chemical change in terms of symbols and formulae of the
reactants and products.
Example:
KMnO4 + HCl  KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
Potassium Hydrochloric Potassium Manganese Water Chlorine
permanganate acid chloride chloride

● Steps for writing Chemical Equation

A. Step I: Writing skeletal Equation
A word-equation depicts the transformation of reactants into products by
placing an arrow between them (  ). The arrow indicates the reaction's
direction and might be read as "to yield," "to form," or "to give."
The reactants are on the left (LHS) of the arrow, while the products are on the
right (RHS). A plus sign (+) links the different reactants and products together.
A balanced account of a chemical transaction is a complete chemical equation,
which symbolically depicts the reactants, products, and their physical states.

B. Step II: Balancing of Chemical Equation

A balanced chemical equation is one in which the number of atoms of each
element is equal on both sides of the equation.On the reactant and product sides
of the equation, a chemical equation is balanced if the number of atoms of each
type involved in the reaction is the same.
Equations must be balanced at all times.
The amount of hydrogens on both sides should be an even number whenever
H2O is present on one side (2 atoms of hydrogen in water). If there are 4 H2O
hydrogen atoms, then 4  2  8 hydrogen atoms are present. If there are 7
H O hydrogen atoms, then 7  2  14 hydrogen atoms, indicating that all the
2
numbers are even.
 There must be an even number in front of HCl on the reactant side. (We'll
figure out what that number is later.) As a result, there will be an even amount
of chlorine atoms (i.e., KCl=1 , MnCl2 = 2 , Cl2  2 . i.e., 1  2  2  5
However, the quantity of chlorine atoms in the product is unusual. KCl has the
only odd number of chlorine atoms. Let's alter it to the simplest even number
we can think of, which is 2.
KMnO4+ HCl  2KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
Since the number of K atoms in 2 KCl  2 , we have to put 2 in front of
KMnO4 for balancing K atoms.
2KMnO4+ HCl  2KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
In 2 KMnO4 , there are 2 K, 2 Mn, and 8 O. So, add these numbers in front of
K, Mn and O, (K is already done).
2KMnO4+ HCl  2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + Cl2
If there are 8 H 2 O on the product side, there should be 16 H (8 x 2) on the
reactants side as well.
2KMnO4+ 16HCl  2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + Cl2
Now the only unbalanced one is Chlorine. On the left hand side, there are 16
Cl. On the right hand side, firstly, there are 2 Cl in 2 KCl + 4 Cl in 2 MnCl2 ,
making a total of 6(2 + 4). So, 10 more Cl atoms are to be accounted for. So,
place 5 in front of Cl2 to make it 10 (5 x 2).
2KMnO4+ 16HCl  2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
The Hit and Trial approach is a technique for balancing chemical equations.

● From a chemical equation we can conclude:

A. Various reactants and products' names
B. Reactant and product formulae
C. The number of moles of the reactants and products in relation to each
other
D. Masses of reactants and products relative to each other
E. Volumes of gaseous reactants and products in relation to each other

● Limitation of a Chemical Equation

The condition of the chemicals is not mentioned. As a result, the symbols
below should be added to make it more informative: (s) denotes a solid, (l) a
liquid, (aq) if the reactant or product is dissolved in water, (g) a gas, and (vap)
a vapour.
Example: CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq)  CaCl + H O + CO
2(s) 2 (l) 2(g)
● It's possible that the reaction isn't finished. This is not revealed by an
equation.
● It does not provide any information on the reaction time or the reaction
speed.
● It does not provide the substance concentrations. Terms like diluted (dil)
and concentrated (conc) may be used in specific instances.
● It does not specify the temperature, humidity, pressure, catalyst, or other
environmental factors. This can be avoided by mentioning these items
either above or below the arrow. e.g.
Pt. catalyst
2SO +O 450-5000C
2 2  2SO3
● The changes in colour have to be mentioned separately.
PbO2  2PbO  Cl2
Chocolate Yellow Colourless
Brown
● The production or absorption of heat have to be mentioned separately.
C + O  CO + Heat
2 2
 2C + O  2CO + Heat
2
● Some reactions are reversible. They are represented by or 

3Fe+4H2O Fe3O4+4H2

In short – the steps involved in balancing a Chemical Equation can be

listed as:
Step 1: Write the skeleton equation correctly.
Step 2: Start with the compound that has the maximum atoms or maximum
types of atoms and the atoms present in it are balanced first.
Step 3: Start by balancing elements that only appear once on each side of the
arrow. Then, on each side, balance elements that appear more than once.
Step 4: The Elementary substances are balanced last.
Step 5: To make all the coefficients whole numbers, the entire equation is
multiplied by a suitable number if necessary.

● Ionic Equation Balancing: A balanced ionic equation must fulfil both

mass and charge balance.

● Chemical Equations-Based Calculations: A chemical reaction can

provide a wealth of quantitative data. A chemical reaction can be used to
calculate the number of moles of reactants and products.

● Types of Reactions
A. Combination or Synthesis Reactions:
The reactions in which two or more chemicals combine to generate a single
new compound.
Types of Combination reactions:
I. Combination of two elements to form a compound
● Burning of hydrogen in air or oxygen to produce water.
2H 2(g)  O2(g) + 2H 2 O(l )
Hydrdogen Oxygen Water
II. Combination Reactions involving an Element and a Compound
● Burning of carbon monoxide in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
 2CO + O  2CO
(g) 2(g) 2(g)
III. Combination Reactions involving Two Compounds
● Combination of ammonia and hydrogen chloride to produce ammonium
chloride.
NH + HCl(g)  NH4Cl(s)
3(g)
Ammonia Hydrogen chloride Ammonium chloride
Colourless Colourless White

B. Decomposition reactions:
Decomposition reactions, on the other hand, are the polar opposite of
combination reactions. A decomposition reaction occurs when a complex is
broken down into two or more simple components using heat or electricity.
Thermal decomposition occurs when a substance decomposes owing to heat,
whereas electrolytic decomposition occurs when a substance decomposes due
to electricity.
Electrolysis is the process of decomposing a substance by putting an electric
current through it.
Photolysis: The decomposition of a compound with light is called photolysis.
1. Mercuric oxide, when heated, undergoes thermal decomposition, to give
mercury and oxygen.

 2Hg(l) +
2HgO(s)  T    
O
hermal decomposition
2(g) 
Mercuric oxide Mercury Oxygen
Red Silvery liquid
2. Similarly, heating blue copper nitrate crystals causes thermal breakdown,
resulting in black copper oxide, reddish brown nitrogen dioxide fumes, and a
colourless oxygen gas.

2Cu(NO3)2(s) T hermal decomposition 

           2CuO
(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)•
Copper nitrate Copper Nitrogen Oxygen
Blue oxide dioxide
Black Reddishbrown
3. When water is acidified with a little amount of sulphuric acid and a
direct current is run through it, electrolytic breakdown occurs, resulting in
hydrogen and oxygen.
2H2O    
Electrolytic Decomposition
 2H + O
(l) 2(g) 2(g)
Water Hydrogen Oxygen
4. When molten lead bromide is exposed to an electric charge, it
decomposes into lead and bromine.
PbBr2  E    Pb(s) +
lect rolytic decomposition Br
2(l)
Lead bromide Lead Bromine
(molten)
Activity Series: The metal activity series is a list of metals arranged in
decreasing chemical activity order.
A substitution or displacement reaction occurs when the atoms of one
element replace the atoms of another element in a compound's molecules.
Elements in the Activity Series that are higher in the hierarchy displace
elements that are lower in the hierarchy. Electropositive elements that are more
abundant displace electronegative elements that are less abundant.
Conversely, electronegative elements with a greater charge density will
displace electronegative elements with a lower charge density. For e.g.,
Fe(s) + 2CuSO4(aq)  4FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) 
Iron Copper Iron (II) Copper
Sulphate Sulphate Reddish
Blue Green Brown

2 4(aq) 
Mg + H SO MgSO H O
(s) 4(aq) + 2 (g)
Magnesium Sulphuric Magnesium Water
acid Sulphate

2(g)  2KCl(aq) + 2(s)

2KI Cl I
(aq) +
Potassium Chlorine Potassium Iodine
Iodide Chloride
The iodine that has been freed dissolves in the chloroform, turning it purple.
● Double Displacement Reactions / Metathesis reactions: The mutual
exchange of ions in which two chemicals react to generate two distinct
molecules.

A+B-+C+D-  A+D-+C+B-
Na+Cl- + Ag+NO -  Na+NO - + Ag+Cl- 
(aq) 3 (aq) 3 (aq) (s)
Sodium chloride Silver nitrate Sodium nitrate Silver chloride
White
2H+Cl- + Pb2+(NO ) -  2 H+NO - + Pb2+Cl - 
(aq) 3 2 (aq) 3 (aq) 2 (s)
hydrochloric Lead nitrate Nitric acid Lead chloride
acid White

Zn2+SO 2- + Ba2+Cl -  Zn2+Cl - + Ba2+SO 2- 

4 (aq) 2 (aq) 2 (aq) 4 (s)
Zinc sulphate Barium chloride Zinc chloride Barium Sulphate
White

Types of Double displacement reactions:

1. Precipitation Reaction
2. Neutralization Reactions
1. Precipitation
In all of the following processes, a white material is generated that is insoluble
in water. A precipitate is the insoluble substance that forms. A precipitation
reaction is a reaction that results in the formation of a precipitate.

2. Neutralization
The reactants are a base and an acid, and the products are salt and water.
Neutralization is a form of double displacement reaction in which the reactants
are a base and an acid, and the products are salt and water. The positive charge
of the acid's hydrogen ion and the negative charge of the base's hydroxyl ions
or oxide ions lose their electrical charge and form covalent water molecules.

Na+OH- + H+Cl-  Na+Cl- + H O

2
Base Acid Salt Water
Zn2+O2- + 2H+NO -  Zn2+(NO ) - + H O
3 32 2
A neutralization reaction is basically a reaction between H+ and OHions i.e.,
H+ + OH-  H O
(aq) (aq) 2 (l)

● Oxidation - Reduction Reactions/Redox Reactions

Classical Concept of Oxidation and Reduction
"Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen is added or hydrogen is removed
from a substance."
A. Addition of Oxygen - Magnesium oxide is formed when oxygen reacts
with magnesium.
2Mg(s) + O2  2MgO(s)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide

B. Removal of Hydrogen - To liberate free iodine, hydrogen is removed

from hydro iodic acid.
2HI(g) + 2H2(g)  I
2(g)
Hydroiodic Hydrogen Iodine
acid

C. Removal of Oxygen - Copper metal is formed by removing oxygen

from copper oxide.
CuO(s) + CO(g)  Cu(s)  CO
2(g)
Copper oxide Carbon Copper Carbondidoxide
Black monoxide Reddish
Brown

D. Addition of Hydrogen - When hydrogen reacts with chlorine, hydrogen

chloride gas is formed.
H + Cl2(g)  2HCl(g)
2(g)
Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen chloride
● A reduction reaction is one in which oxygen is removed from a material
and hydrogen is added.
● Redox reactions occur when oxidation and reduction reactions occur at
the same time.
Example of Redox Reaction:
Mg + H SO  MgSO4(aq)  H
(s) 2 4(aq)  2(g)
Magnesium Sulphuric acid Magnesium Hydrogen
Sulphate
Example of Non-redox Reaction

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)  AgCl(s)  + NaNO3(aq)

Sodium Silver Silver Sodium
Chloride Nitrate chloride Nitrate
Redox reactions are those in which oxidation and reduction occur at the same
time.

● Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

A. Oxidizing Agent: A substance that brings about oxidation.
B. Reducing Agents: A substance that brings about reduction.
● Another definition of Oxidation and Reduction
I. Addition of an electronegative element or radical, or removal of an
electropositive element or radical, is referred to as oxidation.
II. Addition of an electropositive element or radical, or removal of an
electronegative element or radical, is known as reduction.

● Electronic Concept of Oxidation and Reduction

I. Oxidation: The process in which there is loss of electrons.
II. Reduction: The process in which there is gain of electrons.

● The Effects of Oxidation Reactions in EveryDay Life

Corrosion
Many metals are chemically active elements that are easily affected by
moisture, oxygen, acids, and other things. When iron products are new, they
are shiny, but after some time, they become coated with a reddish-brown
powder. The rusting of iron is the common name for this phenomenon.
The difficulty with iron (and many other metals) is that it oxidises, and the
resulting oxide does not attach firmly to the metal's surface, leading it to flake
off readily. This eventually leads to structural weakening and metal
breakdown.
As a result, when metal is attacked by substances in its environment, it is said
to corrode, and the process is known as corrosion.
When copper vessels or artefacts are exposed to air and water, what happens?
They gradually tarnish as a thin layer of green oxide forms on them. Silver,
too, quickly develops a thin black oxide covering when exposed to damp air. In
wet weather, even the heaviest metal lead tarnishes. The black coating on silver
and the green coating on copper are instances of corrosion in which the oxides
generated create a strong connection to the metal's surface, blocking further
oxygen exposure and thereby reducing corrosion.

● Rancidity
Have you ever tasted or smelled fat/oil-containing food materials that have
been left out for an extended period of time? Rancidity refers to an undesirable
change in a food's flavour and odour. The oxidation process causes fats and
fatty foods to deteriorate, which is the most common cause of rancidity. When
an oxygen atom replaces a hydrogen atom in a fatty acid molecule, the
molecule becomes destabilised. Factors which accelerate fat oxidation include,
salt, light, water, bacteria, moulds, trace metals (iron, zinc, etc.).
Antioxidants are chemicals that prevent fat from oxidising or becoming rancid
(such as BHT, BHA, vitamin E, and vitamin C, and spices such as sage and
rosemary). To avoid spoilage, they are added to foods containing fats and oils.
Keeping food in air tight containers or airtight wrapping also helps to slow
down oxidation.
Some high fat meals such as potato chips are wrapped in materials that shield
them from light and oxygen and the containers are flooded with nitrogen to
further exclude oxygen. Vacuum packaging is sometimes employed in
processed goods to completely eliminate the presence of oxygen.