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AC CIRCUITS
Prepared by: Rosan Jay Antiporda
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

AC CIRCUITS
INTRO;PHASORS; PASSIVE ELEMENTS;
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS; POWER

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INTRODUCTION
Types of Electric Signals
The Sine Wave

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ELECTRIC SIGNALS

UNIDIRECTIONAL PERIODIC APERIODIC ALTERNATING

The value of the the voltage or current

the voltage or current
current and the voltage the waveform has no is continuously
signals recur at a
remain positive or recurrence changing in direction or
regular time interval
remain negative polarity

Periodic Alternating Periodic

Unidirectional Periodic Aperiodic

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–
DCDIRECT CURRENT
AC
ALTERNATING CURRENT

THE SINE WAVE

• The sine wave is the fundamental type of alternating
current and alternating voltage.
• It is also referred to as a sinusoidal wave or, simply,
sinusoid.
• The electrical service provided by the power companies is
in the form of sinusoidal voltage and current

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PERIOD FREQUENCY
• The time required for a given • Frequency is the number of
sine wave to complete one full cycles that a sine wave
cycle completes in one second.
• Period (T) is measured in units • Frequency (f) is measured in
of milliseconds (ms). units of hertz (hz). One hertz is
equivalent to one cycle per
second.

PEAK (MAX) VALUE PEAK-TO-PEAK

VALUE
• The peak value of a sine wave • Voltage (or current) from the
is the value of voltage (or positive peak to the negative
current) at the positive or the peak. It is always twice the
negative maximum (peaks) peak value as expressed in the
with respect to zero. following equations. Peak-to-
peak values are represented
by Vpp or Ipp.

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8.3333 𝑚𝑠

Find:
(a) IP
(b) IP-P
(c) Frequency 5𝐴
(d) Period
(e) Angular
frequency

𝐴𝑛𝑠:
𝐼 =5𝐴
𝐼 = 10 𝐴
𝑓 = 60 𝐻𝑧
𝑇 = 16.6667 𝑚𝑠
𝜔 = 376.9911 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

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GENERAL FORMULA OF A WAVE

𝑦 𝜙 = 𝑦 sin 𝜙 ± 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦 sin(2𝜋𝑓t ± 𝜃)

Where:
yP = max value/ peak value
 = angular frequency (rad/sec)
f = frequency (hz)
𝜃 = phase angle (rad or degree)
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, +𝜃 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔, −𝜃

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𝐴𝑛𝑠:
𝑉 = 135 𝑉
Find: 𝑉 = 270 𝑉 𝜃
(a) VP 𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
𝑇 = 20 𝑚𝑠
(b) VP-P 𝜔 = 314.1593 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
(c) Frequency 𝜃 = 121.5863° 5 𝑚𝑠
𝑣 𝑡 = 135 sin 314.1593𝑡 − 121.5863° 𝑉
(d) Period
(e) Angular
frequency
(f) Phase
angle
(g) Equation of
the
waveform
270 𝑉
–115 𝑉

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AVERAGE VALUE ROOT MEAN

(YAVE) SQAURE (YRMS)
• The quotient of the area under • It is the dc voltage/current that
the waveform with respect to delivers the same average
time or angle. power to a resistor as the
• It is the average of all periodic current/voltage.
instantaneous values • Also called the Effective Value
of current/voltage.
1
𝑌 = 𝑦(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 1
𝑇 𝑌 = 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑇
𝑌 = 𝑦(𝜙)𝑑𝜙
2𝜋
1
Note:
𝑌 = 𝑦(𝜙) 𝑑𝜙
2𝜋
These are the formulas for a pure sine wave, if you wish to solve the average and rms
of other waveforms, change the ‘blue’ parts of the equations
RMS Value is the output reading of AC metering devices.
Average Value is the output reading of DC metering devices.

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FORM FACTOR
• The ratio of the root-mean-square value to the average
value of an alternating quantity (current or voltage)

𝑌
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑌

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AVERAGE VALUE

0 YP = 0.3183 YP YP = 0.6366 YP
RMS/Effective VALUE

YP = 0.7071YP YP = 0.5 YP YP = 0.7071YP

FORM FACTOR
1.11 (half-wave only) 1.57 1.11

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PHASORS
Phasor Algebra

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COMPLEX NUMBERS
Note:

Rectangular - 𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑦
cis = Cosine-Imaginary-Sine

Polar - 𝑧𝑐𝑖𝑠 ± 𝜃 = 𝑧∠ ± 𝜃
y z Functional - 𝑧𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃)
Exponential - 𝑧𝑒 ±
θ
x Note:

• θ can be in DEGREES or RADIANS

• θ is ALWAYS with respect to the POSITIVE REAL AXIS
• if θ is POSITIVE, counter-clockwise rotation
• if θ is NEGATIVE, clockwise rotation

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PHASOR ALGEBRA (ADD/SUBT)

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PHASOR ALGEBRA (ADD/SUBT)

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PHASOR ALGEBRA (MULTI)

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PHASOR ALGEBRA (DIV)

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PHASOR ALGEBRA (DIV)

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PASSIVE ELEMENTS
Resistor
Capacitor
Inductor
Functional Translation

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IMPORTANT
For uniformity:
•UPPER CASE means in RMS values

•LOWER CASE means in PEAK values

•BOLD characters means VECTOR values

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RESISTOR
• The voltage and current are in phase

V
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝑖(𝑡)
I

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑅
𝑣(𝑡) = [𝑖(𝑡)][𝑅]
𝑣
𝑖(𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃)
𝑅

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CAPACITOR
• Current leads the voltage by 90°

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝑖(𝑡) V

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖 (𝑡)
I
𝑑𝑣
=𝐶 𝑣(𝑡) 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 )
=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑣
= sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 + 90°)
1
𝜔𝐶
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INDUCTOR
• Current lags the voltage by 90°

𝑖(𝑡) V
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 I

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖 (𝑡)
1 𝑣(𝑡) 𝐿
= 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
1
= 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑣
= sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 − 90°)
𝜔𝐿
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RESISTOR CAPACITOR INDUCTOR

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
= ∠±𝜃 = ∠±𝜃 = ∠±𝜃
2 2 2
=𝑉 ∠±𝜃 = 𝑉 ∠±𝜃 = 𝑉 ∠±𝜃

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑖 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝑖 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 + 90° 𝑖 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 − 90°
𝑅 1 𝜔𝐿
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝜔𝐶
𝑖 𝑡 =𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 − 90°
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 + 90°
𝑖 𝑖
= ∠±𝜃 𝑖 = ∠(±𝜃 − 90°)
2 = ∠(±𝜃 + 90°) 2
2
= 𝐼 ∠±𝜃 = 𝐼 ∠(±𝜃 − 90°)
= 𝐼 ∠(±𝜃 + 90°)

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RESISTOR CAPACITOR INDUCTOR

𝑉 ∠±𝜃 𝑉 ∠±𝜃 𝑉 ∠±𝜃
𝐼 ∠±𝜃 𝐼 ∠(±𝜃 + 90°) 𝐼 ∠(±𝜃 − 90°)
𝑉 ∠±𝜃 𝑉 ∠±𝜃 𝑉 ∠±𝜃
𝐼 ∠±𝜃 𝐼 ∠(±𝜃 + 90°) 𝐼 ∠(±𝜃 − 90°)
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
∠±𝜃 ∠±𝜃
∠±𝜃 2 2
2 𝑣 𝑣
𝑣 ∠(±𝜃 + 90°) ∠(±𝜃 − 90°)
∠±𝜃 2 𝜔𝐿 2
𝑅 2 𝜔𝐶
1 1
𝑅∠0° ∠ − 90° = ∠ − 90° 𝜔𝐿∠90° = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿∠90°
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

𝑪 𝑳

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RESISTOR CAPACITOR INDUCTOR

𝟕𝟎𝟎𝜴, 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝜴, … 𝟏𝟎 𝝁𝑭 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑯

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 0°. 𝑎𝑡 60 ℎ𝑧 𝑎𝑡 60 ℎ𝑧
700𝑐𝑖𝑠0° Ω = 700∠0° Ω
𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝜴 1 1 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓L = 2𝜋(60)(0.7) = 263
𝑋 = = = 265
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋(60)(10𝜇)
100𝑐𝑖𝑠0° 𝑘Ω = 100∠0° 𝑘Ω 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 90°
𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝜴 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 − 90°
263𝑐𝑖𝑠90° Ω = 263∠90° Ω
265𝑐𝑖𝑠 − 90° Ω = 265∠ − 90° Ω
𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝒋𝟐𝟔𝟑 𝜴
𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 − 𝒋𝟐𝟔𝟓 𝜴

Resistance Reactance
(real) (imaginary)
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= 𝑍∠𝜃 = 𝑅 ± 𝑗𝑋
IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE |𝑍| = |𝑅| + |𝑋|
𝑋
𝜃 = tan
𝑅
If 𝑋 = 0, then |Z| = |𝑅|
Where: If 𝑅 = 0, then |Z| = |𝑋|

θZ = Impedance Angle
R = Resistance
X = Reactance
if X > 0 = Inductive
if X < 0 = Capacitive
Z = Impedance

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1
ADMITTANCE TRIANGLE 𝑍∠𝜃
= 𝑌∠ − 𝜃
= 𝐺 ± 𝑗𝐵

|𝑌| = |𝐺| + |𝐵|

Where: |𝐵|
|𝜃 | = tan
|𝑌|
θZ = Impedance Angle
G = Conductance
B = Susceptance
Y = Admittance

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POLARITY MARKER
a

230∠120° 𝑉

b = 230∠120° 𝑉
= − 230∠120° 𝑉
a = 230∠300°𝑉
= 230∠ − 60°𝑉
230∠120° 𝑉

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SAMPLE
1. Determine the equivalent impedance across ‘a’ and ‘b’.
𝑗10𝛺 4𝛺 𝐴𝑛𝑠:
𝑍 = 4.6932 + 𝑗16.8554 Ω
𝑍 = 17.4966∠74.44° Ω
3𝛺
1𝛺 2𝛺 𝑗9𝛺 5𝛺

𝑗6𝛺 𝑗12𝛺 𝑗7𝛺

𝑎 𝑗15𝛺
𝑏

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SAMPLE
2. Determine V across and I passing through Z, if Z is…
a) 500 + j300 Ω 𝐴𝑛𝑠:
b) 100 Ω and 10μF in parallel 𝐼 = 0.3887∠ − 31.5948° 𝐴
𝑉 = 226.6529∠ − 0.6311° 𝑉
𝐼 = 0.8344∠67.8325° 𝐴
𝑗10𝛺 4𝛺 𝐼 𝑉 = 236.5506∠ − 1.5115° 𝑉

230∠0°𝑉 𝑉
60𝐻𝑧

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SAMPLE
3. Determine the voltage, V, across the source of the given
circuit.
𝐴𝑛𝑠:
𝑉 = 420.3607∠31.6478° 𝑉
12𝛺 𝑗15𝛺 9𝛺 𝑗12𝛺
+
400𝛺
𝑉 −𝑗1000𝛺 400∠30°𝑉
𝑗300𝛺
−

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AC POWER ANALYSIS
Instantaneous Power
Average Power
Power Triangle
Power Factor

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INSTANTANEOUS POWER
𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑣(𝑡) 𝒁
𝑝 𝑡 = [𝑣 𝑡 ][𝑖 𝑡 ]
𝑝 𝑡 = [𝑣 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 ][𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 ]

𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝜃
2 2

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AVERAGE POWER
𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝜃
2 2
1 Recall:
𝑃 = 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇

𝑣 𝑖 𝑉∠𝜃 = 𝐼∠𝜃 𝑍∠𝜃

𝑃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝜃
2 𝑉∠𝜃
= 𝑍∠𝜃
𝑃 =𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃 − 𝜃 𝐼∠𝜃
𝑉
Power Factor ∠(𝜃 − 𝜃 ) = 𝑍∠𝜃
𝐼
𝑃 =𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃

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𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝜃
2 2
𝑣 𝑖
𝑃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝜃
2

RESISTOR CAPACITOR INDUCTOR

𝜃 = 0° 𝜃 = 0° 𝜃 = 0°
𝜃 = 0° 𝜃 = 90° 𝜃 = −90°
𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = − cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑝 𝑡 =− cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 90° 𝑝 𝑡 =− cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 90°
2 2 2 2
𝑣 𝑖
𝑃 = 𝑃 =0 𝑃 =0
2
𝑃 =𝑉 𝐼

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REACTIVE POWER
𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝜃
2 2
𝑣 𝑖
𝑃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝜃
2
For simplicity purposes, Let 𝜃 = 0°:

𝜃 −𝜃 =𝜃
𝜃 =𝜃 =𝜃
𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
2 2
𝑣 𝑖
𝑃 = cos 𝜃
2

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REACTIVE POWER
𝜃 −𝜃 =𝜃
𝜃 =𝜃 =𝜃
𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
2 2
𝑣 𝑖
𝑃 = cos 𝜃
2 Q
𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜔𝑡
2 2 2
𝑣 𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑃 − 𝑃 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜔𝑡
2

Reactive Factor

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POWER TRIANGLE
𝜃 −𝜃 =𝜃
𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠ 𝜃 − 𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠𝜃
∗ 𝑉𝟐
𝑆∠𝜃 = = ∗ = |𝐼|𝟐
Where: 𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑃 ± 𝑗𝑄
|𝑆| = |𝑃| + |𝑄|
θ = Power Angle (same as θZ)
𝑃 = |𝑉||𝐼| cos(𝜃)
P = Real/Active Power, | |
….....W (Watts) = = |𝐼 | |𝑅| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 |
| |

Q = Reactive Power, 𝑄 = |𝑉||𝐼| sin(𝜃)

| |
…….VAR (Volt-Ampere-Reactive) = = |𝐼 | |𝑋| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 |
| |
if Q > 0, then Inductive, 𝑝𝑓 = cos(𝜃) 𝑟𝑓 = sin(𝜃)
lagging pf |𝑃| |𝑄|
𝑝𝑓 = =
if Q < 0, then Capacitive, |𝑆| |𝑆|
|𝑅| |𝑋|
leading pf 𝑝𝑓 = =
|𝑍| |𝑍|
if Q = 0, then Resistive, 𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
unity pf 𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
S = Apparent Power, = ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃
…....VA (Volt-Ampere)

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SAMPLE
1. Determine the following:
a) ZT
b) IT
c) pfLoad 𝑗10𝛺 4𝛺
d) P4Ω
e) Qj10Ω
f) P100Ω 100𝛺
g) Q10μF 311.127 sin(100𝑡 + 30°) 𝑉
h) PT 10μ𝐹
i) QT
j) ST
k) pfT
l) rfT

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𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑗10𝛺 4𝛺
a) 𝑍 = 104 − 𝑗990 Ω = 995.4476∠ − 84.003° Ω

SAMPLE
b) 𝐼 = 0.221∠114.0030° 𝐴
c) 𝑝𝑓 = 0.0995 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) 100𝛺
d) 𝑃 = 0.1954 𝑊 311.127 sin(100𝑡 + 30°) 𝑉
e) 𝑄 = 0.4884 𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑙𝑎𝑔) 10μ𝐹
f) 𝑃 = 4.8844 𝑊
g) 𝑄 = 48.8437 𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑)
1. Determine the h) 𝑃 = 5.0798 𝑊
following: i) 𝑄 = 48.3553 𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑) 𝜃 −𝜃 =𝜃
a) ZT j) 𝑆 = 48.6213∠ − 84.0030° 𝑉𝐴 𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠ 𝜃 − 𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠𝜃
b) IT k) 𝑝𝑓 = 0.1045 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑) ∗ 𝑉𝟐
l) 𝑟𝑓 = 0.9945 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑) 𝑆∠𝜃 = = ∗ = |𝐼|𝟐
c) pfLoad
𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑃 ± 𝑗𝑄
d) P4Ω |𝑆| = |𝑃| + |𝑄|
e) Qj10Ω 𝑃 = |𝑉||𝐼| cos(𝜃)
| |
f) P100Ω =
| |
= |𝐼 | |𝑅| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 |
g) Q10μF 𝑄 = |𝑉||𝐼| sin(𝜃)
| |
h) PT =
| |
= |𝐼 | |𝑋| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 |
i) QT 𝑝𝑓 = cos(𝜃) 𝑟𝑓 = sin(𝜃)
|𝑃| |𝑄|
j) ST 𝑝𝑓 = =
|𝑆| |𝑆|
k) pfT |𝑅| |𝑋|
l) rfT 𝑝𝑓 = =
|𝑍| |𝑍|
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃

46

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SAMPLE
2. An industrial plant has the following loads:
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging Note:
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging Since we don’t know the power factor of the fourth
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging load, we can assume if it is lagging or leading. Both
solutions are provided in this PowerPoint.
d) 250KW, unknown pf
The power factor of the entire plant is 0.92 lagging.
Determine the power factor of the fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
|𝑷| |𝑸|
𝒑𝒇 = =
|𝑺| |𝑺|
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃

47

SAMPLE (Solution 1)
2. An industrial plant has the
following loads:
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
Note:
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging The following diagrams are not drawn to scale.
d) 250KW, unknown pf

The power factor of the entire

But, you can still make an approximation by solving first the phase
plant is 0.92 lagging. angles from the power factor to have a more realistic presentation.
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
|𝑷| |𝑸|
𝒑𝒇 = =
|𝑺| |𝑺|
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
𝑆 ( )
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 𝑄 ( )
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑆 𝑄
𝑆
𝑄 𝑄 𝜃
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 ( )

100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊

48

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SAMPLE (Sol 1)
2. An industrial plant has the 𝑆 ( )
following loads:
𝑄 ( )
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
d) 250KW, unknown pf

The power factor of the entire 𝜃 ( )

plant is 0.92 lagging.
Determine the power factor of the 𝑆
fourth load. 𝑄
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
𝜃
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
|𝑷| |𝑸|
𝒑𝒇 = =
|𝑺| |𝑺| 225 𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄 𝑄
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃

𝜃
𝑆
𝑄
𝜃
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊

49

SAMPLE (Sol 1)
𝑆 ( )
𝑄 ( )

𝜃 ( )
2. An industrial plant has the
following loads: 𝑆
𝜃 𝑄
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴
d) 250KW, unknown pf
𝑄
𝜃
The power factor of the entire
plant is 0.92 lagging.
𝑆
𝜃 𝑄
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊
𝑃
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) 𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃
|𝑷| |𝑸|
𝒑𝒇 =
|𝑺|
=
|𝑺| 𝑃 = 100 + 225 0.75 + 120 + 250
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
𝑃 = 638.75 KW
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃

|𝑃 |
𝑝𝑓 =
𝑆
638.75
𝑆 =
0.92
𝑆 = 694.2935 𝐾𝑉𝐴

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SAMPLE (Sol 1)
𝑆 ( )
𝑄 ( )

𝜃 ( )
2. An industrial plant has the
following loads: 𝑆
𝜃 𝑄
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴
d) 250KW, unknown pf
𝑄
𝜃
The power factor of the entire
plant is 0.92 lagging.
𝑆
𝜃 𝑄
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊
𝑃
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
𝒑𝒇 =
|𝑷|
=
|𝑸| 𝑄 = 𝑆 −𝑃
|𝑺| |𝑺|
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
𝑄 = 694.2935 − 638.75
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 𝑄 = 272.1064 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑅
Note:
𝑄 = 𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑄 ( )
Since Q4 is negative, we
have the wrong 272.1064 = 100 tan 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.8 + 225 sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.75 + 120 tan 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.9 +𝑄
assumption, load 4 must 𝑄 ( ) = −9.8358 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑)
have a leading pf

51

SAMPLE (Sol 1)
𝑆 ( )
𝑄 ( )

𝜃 ( )
2. An industrial plant has the
following loads: 𝑆
𝜃 𝑄
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴
d) 250KW, unknown pf
𝑄
𝜃
The power factor of the entire
plant is 0.92 lagging.
𝑆
𝜃 𝑄
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊
𝑃
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) 𝑄 ( )
|𝑷| |𝑸| tan(𝜃 ) =
𝒑𝒇 =
|𝑺|
=
|𝑺|
𝑃
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃 −9.8358
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄 tan(𝜃 ) =
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 250
𝜃 = −2.2530°

𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃
𝑝𝑓 = cos −2.2530°
𝒑𝒇𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

52

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SAMPLE (Solution 2)
2. An industrial plant has the
following loads:
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
Note:
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging The following diagrams are not drawn to scale.
d) 250KW, unknown pf

The power factor of the entire

But, you can still make an approximation by solving first the phase
plant is 0.92 lagging. angles from the power factor to have a more realistic presentation.
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸 250𝐾𝑊
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) 𝜃 ( )
|𝑷| |𝑸|
𝒑𝒇 = =
|𝑺| |𝑺|
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 𝑄 ( )
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑆
𝑆 𝑄 ( )
𝑆
𝑄 𝑄
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊

53

SAMPLE (Sol 2)
2. An industrial plant has the
following loads:
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
d) 250KW, unknown pf

The power factor of the entire

plant is 0.92 lagging. 𝑆 𝜃 ( )
𝑄
Determine the power factor of the 𝜃
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸 𝑄 ( )
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐 𝑆
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) ( )
|𝑷| |𝑸| 225 𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝒑𝒇 = =
|𝑺| |𝑺| 𝑄
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 𝜃
𝑆
𝑄
𝜃
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊

54

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SAMPLE (Sol 2)
2. An industrial plant has the 𝑆
following loads:
𝜃 ( )
𝜃 𝑄
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging 𝑄 ( )
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑆 ( ) 𝑄
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
d) 250KW, unknown pf
𝜃
𝑆
The power factor of the entire
plant is 0.92 lagging. 𝑆
𝜃 𝑄 𝜃 𝑄
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊
𝑃
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) 𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃
|𝑷| |𝑸|
𝒑𝒇 =
|𝑺|
=
|𝑺| 𝑃 = 100 + 225 0.75 + 120 + 250
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
𝑃 = 638.75 KW
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃

|𝑃 |
𝑝𝑓 =
𝑆
638.75
𝑆 =
0.92
𝑆 = 694.2935 𝐾𝑉𝐴

55

SAMPLE (Sol 2)
2. An industrial plant has the 𝑆
following loads:
𝜃 ( )
𝜃 𝑄
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging 𝑄 ( )
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑆 ( ) 𝑄
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
d) 250KW, unknown pf
𝜃
𝑆
The power factor of the entire
plant is 0.92 lagging. 𝑆
𝜃 𝑄 𝜃 𝑄
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊
𝑃
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
𝒑𝒇 =
|𝑷|
=
|𝑸| 𝑄 = 𝑆 −𝑃
|𝑺| |𝑺|
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
𝑄 = 694.2935 − 638.75
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 𝑄 = 272.1064 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑅
Note:
𝑄 = 𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑄 −𝑄 ( )
Since Q4 is positive, we
have the correct 272.1064 = 100 tan 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.8 + 225 sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.75 + 120 tan 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.9 −𝑄
assumption, load 4 must 𝑄 ( ) = 9.8358 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑)
have a leading pf

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SAMPLE (Sol 2)
2. An industrial plant has the 𝑆
following loads:
𝜃 ( )
𝜃 𝑄
a) 100KW, 0.8 pf lagging
b) 225KVA, 0.75 pf lagging 𝑄 ( )
225 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑆 ( ) 𝑄
c) 120KW, 0.9 pf lagging
d) 250KW, unknown pf
𝜃
𝑆
The power factor of the entire
plant is 0.92 lagging. 𝑆
𝜃 𝑄 𝜃 𝑄
Determine the power factor of the
fourth load.
𝑺∠𝜽 = 𝑷 ± 𝒋𝑸
100 𝐾𝑊 𝑃 120 𝐾𝑊 250𝐾𝑊
𝑃
|𝑺|𝟐 = |𝑷|𝟐 + |𝑸|𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝒓𝒇 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) 𝑄 ( )
|𝑷| |𝑸| tan(𝜃 ) =
𝒑𝒇 =
|𝑺|
=
|𝑺|
𝑃
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃 −9.8358
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄 tan(𝜃 ) =
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 250 Note:
𝜃 = −2.2530°
The only difference between the
two solutions is the sign of Q4
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃
𝑝𝑓 = cos −2.2530°
𝒑𝒇𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

57

Note:
Since there are no phase angles given, we

SAMPLE
can select a reference waveform.
Also, it doesn’t matter if we don’t have a
polarity marker as we only have one source.

3. A 10kVA, 0.85 pf lagging load is maintained at 400V.

Determine the value of source voltage, VS, to achieve
this.
1.2𝛺 𝑗1.5𝛺

𝑉 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑍 400𝑉
0.85 𝑝𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑔

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Note:
Since there are no phase angles given, we

SAMPLE (Sol 1)
can select a reference waveform.
Also, it doesn’t matter if we don’t have a
polarity marker as we only have one source.

3. A 10kVA, 0.85 pf lagging load is maintained at 400V.

Determine the value of source voltage, VS, to achieve
this. 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.85
𝜃 −𝜃 =𝜃 𝜃 = 31.78833°
𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠ 𝜃 − 𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠𝜃
∗ 𝑉𝟐
𝑆∠𝜃 = = ∗ = |𝐼|𝟐 = 10∠31.78833° 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑃 ± 𝑗𝑄
|𝑆| = |𝑃| + |𝑄| 1.2𝛺 𝑗1.5𝛺 ∗
𝑆 ∠𝜃 =
𝑃 = |𝑉||𝐼| cos(𝜃) ∗
| | 10 × 10 ∠31.78833° = 400∠0°
= = |𝐼 | |𝑅| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 |
| |
𝑉 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴 ∗ 10 × 10 ∠31.78833°
𝑄 = |𝑉||𝐼| sin(𝜃) 𝑍 400∠0°𝑉 =
| |
0.85 𝑝𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑔 400∠0°
= = |𝐼 | |𝑋| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 | ∗
| | 10 × 10 ∠31.78833°
𝑝𝑓 = cos(𝜃) 𝑟𝑓 = sin(𝜃) =
|𝑃| |𝑄| 400∠0°
𝑝𝑓 = =
|𝑆| |𝑆| = 25∠ − 31.78833° 𝐴
|𝑅| |𝑋|
𝑝𝑓 = =
|𝑍| |𝑍|
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃
= 25∠ − 31.78833° 1.2 + 𝑗1.5 + 400∠0°
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄 = 445.5443∠2.0672° 𝑉
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃

59

Note:
Since there are no phase angles given, we

SAMPLE (Sol 2)
can select a reference waveform.
Also, it doesn’t matter if we don’t have a
polarity marker as we only have one source.

𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.85
3. A 10kVA, 0.85 pf lagging load is maintained at 400V. 𝜃 = 31.78833°
Determine the value of source voltage, VS, to achieve
this.
𝜃 −𝜃 =𝜃 = 10∠31.78833° 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠ 𝜃 − 𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼∠𝜃
∗ 𝑉𝟐 𝑉 𝟐
𝑆∠𝜃 = = ∗ = |𝐼|𝟐
𝑆 ∠𝜃 = ∗
𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑃 ± 𝑗𝑄
|𝑆| = |𝑃| + |𝑄| 1.2𝛺 𝑗1.5𝛺 400 𝟐

𝑃 = |𝑉||𝐼| cos(𝜃)
10 × 10 ∠31.78833° = ∗
| |
= = |𝐼 | |𝑅| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 | ∗ 400
| |
𝑉 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴 =
𝑄 = |𝑉||𝐼| sin(𝜃) 𝑍 400∠0°𝑉 10 × 10 ∠31.78833°
| |
0.85 𝑝𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑔 ∗
=
| |
= |𝐼 | |𝑋| = |𝑉 | |𝐼 | 400
𝑝𝑓 = cos(𝜃) 𝑟𝑓 = sin(𝜃)
=
10 × 10 ∠31.78833°
|𝑃| |𝑄|
𝑝𝑓 =
|𝑆|
=
|𝑆|
= 16∠31.78833° Ω
|𝑅| |𝑋|
𝑝𝑓 = =
|𝑍| |𝑍| 16∠31.78833°
𝑃 = ∑𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ⋯ + 𝑃 400∠0° =
𝑄 = ∑𝑄 = ±𝑄 ± 𝑄 ± ⋯ ± 𝑄
16∠31.78833° + 1.2 + 𝑗1.5
= ∑𝑆∠𝜃 = 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑆 ∠𝜃 = 445.5443∠2.0672° 𝑉

60

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COMPARISON OF
REFERENCE MATERIALS
Sine or Cosine
Peak or RMS

61

BASIC ENGINEERING CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Chapter 8 – AC Steady-State Analysis

62

31
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BASIC ENGINEERING CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Chapter 8 – AC Steady-State Analysis
Cosine
Peak

63

BASIC ENGINEERING CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Chapter 9 – Steady-State Power Analysis

64

32
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BASIC ENGINEERING CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Chapter 9 – Steady-State Power Analysis

Peak

65

SCHAUM’S OUTLINE
Chapter 9 – Sinusoidal Steady-State Circuit Analysis

66

33
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SCHAUM’S OUTLINE
Chapter 9 – Sinusoidal Steady-State Circuit Analysis
Cosine
Peak

67

SCHAUM’S OUTLINE
Chapter 10 – AC Power

68

34
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SCHAUM’S OUTLINE
Chapter 10 – AC Power

RMS/Effective

69

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Chapter 9 – Sinusoids and Phasors

70

35
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FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Chapter 9 – Sinusoids and Phasors
Cosine
Peak

71

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Chapter 11 – AC Power Analysis

72

36
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FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Chapter 11 – AC Power Analysis

Peak

73

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Chapter 9 – Sinusoids and Phasors

74

37
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ELETRICAL TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 11 – AC Fundamentals
Chapter 13– Series AC Circuits

75

ELETRICAL TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 11 – AC Fundamentals
Chapter 13– Series AC Circuits
Sine
RMS/Effective

76

38
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ELETRICAL TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 11 – AC Fundamentals

77

ELETRICAL TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 11 – AC Fundamentals

Peak and RMS/Effective

78

39
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Class Convention
Passive Elements

79

Class Convention
Passive Elements
Sine
RMS/Effective

80

40
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Class Convention
AC Power Analysis

81

Class Convention
AC Power Analysis

RMS/Effective

82

41