MMET 402 Lecture Notes 4

1. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

5 Lectures

1. Conventional Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

2. Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PA or PAUT)
3. Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) – For Weld Only

UT & PA differ mainly in the probability of detection

(POD) of flaws and productivity.
Conventional Ultrasonic Testing
(UT)
Principles and Practices

Dedicated Dual-Mode
UT UT & PA

Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors

Probes (Transducers) Calibration Blocks

 What is ultrasound?
• The audible range of sound frequency for human:
• 20 Hz - 20 KHz
• Ultrasound:
• Any sound wave with a frequency > 20 KHz
• The typical range of frequency for NDT applications:
• 1 - 15 MHz.
• The frequency of a sound determines the size of flaw it can
detect.
• An audible sound is not able to detect as small a flaw as
what is required by industrial codes.
 How can an ultrasound detect flaws?
• Ultrasound is able to detect flaws due to sound reflection.
• A sound wave will be totally or partially reflected when it hits
the interface of 2 dissimilar materials.
• By detecting and analyzing the reflected sound, a
discontinuity (end of material, inclusion, crack, or void) can be
located.
Pulser/Receiver

Screen showing
“A-Scan” signals Probe
(Flaw Size)
Amplitude

Test Workpiece
Time of Flight (Distance, Depth)
 Some Early Notes about UT
• All solid materials can be inspected with ultrasound except
highly damping materials such as rubbers. Fiber/resin
composites are also highly attenuative and very difficult to
inspect with UT.
• UT is mainly used for the detection of interior flaws. Beam Profile

• Sound beam will start diverging and becoming a cone shape

after a short distance from the probe.
• For effective sound transmission, a couplant (water or gel)
must be applied at the interface between the probe and
workpiece.
• Like ET, calibration is always required before any inspection.
Equipment for Conventional UT
UT Flaw Detectors

A-Scan
B-Scan
C-Scan

A-Scan
B-Scan
C-Scan
D-Scan
S-Scan
 Transducers (Probes)

Straight Beam Probe Angle Beam Probe

Wedge
 Angle Beam Transducers
• Most common angles of refraction for angle beam
transducers are 45, 60, and 70.

70
45 60
UT will not function without couplant
Common Couplants: Water, Gel Type Liquid

Contact Method Immersion Method

Using Gel Using Water
 First Thing before Any Inspection:
Calibrations
1. UT System Calibration
• UT System = Flaw Detector + Probe
• Using Standard (Generic) Calibration Blocks
o IIW, ASME, AWS, API, Military, …, etc.

2. Workpiece Specific Calibration

• For workpiece specific flaw detection
• Using Reference Standards (mock-up)
o Calibration blocks made of the same material and geometric
shape/dimensions as the component to be inspected, but with
artificially introduced flaws
 3 Conventional UT Inspection
Methods
1. Pulse – Echo
a. Contact
b. Immersion (no contact with workpiece)
2. Through - Transmission
3. Pitch - Catch
 (1a) Pulse-Echo Contact Method
• High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material
and they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
• Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and the
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen
showing the depth of features that reflect.
 (1b) Pulse-Echo Immersion Method
(Performed with an Automated C-Scan System)

Amplitude

Time (Distance)

Space station arm segment

undergoing ultrasonic inspection
in immersion C-scan tank
More Immersion UT Examples

Plate Inspection
Disk Inspection
(2) Through-Transmission Method
11

Transmitter T R
Receiver

T R

11

0 2 4 6 8 10
(3) Pitch-Catch Method
 How are UT inspection data
presented?
A-Scan
B-Scan
C-Scan

D-Scan (TOFD) & S-Scan (PA) are for more advanced technologies
 A-Scan:
Echo Amplitude vs. Distance

D1
D2 D3
Amplitude

D1 Flaw Signal D2 D3

Distance Straight Beam: Depth

Initial
Angle Beam: Path Distance
Pulse

Note: No back reflectors are shown in these A-Scans.

 Preferred Distance Range on Screen
Display

D
T
T T
Initial Pulse
(Top Surface)

Back Reflector
(Bottom Surface) Flaw Signal
Range  T

Case 1: Range Displayed on Screen  Thickness of Workpiece

This is a preferred setup mode for UT inspections.
Same Reflector Appears Multiple Times
Initial 1st Back
Pulse Reflector
2nd Back

Amplitude
Reflector
1st Flaw
Reflector
3” 2nd Flaw
4”
Reflector
3rd Flaw
Reflector

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Distance
Range (10” in this case)

Case 2: Range Displayed on Screen  Part Thickness

 B-Scan:
Depths of Flaws vs. Their Positions
Depth

Position Color representing the amplitude

of an A-scan signal
Single Value B-Scan Cross Sectional B-Scan
 C-Scan (Conventional UT):
Top Planar View of Test Piece

Performed with an Automated System Using Immersion Method

Fundamental Acoustics
 What is sound?
• Sound is a form of energy, just like electricity and light.
• Sound is a vibration (disturbance of mechanical energy) that
propagates through matter (air, liquid, or solid) in a pattern
called wave. It is called an elastic wave in solid materials.
• A sound wave can thus be defined as a traveling disturbance.
It carries energy from one point to another, without requiring
matter to travel between the points.

Pressure Stress
Disturbance Disturbance
Why sound is treated as a wave?

Air Pressure
Disturbance

Compression Expansion
(High Pressure) (Low Pressure)

Wavelength
Amplitude

Motion of Air Molecules Propagation of Sound

Associate with Sound
 Types (Modes) of Sound Wave in Solids

• Longitudinal Wave (Compressive, L-Wave)

– Produced from a Straight Beam probe

• Shear Wave (Transverse, S-Wave)

– Produced from an Angle Beam probe

• Surface (Rayleigh) Wave

• Plate (Lamb) Wave
Longitudinal or Compressive Wave

Stress
Disturbance
(Vibration)
Shear or Transverse Wave

Stress
Disturbance
(Vibration)
 Sound Wave and Transmitting
Medium
• In Solids:
– Sound can be transmitted thru a solid material in terms of
a longitudinal or shear wave, or both wave forms
simultaneously.

• In Air or Liquid
– Sound can ONLY be propagated in air or liquid in terms of
a longitudinal wave.
 Wave Properties
Sound is characterized by the properties of waves, which are:
• Frequency (): cycles per second (Hz)
• Wavelength (): travel distance for one cycle of particle
vibration
• Period: time elapse for one cycle
• Amplitude (dB): disturbance from the mean, related to the
loudness or level of energy
• Speed (V): V = 
Wavelength ()

Amplitude
Sound Speed
 Sound Speeds in Solids
• Governed by 2 properties of the solids:
– Elastic property (stiffness, E)
VLongitudinal
– Inertial property (density, ) Medium
(m/s)

Density Aluminum 6300

Stiffness
Steel 5960
Rubber 1000-2000
Diamond 12000
Ball-Spring analogy Glass 3962
Glass, Pyrex 5640

E 1  Gold 3240
VLongitudinal  
 (1   )(1  2 )
Hardwood 3962
Iron 5130
Lead 1158
G 1 E VLongitudinal
VShear     Cork 366-518
  2 (1   ) 2 Copper 3901
Water 1433
Wavelength ()
 Wavelength and Flaw Detection
• The wavelength of an ultrasound produced has a significant
effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity.

• Rule of Thumb:
– a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the
wavelength to stand a reasonable chance of being
detected.


Flaw Size  or   2  Flaw Size
2
 Relative Orientation between a Flaw and
Sound Beam
Pulse
UT Probe
(Wave Fronts)

Reflected Echo 

Sound Beam


Flaw To have an echo, Flaw Size 
2
 Flaw (Obstacle) vs. Wavelength ()
Q: Have you thought of the reason why a subwoofer (20-200 Hz)
can be placed in an arbitrary orientation, but not other speakers
for a stereo system?
 Let’s find out the smallest object size in the air that
will affect the sound quality of a stereo system:

The smallest object size that will affect the

lowest pitch sound at 20 Hz:
Only objects  8.6 m
1 1 V 1 343 (m/s)
     8.6 m will affect the lowest
2 2 f 2 20 (1/s)
pitch bass sound!

The smallest object size that will affect the

highest pitch sound at 20,000 Hz:
1 1 V 1 343 (m/s)
     0.0086 m  0.86 cm
2 2 f 2 20000 (1/s)
Any objects  0.86 cm will affect the
highest pitch treble sound.
 Let’s find out the smallest flaw size in steel that can
be detected by the sound wave of a given frequency:

For a 20 Hz audible sound:

1 1 V 1 6000 m / s
     150 m
2 2 f 2 20 1/s

For a 20,000 Hz audible sound:

1 sound:
1 V 1 6000 m / s
     0.15 m  15 cm
2 2 f 2 20000 1/s

For a 2,000,000 Hz ultrasound:

1ultrasound:
1 V 1 6000 m / s
     0.0015 m  0.15 cm  1.5 mm
2 2 f 2 2000000 1/s
This is the minimum size of flaw in steel that you can detect at 2 MHz.
Frequency
Frequency, Sensitivity, and Travel Distance
• Sensitivity
– The ability to locate small discontinuities

• The higher the probe frequency, the higher the sensitivity

because of a smaller wavelength
• The higher the probe frequency, the shorter the travel
distance due to higher attenuation

 


Flaws
1 MHz 2 MHz 5 MHz
 Pulse
Ultrasound pulses are discontinuous,
short sound waves.
Pulse Duration (time)
Pulse Length (size)
Listening Time ( >> Pulse Duration)

UT
Sound Beam

This is a pulse.
For this pulse, Pulse Duration = 4 cycles or 4 periods = 4/,
and Pulse Length = 4
 Pulse Traveling in Steel

Pulse Duration (time) Listening Time

1 ms 1 ms
(6 meters in steel) (6 meters in steel)

1 MHz 4 µs ( = 6 mm, pulse length = 4  = 24 mm)

2.5 MHz 1.6 µs ( = 2.4 mm , pulse length = 4  = 9.6 mm)
5 MHz 0.8 µs ( = 1.2 mm , pulse length = 4  = 4.8 mm)
10 MHz 0.4 µs ( = 0.6 mm , pulse length = 4  = 2.4 mm)
15 MHz 0.27 µs ( = 0.4 mm , pulse length = 4  = 1.6 mm)
 Sound Reflection

Straight Beam Angle Beam

1
Material 1 Z1=1V1
Material 2 Z2=2V2
2

Assuming V2 > V1
 Sound Reflection – cont’d
• Acoustic Impedance (Z)
– Defined as the product of density and velocity, Z=V
Zsteel=steelVsteel
=(7.84 g/cm3)(5960 m/s)
=46.73x106 kg/m2·s

• The percentage of energy reflection can be calculated by the

following formula: Z Z
Reflected Energy  ( 1 2
)2 x100%
Z1  Z2
Z1 Z2
where Z 1 and Z 2 are the acoustic impedance of
the material on either side of the interface
• The greater the impedance mismatch, (Z1-Z2), the larger the
energy (or sound) reflection
 The reason we need couplant for UT
• Zair= 0.0004, Zwater= 1.48, Zplexiglas= 3.26, Zsteel= 46.7
• Almost all of the energy will be reflected at an interface
between air and any other solid materials due to the very
small Zair=0.0004.
• Energy reflection at a steel to water interface is 88% ; i.e.,
12% transmission
• Most couplants permit between 10% and 15% sound
transmission.
• Water (12% sound transmission) and glycerin (gel) (15%) are
the most commonly used couplants for UT applications
Sound Beam Characteristics

Wave Interference
Beam Profile (Near and Far Fields)
Beam Spread
 Huygens’ Principle
• Huygens' Principle is a simple method of constructing the
position of a wave at successive times.
• “Every point of a wave front (high pressure ridge) may be
considered the source of secondary wavelets that spread
out in all directions with a speed equal to the speed of
propagation of the waves.”
• What this means is that when you have a wave, you can
view the "edge (foremost wave front)" of the wave as actually
creating a series of circular waves.
 Beam Characteristics
• Sound wave generated by a probe is not a single ray from a
point source, but a beam from a finite source.
• Within the beam, intensity of sound energy varies from point
to point due to wave interaction.

Point Source Finite Sound Source

No interference Having wave interference

UT Probe

Successive
Wave Fronts Wave Front
(Huygens’ principle)
 Wave Interference
As waves go farther and
farther away from the
source, the interference
between waves in this
far field becomes less
and less significant and
sound intensity becomes
more uniform.

Near Field

Thomas Young’s sketch in 1803

Constructive and Destructive wave interference
(Single Frequency Case)
Resultant

Constructive Interference occurs if waves are in phase

Resultant

Destructive Interference occurs if waves are out of phase

Constructive and Destructive wave interference
(2 Different Frequencies)
Interfering
Waves

Resultant
Wave

2 Waves of
Different
Frequency

Resultant
Wave
 Constructive and Destructive
Wave Interferences – Real World Case
All UT probes produce a range of frequencies, not just one
frequency as labeled on the probe !!!

Multi Frequency Case

(Real Life Case)
 Pulse Size Frequency Bandwidth
Transducer Type 1
Selection
Combined
• Type 1 –
Wave
– Medium pulse
– 6 db bandwidth : 30-50%
– General purpose
Type 2
• Type 2 –
– Short pulse
– 6 db bandwidth : 50-100%
– High signal/noise ratio

• Type 3 –
– Very short pulse Type 3
– 6 db bandwidth : 60-120%
– Best resolution
 Beam Profile
Peak Energy Plane
Probe

Near Far
Field Field
 Near Field
• The near field of a sound beam ends where the interference
effects cease.
• In the near field, destructive interference can cause null
zones (zero energy). Inspections done in the near field
cannot be trusted and are usually prohibited by most codes.
• The near field distance (NF) of a transducer can be calculated
from the following formula:
D 2 f Example: NF=3.78mm for a
NF 
4 V D=6.35mm (1/4”), 2.25MHz probe on
where steel.
D  probe diameter Far Field
f  probe frequency (Amplitude Predictable)

V  sound speed
Near Field
(Amplitude Unpredictable)
 Far Field
• The cone shaped zone lying beyond the near field is called
the far field.
• In the far field, the intensity of the acoustic waves along the
axis varies as the inverse of the square of the distance from
the transducer. (Inverse Square Law)

Inverse Square Law

 Sound
Beam
Beam Spread
• Beam spread gives the scope of the
sound beam. Near Field
• The beam spread angle can be
calculated from the following formula:
 1.22  V
sin 
2 D f
where
f  frequency
V  sound speed Far Field
D  probe diameter
/2  half angle of beam spread from the centerline
to outer boundary of sound beam
 Attenuation of Sound Energy
• Attenuation is the gradual loss of sound energy.
• Attenuation is the combined effect of the following
energy loss mechanisms:
– Destructive interference and diffraction (only in near
field)
– Absorption and scatter at grain boundaries (in both near
& far field)
• Thus the higher frequency probe will have less penetration power
due to smaller wavelength because grain boundaries will become
large enough relative to the smaller wavelength and cause sound
absorption and scattering.
– Beam spread (only in far field)
• Same amount of energy being spread to a larger area
How do we handle the attenuation
of a sound beam?
 DAC & TCG Calibrations
(Signal Amplitude vs. Flaw Size)
Two calibration methods which account for material attenuation
effects are commonly used for establishing the relationship
between the signal amplitudes and the flaw sizes:
1) DAC: Distance Amplitude Correction
― Drawing a reference curve based on same size
reflector response as a function of distance
2) TCG: Time Corrected Gain
― Compensating gain levels such that the signal
amplitude of a given flaw size will always be the same
regardless of its depth (or distance)
 DAC versus TCG
Amplitude DAC

DAC TCG

Distance (Depth)

?
flaw size 1 flaw size 1

flaw size 2 flaw size 2

flaw size 3 flaw size 3

DAC Curves After TCG Calibration

(Yellow Straight Line)
DAC Curve
DAC

TCG
 dB, Sound Intensity Unit
• Decibels (dB) is a common unit used to express the sound
intensity (power) gain relative to a specified reference value.
• The definition of dB gain is the following:

signal amplitude after adjustment

Signal Gain in dB  20 log10 ( )
original signal amplitude on screen

Example :
Assuming the indication during an inspection shows a peak signal
of 25% full screen height (FSH), how much gain adjustment is needed
to bring the signal up to 80% FSH as required by most industrial codes
for flaw evaluation?
80%
Gain needed (dB)  20  log10 ( )  10.1dB
25%
 Amplitude Increase Amplitude Drop
Signal dB
(Positive dB) (Negative dB)
Gain in 3 (3dB) 141% (-3dB) 30%
6 (6dB) 200% (-6dB) 50%
dB 9 (9dB) 282% (-9dB) 64.5%
12 (12dB) 398% (-12dB) 75%
14 (14dB) 501% (-14dB) 80%
20 (20dB) 1000% (-20dB) 90%

Beam Slice
(100%)

(50%)

(25%)

(10%)
Energy distribution over the cross
section of an ultrasonic beam
(0%)
Angle Beam, Refraction, and
Mode Conversion
 Types of Waves Used in UT
1. Longitudinal wave
• produced by a straight beam probe
2. Shear wave
• produced by an angle beam probe which actually can produce both
longitudinal and shear waves simultaneously, but we normally utilize
only the shear wave for the UT inspection.

Using Same Probe

L-wave S-wave
 Some NDTs Need Angle Beams
• Typically for weld inspection
• Also needed when the expected defects are oriented in a way
invisible to a straight beam or located in places inaccessible to
a straight beam.
• Angle beam transducer can be constructed by mounting a
longitudinal wave transducer onto a plastic wedge (shoe) to
introduce a refracted shear wave into the test workpiece.
• The plastic wedge is normally acrylic polymer aka plexiglas.

VL-plexiglas = 2750 m/s

ZL-plexiglas= 3.26 (x10-6 kg/m2s)
 Straight Beam
85% Reflection
Straight
No Refraction Beam Probe

15% Transmission
Workpiece
 Angle Beam
Angle of
Incidence 1
Refraction Occurs

Straight Beam Probe

Plastic Wedge V1 L-Wave
Test Workpiece
L-Wave
2
V2

Angle of Refraction
 Sound Refraction
• Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a
change in its speed.
• Refraction will occur whenever a wave travels across the
interface at an angle between two dissimilar media.
• Refraction is governed by the Snell’s law.
Sound Wave V=f Sound Wave

Plastic (Low)
Glass (High) Steel (High)
Water (Low)

∵VWater < VGlass ∴ Water < Glass

∵VSteel > Vplastic ∴ Steel > Plastic
Sound and light behave similarly in
some ways
Refraction

R

Refraction
I I

Reflection
 Refraction - Snell’s Law
• Refraction occurs when the incident angle is greater than 0;
i.e., when an angle beam is used
• Sound refraction follows Snell’s law.

1 where 1 - angle of incidence

sin 1 sin 2
=  2 - angle of refraction
V1 V2
V1 - velocity in medium 1
V2 - velocity in medium 2
L-Wave
V1
V2
L-Wave
2
Sound refraction also brings about a new
phenomenon:

Mode Conversion
Straight Beam splits into
one Straight Beam and one Angle Beam
 Mode Conversion
• Mode conversion occurs when a wave encounters an
interface between materials of different acoustic impedances
and the incident angle is larger than 0; i.e. during refraction.
• For example, when a longitudinal waves hits an interface at
an angle (i.e., to produce an angle beam), some of the energy
can cause particle movement in the transverse direction to
start a refracted shear wave along with a refracted
longitudinal wave.
 Mode Conversion of Angle Beam

Incident Angle 1 = 0 Incident Angle 1 > 0

1

1 = 0
L-Wave V1 V1 L-Wave

2 = 0 V2L S-Wave
L-Wave V2 V2S L-Wave
2L
2S
No Refraction Refraction Occurs.
No Mode Conversion Mode Conversion Occurs.
To deal with mode conversion, you
need to know another form of the
Snell’s law.
 Snell’s Law Including Mode Conversion
• Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal
waves

Incident Angle 1 > 0

1
sin1 sin 2L sin 2S
 
V1 V2L V2S

V1 L-Wave
V2L S-Wave
V2S L-Wave
2L
2S
 Example:
20 Incident Beam
20
VL  steel  5960 m/s sin1 sin 2L sin 2S
 
VS-steel  3240 m/s V1 V2L V2S
VL plexiglas  2750 m/s
sinL -plexiglas sin steel L-Wave

VL -plexiglas V steel
S-Wave
L-Wave
For L -plexiglas  20 : 47.8
sin20 sinL  steel 23.8
  L  steel  47.8 Steel
2750 5960
VL-steel = 5960 m/s
sin20 sin S  steel VS-steel = 3240 m/s
   S  steel  23.8 VL-plexiglas =2750 m/s
2750 3240
 How do we deal with the mode conversion?
• For conventional UT, inspections can not be performed with
both L-wave and S-wave coexist in the test object.
• Need to get rid of one beam by increasing the incident angle
until the refracted L-wave angle reaches 90 and leaves only
the refracted S-wave in the material.

I I 1C

L-Wave L-Wave
L-Wave S-Wave S-Wave
S-Wave

sin1 sin2L sin2S

 
V1 V2L V2S
 First and Second Critical Angles
• The angle of incidence giving a 90 refracted angle for the L-
wave is called the first critical angle.
• As the incident angle is increased further, the second critical
angle is reached when the refracted S-wave angle reaches
90 becoming a surface wave.

1C
L-Wave
2L = 90
L-Wave
2S S-Wave
 1st & 2nd Critical Angles
for Steel

First Second
sin1c plexiglas sinL  steel sin 2c plexiglas sin S  steel
 
VL plexiglas VL  steel VL plexiglas VS  steel
sin1c plexiglas sin90 sin 2c plexiglas sin90
 
2750 5960 2750 3240
 1 2750  1 2750
1c plexiglas  sin ( )  27.5  2c plexiglas  sin ( )  58.1
5960 3240

Note: Critical angles are material dependent.

 1st & 2nd Critical Angles

Beam energy is different

at different angle!
45 60 70
Thus, sensitivity
calibration is required for
phased array.

1st Critical 2nd Critical

Angle Angle
 Angle Beam Transducers
• Most common angles of refraction for angle beam
transducers are 45, 60, and 70.
 Why are wedges all made for 45, 60, or 70
refracted angles?
I
L-Wave

2L L-Wave
2S S-Wave

1( L-Wave) 2S (S-Wave) 2L (L-Wave)

27.5  (= 1C steel ) 33  (Smallest Possible) 90  (Surface)
36.9  45  ----- (Gone)
Wiggle
47.3  60  ----- (Gone)
Room
52.9  70  ----- (Gone)
58.1  (= 2C steel ) 90  (Surface) ----- (Gone)
Transducers (Probes)
For Conventional UT
 Transducers - 1

Straight Beam Probes

Delay Line Pencil Probes

Delay Line Probes

 Transducers - 2

Straight Beam - Dual Elements

 Transducers - 3

Small Angle Beam Immersion Probes

Large Angle Beam

 Piezoelectric Element
• Piezoelectric element is the component of a transducer that
produces the ultrasonic beam.
• Piezoelectric effect – Piezoelectric materials exhibit both a
direct and a reverse piezoelectric effect.
– The direct effect produces an electrical charge when a mechanical
vibration or shock is applied to the material
– The reverse effect creates a mechanical vibration or shock when
electricity is applied.

Mechanical shock is converted to electricity.

 Piezoelectric Materials
• Most common materials used today for UT elements:
– 1-3 piezocomposite (e.g., PZT-polymer)
– Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) (Pb[ZrxTi1-x]O3 0<x<1)
– Lead Metaniobate (PMN) (PbNb2O6) 1-3 PZT Composite
– Barium Titanate (BT) (BaTiO3)
• All these are ceramic materials and are more efficient than
their natural quartz equivalent which has been used in the
past.

PZT

1-3 Structure
 Structure of a Transducer

Coaxial (BNC), Microdot, or Lemo

connector
 Pulse
Ultrasound pulses are discontinuous,
short sound waves.
Pulse Duration (time)
Pulse Length (size)
Listening Time ( >> Pulse Duration)

UT
Sound Beam

This is a pulse.
For this pulse, Pulse Duration = 4 cycles or 4 periods = 4/,
and Pulse Length = 4
Pulse and UT Resolution
 UT Resolution
There are 2 types of UT resolutions:
1) Near-Surface Resolution
o The capability of resolving the initial pulse from
signals of near-surface defects
2) Spatial Resolution
o The capability of resolving signals from closely
positioned multiple defects inside a workpiece
How can we get a good UT
resolution?

Let’s look at the effect of pulse length.

 Type 1:
Near-surface Resolution
(Resolution involving the near surface
reflector)
Short Pulse Length
1, 2, 3, 4, 5

No Indication
(no flaw)

1 2 3 4

T1

The initial pulse and

the echo of a flaw are
very well separated.
5 6 7
7
6

T1
Long Pulse Length
1

No Indication
(no flaw)

1 2 3 4

2 3 4

T2
A long pulse length causes
5
the echo of a flaw
overlapping with the initial
pulse.

5 T2
 Type 2:
Spatial Resolution
(Resolution involving closely positioned
multiple reflectors)
Short Pulse Length
1, 2, 3, 4, 5

1 2 3 4

5 6 7

6 7 Excellent
Resolution!
Long Pulse Length
1, 2, 3, 4, 5

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8 Signal
Overlapping

6 7 8
 Conclusion:

Shorter pulse length improves system

resolution.
Then, how can we produce a short
ultrasonic pulse?

Electric Piezoelectric Ultrasonic

Pulse Element Pulse

Sure, today’s electric pulser can produce a

very short electric pulse, but will the probe
thus produce a short ultrasonic pulse?
Let’s see what happens when a ultrasonic
pulse is produced from a probe.

This is similar to striking a bell with a

hammer.
 Why does a transducer need damping?
• When a bell is struck with a hammer just once the bell rings
and takes a while to stop ringing or oscillating.
• Similarly, as a voltage from the pulser strikes the transducer
(piezoelectric element), it rings. But it won’t stop until …
• To obtain good resolution on reflector signals, the ringing of
transducer has to be shortened, arrested, or damped.
 The Effect of Damping
Ideally, a probe should have the following characteristics:

(1) Short Pulse Length (for better resolution)

(2) High-energy Output (for stronger signal)

These 2 conditions cannot coexist because damping is required

for producing a short pulse length which will consume some
energy and reduce sound energy output. Due to this fact, 3
different types of probes are available today to match different
application requirements, high resolution or high signal strength.
 How damping is accomplished?
• Similar to placing a hand on a ringing bell.
• By using a substance that is acoustically matched to the
element material and can attenuates the energy fast.
• Usually, a tungsten and epoxy mixture is used and placed
onto the back side of the element thus also called the backing
material.
 Bandwidth
• The bandwidth describes the frequency range over which a
transducer will operate.
• Highly damped transducers are typically broadband. They are
responsive to a wider range of frequencies above and below
their central frequency.
– For example: A 5MHz (central frequency) broadband probe could
operate effectively at a range of frequencies from 1.5 to 8.5 MHz,
whereas a narrowband probe may operate from 4.0 to 6.0 MHz.

Highly damped probe  Short pulse length & Broadband frequency

 Better resolution power
Damping, Pulse Length, and Bandwidth
Long Pulse & Narrow Bandwidth
Light Damping (narrow range of frequencies)

Heavy Damping Short Pulse & Broad Bandwidth

(wide range of frequencies)
The strangely shaped pulse

The result of wave interference (constructive &

destructive) of a broad frequency bandwidth
 Pulse Size Frequency Bandwidth
Transducer
Type 1
Selection
• Type 1 –
– Medium pulse
Narrowband
– 6 db bandwidth : 30-50%
– General purpose
Type 2
• Type 2 –
– Short pulse
– 6 db bandwidth : 50-100%
– High signal/noise ratio

• Type 3 –
Type 3
– Very short pulse
– 6 db bandwidth : 60-120%
– Best resolution
Broadband
 Delay Line Transducers
• Delay line is a column of plexiglas that is attached to the front
of a probe.
• Heavily damped transducer (thus short pulse) combined with
the use of a delay line will provide excellent near surface
resolution.
– It allows the initial pulse to be shifted off the screen and keeps the
inspection zone away from the near field.
• Essential for thin material.
 Reducing Internal Reflection Noise
• The serrated wedge has integrally machined grooves that
refract and scatter internal reflections.
• The snail wedge continuously refracts and reflects the
internal reflections to, in effect, trap unwanted noise,
providing a better signal-to-noise ratio.

Serrated Wedges Snail Wedge

 Frequency and Size of a Probe

• The higher the frequency,  1.22  V

sin 
– the less the beam spread 2 D f

– the greater the sensitivity and resolution Flaw Size 
2
– the greater the attenuation
V  f
– the poorer the penetration
D2 f
– the larger the near field NF 
4V
• At a given frequency, the larger the transducer,
– the less the beam spread
– the less the sensitivity
– the larger the near field