Wave Optics

WAVE OPTICS
———————————————————————————————————
1. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
When two or more waves simultaneously pass through a point, the disturbance of the point is given by
the sum of the disturbances each wave would produce in absence of the other wave(s). In case of wave
on string disturbance means displacement, in case of sound wave it means pressure change, in case of
Electromagnetic Waves. it is electric field or magnetic field. Superposition of two light travelling in
almost same direction results in modification in the distribution of intensity of light in the region of
superposition. This phenomenon is called interference.
1.1 Superposition of two sinusoidal waves :
Consider superposition of two sinusoidal waves (having same frequency), at a particular point.
Let, x1(t) = a1 sin t
and, x2(t) = a2 sin (t + )
represent the displacement produced by each of the disturbances. Here we are assuming the
displacements to be in the same direction. Now according to superposition principle, the resultant
displacement will be given by,
x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)
= a1 sin t + a2 sin (t + )
= A sin (t + 0)
where A2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1 . a2 cos  ....... (1.1)
a2 sin 
and tan 0 = ........(1.2)
a1  a2 cos 

Example 1. S1 and S2 are two sources of light which produce individually disturbance at point P given by
E1 = 3sin t, E2 = 4 cos t. Assuming E1 & E2 to be along the same line, find the resultant after
their superposition.

Solution : E = 3 sint + 4 sin(t + )
2

A2 = 32 + 42 + 2(3)(4) cos = 52
2

4 sin
2 4
tan0 = =  0 = 53º
 3
3  4cos
2
E = 5sin[t + 53º]
———————————————————————————————————
1.2 SUPERPOSITION OF PROGRESSIVE WAVES; PATH DIFFERENCE :
Let S1 and S2 be two sources producing progressive waves (disturbance travelling in space given by
y1 and y2)
At point P,
y1 = a1 sin (t – kx1 + 1)
y2 = a2 sin (t – kx2 + 2)
y = y1+y2 = A sin(t + ) S1 x1
Here, the phase difference,
 = (t – kx1 + 1) – (t – kx2 + 2) P
= k(x2 – x1) + (1 – 2) = kp – 
x2
where  = 2 – 1 S2
Here p = x is the path difference Figure: 1.3

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Wave Optics
Clearly, phase difference due to path difference = k (path difference)
2
where k =

2
  = kp = x ..... (1.3)

For Constructive Interference :
 = 2n, n = 0, 1, 2 ........ or, x = n
Amax = A1 + A2

 
2
Intensity, max  1  2  max = 1   2 ... (1.4)

For Destructive interference :

 = (2n + 1), n = 0, 1, 2 .......
or, x = (2n + 1)
Amin = |A1 – A2|

 
2
Intensity,  min  1  2  min. = 1   2 ... (1.5)

Example 2.

S1 and S2 are two coherent sources of frequency 'f' each. (1 = 2 = 0º) Vsound = 330m/s.
(i) so that constructive interference at 'p'
(ii) so that destructive interference at 'p'
Solution : For constructive interference Kx = 2n
2
× 2 = 2n

2 2
= ; V = f  V= f
n n
330
f= n
2
For destructive interference
Kx = (2n + 1)
2
. 2 = (2n + 1)

1 (2n  1) V 330  (2n  1)
 ; f= 
 4  4
Example 3. Light from two sources, each of same frequency and travelling in same direction, but with
intensity in the ratio 4 : 1 interfere. Find ratio of maximum to minimum intensity.
2
 1 
2   1
max  1   2  2
2
 =  2  1  = 9 : 1.
Solution : =   =    2  1
min      1  
 1 2    1
 2 
 

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Wave Optics
———————————————————————————————————
2. WAVEFRONTS
Consider a wave spreading out on the surface of water after a stone is thrown in. Every point on the
surface oscillates. At any time, a photograph of the surface would show circular rings on which the
disturbance is maximum. Clearly, all points on such a circle are oscillating in phase because they are at
the same distance from the source. Such a locus of points which oscillate in phase is an example of a
wavefront.
A wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase. The speed with which the wavefront moves
outwards from the source is called the wave speed. The energy of the wave travels in a direction
perpendicular to the wavefront.
Figure (2.1a) shows light waves from a point source forming a spherical wavefront in three dimensional
space. The energy travels outwards along straight lines emerging from the source. i.e., radii of the
spherical wavefront. These lines are the rays. Notice that when we measure the spacing between a pair
of wavefronts along any ray, the result is a constant. This example illustrates two important general
principles which we will use later:
(i) Rays are perpendicular to wavefronts.
(ii) The time taken by light to travel from one wavefront to another is the same along any ray.
If we look at a small portion of a spherical wave, far away from the source, then the wavefronts are like
parallel planes. The rays are parallel lines perpendicular to the wavefronts. This is called a plane wave
and is also sketched in Figure (2.1b)
A linear source such as a slit illuminated by another source behind it will give rise to cylindrical
wavefronts. Again, at larger distance from the source, these wavefronts may be regarded as planar.

(a) (b)
Figure : 2.1 : Wavefronts and the corresponding rays in two cases: (a) diverging spherical wave. (b) plane wave.
The figure on the left shows a wave (e.g.. light) in three dimensions. The figure on the right shows a wave in two
dimensions (a water surface).

3. COHERENCE :
Two sources which vibrate with a fixed phase difference between them are said to be coherent. The
phase differences between light coming form such sources does not depend on time.
In a conventional light source, however, light comes from a large number of individual atoms, each
atom emitting a pulse lasting for about 1 ns. Even if atoms were emitting under similar conditions,
waves from different atoms would differ in their initial phases. Consequently light coming from two such
sources have a fixed phase relationship for about 1ns, hence interference pattern will keep changing
every billionth of a second. The eye can notice intensity changes which lasts at least one tenth of a
second. Hence we will observe uniform intensity on the screen which is the sum of the two individual
intensities. Such sources are said to be incoherent. Light beam coming from two such independent
sources do not have any fixed phase relationship and they do not produce any stationary interference
pattern. For such sources, resultant intensity at any point is given by
 = 1 + 2 ...... (3.1)
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Wave Optics
4. YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT (Y.D.S.E.)
In 1802 Thomas Young devised a method to produce a stationary interference pattern. This was based
upon division of a single wavefront into two; these two wavefronts acted as if they emanated from two
sources having a fixed phase relationship. Hence when they were allowed to interfere, stationary
interference pattern was observed.

S2
Max

d Max
S0
Central Max
S1
Max

Max

D C
A
B

Figure : 4.1 : Young’s Arrangement to produce stationary interference pattern by division of wave front
S0 into S1 and S2

Max

Incident
wave Max

S2

Max
S0
Max

Max
S1
Max

A B Max

Figure 4.2 : In Young's interference experiment, light diffracted from pinhole S0 C

excounters pinholes S1 and S2 in screen B. Light diffracted from these two
pinholes overlaps in the region between screen B and viewing screen C,
producing an interference pattern on screen C.

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Wave Optics
4.1 Analysis of Interference Pattern
We have insured in the above arrangement that the light wave passing through S1 is in phase with that
passing through S2. However the wave reaching P from S2 may not be in phase with the wave reaching P
from S1, because the latter must travel a longer path to reach P than the former. We have already discussed
the phase-difference arising due to path difference. If the path difference is equal to zero or is an integral
multiple of wavelengths, the arriving waves are exactly in phase and undergo constructive interference.
If the path difference is an odd multiple of half a wavelength, the arriving waves are out of phase and undergo
fully destructive interference. Thus, it is the path difference x, which determines the intensity at a point P.

P
r2
s2 y
r1

d s
0
A
s1

Figure : 4.3
2 2
 d  d
Path difference p = S1P – S2P = y  2 D  y  2 D
2 2
.....(4.1)
   
Approximation I : For D >> d, we can approximate rays 1 and 2 as being approximately parallel, at
angle  to the principle axis.
Now, S1P – S2P = S1A = S1S2 sin 
 path difference = d sin  .....(4.2)
r2

s2


d

s1 A r1

Figure : 4.4
y
Approximation II : Further if  is small, i.e., y << D, sin  = tan  =
D
dy
and hence, path difference = .....(4.3)
D
for maxima (constructive interference),
d.y n D
p = = n  y= , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3 .....(4.4)
D d
Here n = 0 corresponds to the central maxima
n = ±1 correspond to the 1st maxima
n = ±2 correspond to the 2nd maxima and so on.
for minima (destructive interference).
 
 3 5 (2n  1) 2 n  1, 2, 3.............
p = ± , ± ±   p = 
2 2 2 (2n  1)  n  -1, -2, -3........
 2
 D
(2n  1) 2d n  1, 2, 3.............
consequently, y =  ...... (4.5)
(2n  1) D n  -1, -2, -3.......
 2d
Here n = ± 1 corresponds to first minima,
n = ± 2 corresponds to second minima and so on.
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 Wave Optics
4.2 Fringe width :
It is the distance between two maxima of successive order on one side of the central maxima. This is
also equal to distance between two successive minima.
D
fringe width  = ...... (4.6)
d
  Notice that it is directly proportional to wavelength and inversely proportional to the distance
between the two slits.

4.3 Maximum order of Interference Fringes :

n D
In section 4.1 we obtained, y = , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2 .....
d
for interference maxima, but n cannot take infinitely large values, as that would violate the approximation (II)
i.e.,  is small or y << D
y n
 =  1
D d
Hence the above formula (4.4 & 4.5) for interference maxima/minima are applicable when
d
n <<

d
when n becomes comparable to path difference can no longer be given by equation (4.3) but by (4.2)

Hence for maxima
dsin
p = n  dsin = n  n=

d
Hence highest order of interference maxima, nmax =   ..... (4.7)
 
where [ ] represents the greatest integer function.
Similarly highest order of interference minima,
 d 1
nmin =    .... (4.8)
 2
Alter s2

p = S1P – S2P
s1
p  d  pmax = d
(3rd side of a triangle is always greater than the difference in Figure : 4.6

length of the other two sides)

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Wave Optics
4.4 Intensity :
Suppose the electric field components of the light waves arriving at point P(in the Figure : 4.3) from the
two slits S1 and S2 vary with time as
E1 = E0 sin t and E2 = E0 sin (t + )
2
Here  = kx = x

and we have assumed that intensity of the two slits S1 and S2 are same (say 0); hence waves have
same amplitude E0.
then the resultant electric field at point P is given by,
E = E1 + E2 = E0 sin t + E0 sin (t + ) = E0´ sin (t +´)
where E0´2 = E02 + E02 + 2E0 . E0 cos  = 4 E02 cos2 /2
Hence the resultant intensity at point P,

 = 40 cos2 .......(4.9)
2

max = 40 when = n, n = 0, ±1, ±2,.......,
2
  1
min = 0 when =  n    n  0, 1,  2 ..........
2  2
2
Here   = kx = x

2
If D >> d,  = d sin 

2 y
If D >> d & y << D,  = d
 D
However if the two slits were of different intensities 1 and 2,
say E1 = E01 sin t and E2 = E02 sin (t + )
then resultant field at point P,
E = E1 + E2 = E0 sin (t + )
where E02 = E012 + EO22 + 2E01 E02 cos 
Hence resultant intensity at point P,
 = 1 + 2 + 2 12 cos  ...... (4.10)

Example 4. In a YDSE, D = 1m, d = 1mm and  = 1/2 mm

(i) Find the distance between the first and central maxima on the screen.
(ii) Find the no of maxima and minima obtained on the screen.
Solution : (i) D >> d
d
Hence P = d sin  = 2,

d
clearly, n << = 2 is not possible for any value of n.
 S1 y
dy 
Hence p = cannot be used d
D S2
D
for Ist maxima,
p = d sin  =  Figure 4.7
 1
 sin  = =
d 2
  = 30º
1
Hence, y = D tan  = meter
3
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 Wave Optics
(ii) Maximum path difference Pmax = d = 1 mm
d
 Highest order maxima, nmax =   = 2
 
 d 1
and highest order minima nmin =    = 2
 2
Total no. of maxima = 2nmax + 1* = 5 *(central maxima).
Total no. of minima = 2nmin = 4
Example 5. Monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 Aº is used in Y.D.S.E., with slit-width, d = 1mm,
distance between screen and slits, D = 1m. If intensity at the two slits are, 1 = 40,2 = 0, find
(i) fringe width 
(ii) distance of 5th minima from the central maxima on the screen
1
(iii) Intensity at y = mm
3
(iv) Distance of the 1000th maxima from the central maxima on the screen.
(v) Distance of the 5000th maxima from the central maxima on the screen.
D 5000  1010  1
Solution : (i)   = = = 0.5 mm
d 1 103
D
(ii) y = (2n – 1) ,n=5  
2d
     y = 2.25 mm
1 d.y
(iii) At y = mm, y << D Hence p =
3 D
2 dy 4
 = p = 2 =
 D 3
Now resultant intensity
4
 = 1 + 2 + 2 1 2 cos  = 40 + 0 + 2 402 cos  = 5I0 + 4I0 cos = 30
3
d 103
(iv) = = 2000
 0.5  106
n = 1000 is not << 2000
Hence now p = d sin  must be used
 1
Hence, d sin  = n = 1000  sin  = 1000 =   = 30º
d 2
y = D tan  = meter
(v) Highest order maxima
d
nmax =   = 2000. Hence, n = 5000 is not possible.
 

———————————————————————————————————
5. SHAPE OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES IN YDSE
We discuss the shape of fringes when two pinholes are used instead of the two slits in YDSE.
Fringes are locus of points which move in such a way that Y
its path difference from the two slits remains constant.  = 3
S
S2P – S1P =  = constant ....(5.1)  = 2
1

 =
If  = ± , the fringe represents 1st minima. =0 X
2
 = -
3  = -2
If  = ± it represents 2nd minima S
2 2

If  = 0 it represents central maxima, Figure : 5.1

If  = ± , it represents 1st maxima etc.
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Equation (5.1) represents a hyperbola with its two foci at S1 and S2
The interference pattern which we get on screen is the section of hyperboloid of revolution when we
revolve the hyperbola about the axis S1S2.
A. If the screen is perpendicular to the X axis, i.e. in the YZ plane, as is generally the case, fringes are
hyperbolic with a straight central section.
B. If the screen is in the XY plane, again fringes are hyperbolic.
C. If screen is perpendicular to Y axis (along S1S2), ie in the XZ plane, fringes are concentric circles

with center on the axis S1S2; the central fringe is bright if S1S2 = n and dark if S1S2 = (2n – 1) .
2
Y

Z Y

X
Y X

A B C
Figure : 5.2

6. YDSE WITH WHITE LIGHT

The central maxima will be white because all wavelengths will constructively interference here.
However slightly below (or above) the position of central maxima fringes will be coloured. For example

if P is a point on the screen such that S2P – S1P = violet = 190 nm,
2
completely destructive interference will occur for violet light. Hence we will have a line devoid of violet

colour that will appear reddish. And if S2P–S1P = red  350 nm,
2
completely destructive interference for red light results and the line at this position will be violet. The coloured
fringes disappear at points far away from the central white fringe; for these points there are so many
wavelengths which interfere constructively, that we obtain a uniform white illumination. for example if
S2P – S1 P = 3000 nm,
3000
then constructive interference will occur for wavelengths  = nm. In the visible region these
n
wavelength are 750 nm (red), 600 nm (yellow), 500 nm (greenish–yellow), 428.6 nm (violet). Clearly
such a light will appear white to the unaided eye.
Thus with white light we get a white central fringe at the point of zero path difference, followed by a few
coloured fringes on its both sides, the color soon fading off to a uniform white.
In the usual interference pattern with a monochromatic source, a large number of identical interference
fringes are obtained and it is usually not possible to determine the position of central maxima.
Interference with white light is used to determine the position of central maxima in such cases.

Example 6. A beam of light consisting of wavelengths 6000Å and 4500Å is used in a YDSE with D = 1m
and d = 1 mm. Find the least distance from the central maxima, where bright fringes due to the
two wavelengths coincide.
D 6000  1010  1 D
Solution: 1 = 1 = 3
= 0.6 mm ; 2 = 2 = 0.45 mm
d 10 d
Let n1th maxima of 1 and n2th maxima of 2 coincide at a position y.
then, y = n1  1 = n2 2 = LCM of 1 and 2
 y = LCM of 0.6 mm and 0.45 mm
y = 1.8 mm Ans.
At this point 3rd maxima for 6000 Å & 4th maxima for 4500 Å coincide
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Wave Optics
Example 7. White light is used in a YDSE with D = 1m and d = 0.9 mm. Light reaching the screen at
position y = 1 mm is passed through a prism and its spectrum is obtained. Find the missing
lines in the visible region of this spectrum.
yd
Solution : p = = 9 × 10–4 × 1 × 10–3 m = 900 nm
D
for minima p = (2n – 1)/2
2P 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800
 = = = , , , ........
(2n  1) (2n  1) 1 3 5 7
of these 600 nm and 360 nm lie in the visible range. Hence these will be missing lines in the
visible spectrum.

———————————————————————————————————
7. GEOMETRICAL PATH & OPTICAL PATH
Actual distance travelled by light in a medium is called geometrical path (x). Consider a light wave
given by the equation
E = E0 sin (t – kx + )

If the light travels by x, its phase changes by kx = x, where , the frequency of light does not
v
c
depend on the medium, but v, the speed of light depends on the medium as v = .


Consequently, change in phase  = kx = (x)
c
It is clear that a wave travelling a distance x in a medium of refractive index  suffers the same phase
change as when it travels a distance x in vacuum. i.e., a path length of x in medium of refractive
index  is equivalent to a path length of x in vacuum.
The quantity x is called the optical path length of light, xopt. And in terms of optical path length,
phase difference would be given by,
 2
 = xopt = xopt .... (7.1)
c 0
where 0 = wavelength of light in vacuum. However in terms of the geometrical path length x,
 2
 = (x) = x .....(7.2)
c 

where  = wavelength of light in the medium ( = 0 ).

7.1 Displacement of fringe : On introduction of a glass slab in the path of the light coming out of the slits–
On introduction of the thin glass-slab of thickness t and refractive index , the optical path of the ray S1P
increases by t( – 1). Now the path difference between waves coming form S1 and S2 at any point P is
p = S2P – (S1P + t ( – 1)) = (S2P –S1P) – t( – 1)
P
 p = d sin  – t ( – 1) if d << D
yd
and p = – t( – 1) If y << D as well.
D
S1 O'
yd
for central bright fringe, p = 0  = t( – 1).
D d
D  S2 O
 y = OO’ = ( – 1)t = ( – 1) t .
d 
The whole fringe pattern gets shifted by the same distance
D
D 
 = ( – 1) . = ( – 1)t . Figure : 7.1
d 

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* Notice that this shift is in the direction of the slit before which the glass slab is placed. If the glass
slab is placed before the upper slit, the fringe pattern gets shifted upwards and if the glass slab is
placed before the lower slit the fringe pattern gets shifted downwards.

Example 8. In a YDSE with d = 1mm and D = 1m, slabs of (t = 1m,  = 3) and (t = 0.5 m,  = 2) are
introduced in front of upper and lower slit respectively. Find the shift in the fringe pattern.
Solution : Optical path for light coming from upper slit S1 is
S1P + 1m (2 – 1) = S2P + 0.5 m
Similarly optical path for light coming from S2 is
S2P + 0.5 m (2 – 1) = S2P + 0.5 m
yd
Path difference : p = (S2P + 0.5 m) – (S1P + 2m) = (S2P – S1P) – 1.5 m. = – 1.5 m
D
for central bright fringe p = 0
1.5m
 y= × 1m = 1.5 mm.
1mm
The whole pattern is shifted by 1.5 mm upwards. Ans.

———————————————————————————————————
8. YDSE WITH OBLIQUE INCIDENCE
In YDSE, ray is incident on the slit at an inclination of 0 to the axis of symmetry of the experimental set-up
for points above the central point on the screen, (say for P1)
p =d sin0 + (S2 P1 – S1P1)
 p = d sin0 + dsin1 (If d << D)
and for points below O on the screen, (say for P2)
p = |(dsin 0 + S2P2) – S1P2| = |d sin 0 – (S1P2 – S2P2)|
 p = |d sin 0 – d sin2| (if d << D)
We obtain central maxima at a point where, p = 0.
(d sin 0 – d sin2 ) = 0 or 2 = 0.
This corresponds to the point O’ in the diagram. Hence we have finally for path difference.

d(sin 0  sin )  for points above O


p = d(sin 0  sin )  for points between O&O' ... (8.1)
d(sin  sin  )  for points below O'
 0

Example 9. In YDSE with D = 1m, d = 1mm, light of wavelength 500 nm is

incident at an angle of 0.57º w.r.t. the axis of symmetry of the S1 P
experimental set up. If centre of symmetry of screen is O as shown. 0.57º y
(i) find the position of central maxima S2 O
(ii) Intensity at point O in terms of intensity of central maxima 0.
(iii) Number of maxima lying between O and the central maxima.
Figure : 8.2
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Solution : (i)  = 0 = 0.57º
 0.57 
 y = –D tan  – D = – 1 meter ×  rad 
 57 
 y = – 1cm.
(ii) for point 0,  = 0
Hence, p = d sin 0 ; d0 = 1 mm × (10–2 rad) = 10,000 nm = 20 × (500 nm)
 p = 20 
Hence point O corresponds to 20th maxima
 intensity at O = 0
(iii) 19 maxima lie between central maxima and O, excluding maxima at O and central maxima.
———————————————————————————————————
9. THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE
In YDSE we obtained two coherent source from a single (incoherent) source by division of wave-front.
Here we do the same by division of Amplitude (into reflected and refracted wave).
When a plane wave (parallel rays) is incident normally on a thin film of uniform thickness d then waves
reflected from the upper surface interfere with waves reflected from the lower surface.
Incident & Reflected light

Air

d 

Air

Transmitted light
Figure : 9.1
Clearly the wave reflected from the lower surface travel an extra optical path of 2d, where  is
refractive index of the film.
Further if the film is placed in air the wave reflected from the upper surface (from a denser medium)
suffers a sudden phase change of , while the wave reflected from the lower surface (from a rarer
medium) suffers no such phase change.
Consequently condition for constructive and destructive interference in the reflected light is given by,
2d = n for destructive interference
and 2d = (n + ) for constructive interference ....(9.1)
where n = 0, 1, 2 ..............,
and  = wavelength in free space.
Interference will also occur in the transmitted light and here condition of constructive and destructive
interference will be the reverse of (9.1)
n for constructive interference

i.e. 2d =  1 ....(9.2)
(n  2  ) for destructive interference

This can easily be explained by energy conservation (when intensity is maximum in reflected light it has
to be minimum in transmitted light) However the amplitude of the directly transmitted wave and the
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wave transmitted after one reflection differ substantially and hence the fringe contrast in transmitted
light is poor. It is for this reason that thin film interference is generally viewed only in the reflected light.
In deriving equation (9.1) we assumed that the medium surrounding the thin film on both sides is rarer
compared to the medium of thin film.
If medium on both sides are denser, then there is no sudden phase change in the wave reflected from
the upper surface, but there is a sudden phase change of  in waves reflected from the lower surface.
The conditions for constructive and destructive interference in reflected light would still be given by
equation 9.1.
However if medium on one side of the film in denser and that on the other side is rarer, then either there
is no sudden phase in any reflection, or there is a sudden phase change of  in both reflection from
upper and lower surface. Now the condition for constructive and destructive interference in the reflected
light would be given by equation 9.2 and not equation 9.1.

Example 10. White light, with a uniform intensity across the visible wavelength range 430–690 nm, is
perpendicularly incident on a water film, of index of refraction  = 1.33 and thickness
d = 320 nm, that is suspended in air. At what wavelength  is the light reflected by the film
brightest to an observer?
Solution : This situation is like that of Figure (9.1), for which equation (9.1) gives the interference maxima.
Solving for  and inserting the given data, we obtain
2d (2)(1.33)(320nm) 851nm
= = =
m  1/ 2 m  1/ 2 m  1/ 2
for m = 0, this give us  = 1700 nm, which is in the infrared region. For m = 1, we find
 = 567 nm, which is yellow-green light, near the middle of the visible spectrum. For m = 2,
 = 340 nm, which is in the ultraviolet region. So the wavelength at which the light seen by the
observer is brightest is  = 567 nm. Ans.
Example 11. A glass lens is coated on one side with a thin film of magnesium fluoride (MgF 2) to reduce
reflection from the lens surface (figure). The index of refraction of MgF 2 is 1.38; that of the glass
is 1.50. What is the least coating thickness that eliminates (via interference) the reflections at
the middle of the visible spectrum ( = 550 nm)? Assume the light is approximately
perpendicular to the lens surface.
Solution : The situation here differs from figure (9.1) in that n3 > n2 > n1. The reflection at point a still
introduces a phase difference of but now the reflection at point b also does the same (see
figure 9.2). Unwanted reflections from glass can be, suppressed (at a chosen wavelength) by
coating the glass with a thin transparent film of magnesium fluoride of a properly chosen
thickness which introduces a phase change of half a wavelength. For this, the path length
difference 2L within the film must be equal to an odd number of half wavelengths:
Air MgF2 Glass
n1=1.00 n2=1.33 n3=1.50
r2

r1
c
 b
 a
L
i

Figure : 9.2
2L = (m + 1/2)n2, or, with n2 = /n2, 2n2 L = (m + 1/2).
We want the least thickness for the coating, that is, the smallest L. Thus we choose m = 0, the
smallest value of m. Solving for L and inserting the given data, we obtain
 550nm
L= = = 96.6 nm Ans.
4n2 (4)(1.38)

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———————————————————————————————————
10 HUYGENS' CONSTRUCTION
Huygens, the Dutch physicist and astronomer of the seventeenth century, gave a beautiful geometrical
description of wave propagation. We can guess that he must have seen water waves many times in the
canals of his native place Holland. A stick placed in water and oscillated up and down becomes a
source of waves. Since the surface of water is two dimensional, the resulting wavefronts would be
circles instead of spheres. At each point on such a circle, the water level moves up and down. Huygens'
idea is that we can think of every such oscillating point on a wavefront as a new source of waves.
According to Huygens' principle, what we observe is the result of adding up the waves from all these
different sources. These are called secondary waves or wavelets.
F1 F2

A1 A2

B1 B2

C1 C2

D1 D2

Figure : 10.1
Huygens' principle is illustrated in (Figure : 10.1) in the simple case of a plane wave.
(i) At time t = 0, we have a wavefront F1, F1 separates those parts of the medium which are
undisturbed from those where the wave has already reached.
(ii) Each point on F1 acts like a new source and sends out a spherical wave. After a time ‘t’ each of
these will have radius vt. These spheres are the secondary wavelets.
(iii) After a time t, the disturbance would now have reached all points within the region covered by all
these secondary waves. The boundary of this region is the new wavefront F 2. Notice that F2 is a
surface tangent to all the spheres. It is called the forward envelope of these secondary wavelets.
(iv) The secondary wavelet from the point A1 on F1 touches F2 at A2. Draw the line connecting any point
A1 on F1 to the corresponding point A2 on F2. According to Huygens, A1 A2 is a ray. It is
perpendicular to the wavefronts F1 and F2 and has length vt. This implies that rays are
perpendicular to wavefronts. Further, the time taken for light to travel between two wavefronts Is the
same along any ray. In our example, the speed ‘v’ of the wave has been taken to be the same at all
points in the medium. In this case, we can say that the distance between two wavefronts is the
same measured along any ray.
(v) This geometrical construction can be repeated starting with F 2 to get the next wavefront F 3 a time t
later, and so on. This is known as Huygens' construction.
Huygens' construction can be understood physically for waves in a material medium, like the
surface of water. Each oscillating particle can set its neighbors into oscillation, and therefore acts
as a secondary source. But what if there is no medium, as for light travelling in vacuum? The
mathematical theory, which cannot be given here, shows that the same geometrical construction
works in this case as well.

10.1 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION.

We can use a modified form of Huygens' construction to understand reflection and refraction of light.
Figure (10.2a) shows an incident wavefront which makes an angle ‘i’ with the surface separating two
media, for example, air and water. The phase speeds in the two media are v 1 and v2. We can see that
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when the point A on the incident wavefront strikes the surface, the point B still has to travel a distance
BC = AC sin i, and this takes a time t = BC/v1 = AC (sin i) / v1. After a time t, a secondary wavefront of
radius v2t with A as centre would have travelled into medium 2. The secondary wavefront with C as
centre would have just started, i.e. would have zero radius. We also show a secondary wavelet
originating from a point D in between A and C. Its radius is less than v 2t. The wavefront in medium 2 is
thus a line passing through C and tangent to the circle centred on A. We can see that the angle r' made
by this refracted wavefront with the surface is given by AE = v2t = AC sin r'. Hence, t = AC (sin r'} / v2.
Equating the two expressions for ‘t’ gives us the law of refraction in the form sin i/sin r' = v 1/v2. A similar
picture is drawn in Fig. (10.2 b) for the reflected wave which travels back into medium 1. In this case,
we denote the angle made by the reflected wavefront with the surface by r, and we find that i = r. Notice
that for both reflection and refraction, we use secondary wavelets starting at different times. Compare
this with the earlier application (Fig.10.1) where we start them at the same time.
The preceding argument gives a good physical picture of how the refracted and reflected waves are
built up from secondary wavelets. We can also understand the laws of reflection and refraction using
the concept that the time taken by light to travel along different rays from one wavefront to another must
be the same. (Fig. ) Shows the incident and reflected wavefronts when a parallel beam of light falls on a
plane surface. One ray POQ is shown normal to both the reflected and incident wavefronts. The angle
of incidence i and the angle of reflection r are defined as the angles made by the incident and reflected
rays with the normal. As shown in Fig. (c), these are also the angles between the wavefront and the
surface.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure : 10.2
(Fig.) (a) Huygens' construction for the (a) refracted wave. (b) Reflected wave. (c) Calculation of
propagation time between wavefronts in (i) reflection and (ii) refraction.
We now calculate the total time to go from one wavefront to another along the rays. From Fig. (c), we
have, we have Total time for light to reach from P to Q
PO OQ AO sini OB sinr OA sini  (AB – OA)sinr ABsinr  OA(sini  sinr)
= + = + = =
v1 v1 v1 v1 v1 v1
Different rays normal to the incident wavefront strike the surface at different points O and hence have
different values of OA. Since the time should be the same for all the rays, the right side of equation
must actually be Independent of OA. The condition, for this to happen is that the coefficient of OA in Eq.
(should be zero, i.e., sin i = sin r. We, thus have the law of reflection, i = r. Figure also shows refraction
at a plane surface separating medium 1 (speed of light v1) from medium 2 (speed of light v2). The
incident and refracted wavefronts are shown, making angles i and r' with the boundary. Angle r' is called
the angle of refraction. Rays perpendicular to these are also drawn. As before, let us calculate the time
taken to travel between the two wavefronts along any ray.
PO OR
Time taken from P to R = +
v1 v2
OA sini (AC – OA)sinr ' ACsin r '  sini sinr ' 
= + = + OA   
v1 v2 v2  v1 v2 
This time should again be independent of which ray we consider. The coefficient of OA in Equation is,
sini v1
therefore, zero,. That is, = = n21
sinr ' v 2
where n21 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1. This is the Snell's law of,
refraction that we have already dealt with from Eq. n21 is the ratio of speed of light in the first medium

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(v1) to that in the second medium (v2). Equation is, known as the Snell's law of refraction. If the first
sini c
medium is vacuum, we have = = n2
sinr ' v 2
where n2 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to vacuum, also called the absolute refractive
index of the medium. A similar equation defines absolute refractive index n1 of the first medium. From
v c   c  n
Eq. we then get n21 = 1 =   /   = 2
v 2  n1   n2  n1
The absolute refractive index of air is about 1.0003, quite close to 1. Hence, for all practical purposes,
absolute refractive index of a medium may be taken with respect to air. For water, n1 = 1.33, which
c
means v1 = , i.e. about 0.75 times the speed of light in vacuum. The measurement of the speed of
1.33
light in water by Foucault (1850) confirmed this prediction of the wave theory.
Once we have the laws of reflection and refraction, the behaviour of prisms. lenses, and mirrors can be
understood. These topics are discussed in detail in the previous Chapter. Here we just describe the
behaviour of the wavefronts in these three cases (Fig.)
(i) Consider a plane wave passing through a thin prism. Clearly, the portion of the incoming wavefront
which travels through the greatest thickness of glass has been delayed the most. Since light travels
more slowly in glass. This explains the tilt in the emerging wavefront.
(ii) Similarly, the central part of an incident plane wave traverses the thickest portion of a convex lens
and is delayed the most. The emerging wavefront has a depression at the centre. It is
spherical and converges to a focus,
(iii) A concave mirror produces a similar effect. The centre of the wavefront has to travel a greater
distance before and after getting reflected, when compared to the edge. This again produces a
converging spherical wavefront.
(iv) Concave lenses and convex mirrors can be understood from time delay arguments in a similar
manner. One interesting property which is obvious from the pictures of wavefronts is that the total
time taken from a point on the object to the corresponding point on the image is the same
measured along any ray (Fig.). For example, when a convex lens focuses light to form a real
image, it may seem that rays going through the centre are shorter. But because of the slower
speed in glass, the time taken is the same as for rays travelling near the edge of the lens.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure : 10.3
11. RESOLVING POWER (R.P.)
A large number of images are formed as consequence of light diffraction of from a source. If two
sources are separated such that their central maxima do not overlap, their images can be distinguished
and are said to be resolved R.P. of an optical instrument is its ability to distinguish two neighbouring
points.
Linear R.P. d / D here D = Observed distance
Angular R.P. d /    d = Distance between two points,
(1) Microscope : In reference to a microscope, the minimum distance between two lines at which they
are just distinct is called Resolving limit (RL) and it's reciprocal is called Resolving power (RPO)

Figure : 11.1

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 2 sin  1
R.L. = and R.P. =  R.P. 
2 sin   
= Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object
 = Refractive index of the medium between object and objective.
= Half angle of the cone of light from the point object, sin = Numerical aperture.
(2) Astronomical telescope : The ability of an astronomical telescope to form separate and magnified
image of two neighbouring astronomical objects is called its resolving power.
The least distance between two neighbouring objects for which telescope can form separate
images is called the limit of resolution.
1.22
The angular limit of resolution of a telescope is given by  =
d
where  = wavelength of light used
d = diameter of aperture of objective lens.
Resolving power is the reciprocal of limit of resolution.
d
   Resolving power =
1.22
(i) As resolving power d. Therefore, resolving power of the telescope increases on increasing
diameter of the aperture of the objects lens
1
(ii) As resolving power  therefore, resolving power of the telescope decreases on increasing

the wavelength of the light used
(iii) Resolving power of a telescope is independent of the focal length of the objective lens. Hence,
on increasing the focal length of the objective lens, resolving power remains unchanged.

Problem 1. Two light waves are given by, E1 = 2 sin (100t – kx + 30º) and E2 = 3 cos (200t – kx + 60º).
The ratio of intensity of first wave to that of second wave is :
2 4 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 9 9 3
Answer : (B)
I1 22
Solution : I A2    = 2 =4/9
I2 3
Problem 2. Figure shows two, identical narrow slits S1 and S2. A very small completely absorbing strip is
placed at distance ‘y’ from the point C. ‘C’ is the point on the screen equidistant from S 1 and S2.
Assume  < < d < < D where , d and D have usual meaning. When S2 is covered the force due
to light acting on strip is ‘f’ and when both slits are opened the force acting on strip is 2f. Find
the minimum positive ‘y’ (<< D) coordinate of the strip in terms of , d and D.
completely
absorbing strip

S1 y
d
(0, 0) D C
S2
l Screen

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Solution : Let 0 be the intensity at P due to individual slits S1 or S2. When waves due to both the sources
superpose at P, the net intensity at P is
y D
 = 40 cos2 where  = . Since force on strip at P is twice due to individual source.
 d

Hence  = 20
y 1 y   D
 cos2 = or = or y= = Ans.
 2  4 4 4d
Problem 3. A Young’s double slit experiment is conducted in water (1) as shown in the figure, and a glass
plate of thickness t and refractive index 2 is placed in the path of S2. The magnitude of the
phase difference at O is : (Assume that ‘’ is the wavelength of light in air). O is symmetrical
w.r.t. S1 and S2.

 2  2   2 2 2
(A)   1 t (B)  1  1 t (C) |((2 – 1) t| (D) |(2 – 1) t |
 1    2    
Answer : (C)
2
Solution : Here path difference will be : x = (2 – 1) t  = (2 – 1) t

Hence (C)
Problem 4. A light ray is incident normal to a thin layer of glass. In the given figure, what is the minimum
thickness of the glass so that the reflected light gives destructive interference (air = 600 nm) ?

light
ray air n = 1.00

t glass n = 1.50

water n = 1.33
(A) 50 nm (B) 100 nm (C) 150 nm (D*) 200 nm
Solution : For reflected light to have orangish color, rays from A, C, E must be out of phase for  = 600
air (rare)
reflected light

glass
A C E

(dense)
(rare) B D transmitted light
water
  
or  = (2n – 1) or 2gt – = (2n – 1)
2 2 2
n 
or t = or tmin = = 200 nm
2 g 2 g

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Problem 5. Plane of transmission of two polarids are perpendicular to each other. If one of them is rotated
through 60º, then what percentage of the incident unpolarised light will be transmitted at final
emergence by the polaroids ?
(A) 50% (B) 62.5 % (C) 37.5% (D) 12.5 %
Answer : (C)
Solution : Initially the polaroids are crossed to each other, that is the angle between their polarising
directions is 90º. When one is rotated through 60º, then the angle between their polarising
directions directions will become 30º.
Let the intensity of the incident unpolarised light = I0
This light is plane polarised and passes through the second polaroid.
The intensity of light emerging form the second polaroid is I2 = I1 cos2
 = the angle between the polarising directions of the two polaroids.
1 I 3
I1 = I0 and = 30º so I2 = I1 cos230º  2 = 
2 I0 8
I2 3
    transmission percentage = × 100 =  × 100 = 37.5%
I0 8
Problem 6. (a) The diameter of pupil of eye varies from person to person and also depends on illumination.
However, assuming its average value to be 2 mm, find the angular limit of resolution of human eye
for a wavelength 550 nm. Also assume that resolution is limited only by diffraction.
(b) Using the information obtained above, find the maximum distance at which the eye will be
able to resolve the two headlights of an approaching car which are 1.5 m apart.
Solution : (a) For diffraction at a circular aperture, angular limit of resolution can be expressed as,

R = 1.22 [d is the (diameter) of the aperture]
d
Here  = 550 nm = 550 × 10–9 m
d = 2mm = 2 × 10–3 m
550  109
 R = 1.22  radian = 3.35 × 10–4 radian = 1.92 × 10–2 degree
2  103
 R = 1.15' (minute)
(b) Angle subtended at the eye by the separation between the headlights,
1.5
 [for small ]
D
The headlights cannot be resolved if
 < R
1.5
or if  3.35  104
D
[R = 3.35 × 10–4 radian. In SI system, angle has to be measured in radian.]
1.5
     D>  D > 4477.6 m
3.35  10 4
Hence maximum distance, for which resolution is possible is 4477.6 m.
Problem 7. A laser beam of 10 mW power and wavelength 7000Å has aperture 3mm. If it is focused by a
lens of focal length 5 cm, calculate the area and intensity of image.
Solution : According to theory of diffraction at circular aperture
 7  107
  1.22  1.22   2.85  104 rad
d 3  103
Now, if r is the radius of image formed by the lens at its focus,  = (r/f)
r = f = (5 × 10–2) × (2.85 × 10–4) = 14.25 × 10–6 m
and so, A = r2 = 3.14 (14.25 × 10–6)2 ~
_ 6.4 × 10–10 m2

E P 10  103 MW kW
and so, I    10
 15.6   1.56
St S 6.4  10 m cm

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Wave Optics
Problem 8. A mixture of plane polarized and unpolarised light falls normally on a polarizing sheet. On
rotating the polarizing sheet about the direction of the incident beam, the (transmitted intensity)
varies by a factor of 4. Find the ratio of the intensities Ip and I0, repectively, of the polarized and
unpolarised components in the incident beam. Next the axis of the polarising sheet is fixed at
an angle of 45° with the direction when the transmitted intensity is maximum. Then obtain the
total intensity of the transmitted beam in terms of I0.
Solution : The transmitted intensity of unpolarised light will be constant for all the orientations of the
polarsised sheet whereas intensity of polarised light will be expressed by the law of Malus,
I'p = Ip.cos2
Let us consider the intensity of transmitted, polarized and unpolarised component to be I' p and
I'0 respectively.
I
For  = /2, I'p = 0 and for  = 0°, I'p = Ip while for all orientations I'0 = 0
2
I0 I0
From given condition, Imax = IP + when  = 0° and Imin = when  = /2
2 2
I I 3I IP 3
 IP + 0 = 4 . 0 or IP = 0 i.e., 
2 2 2 I0 2
I0 3I 1 I 5I
For  = 45°, I = IP cos245° + = 0  0 = 0 Ans.
2 2 2 2 4

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