Anurag University

Department of Physics
Applied Physics Lab

List of Experiments
1. NEWTON’S RINGS ................................................................................................................... 1

2. DIFFRACTION GRATING –MINIMUM DEVIATION .......................................................... 3

3. DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT ....................................................................................... 5

4. ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR .............................................................................. 7

5. DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM ....................................................................................... 9

6. C-R CIRCUIT ........................................................................................................................... 11

7. SOLAR CELL .......................................................................................................................... 13

8. NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER .......................................................... 15

9. LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER ................................................................................................ 17

10. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE CHARACTERSTICS ............................................................... 19

11. LASER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................. 21

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1. NEWTON’S RINGS
Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens, by forming Newton Rings.
Apparatus: Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, a plano-convex lens, plane glass plate,
magnifying lens.
D − Dn
2 2
slope
Formula: R= m = cm, where p = m-n
4p 4
Where Dm- is the diameter of the mth ring
Dn- is the diameter of the nth ring
R - is the radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens
λ - is the wavelength of the sodium vapor lamp (5893°A)
m & n are the order of rings
Experimental setup:

Arrangement of Newton’s Ring

Procedure:
• Clean the plate P1 and lens L thoroughly and put the lens over the plate with the curved
surface below P2 making an angle with L(see fig 1).
• Switch on the monochromatic light source. This sends a parallel beam of light. This beam
of light gets reflected by plate P2 falls on lens L.
• Look down vertically from above the lens and see whether the center is well-illuminated.
On looking through the microscope, a spot with rings around it can be seen properly
focusing the microscope.
• Once good rings are in focus, rotate the eyepiece such that out of the two perpendicular
cross wires, one has its length parallel to the direction of travel of the microscope. Let
this cross wire also passes through the center of the ring system.
• Now move the microscope to focus on a ring (say, the 10th order dark ring). On one side
of the center. Set the crosswire tangential to one ring as shown in fig 3. Note down the
microscope reading.

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• Move the microscope to make the crosswire tangential to the next ring nearer to the
center and note the reading. Continue with this process till you pass through the center.
Take readings for an equal number of rings on both sides of the center.

Model graph: Plot the graph of D2 Vs n and draw the straight line of best fit.
D − Dn
2 2

From the slope of the graph, calculate the value m where p=m-n.
p

Observations:
• Least count of vernier of traveling microscope = ___________________cm
• The wavelength of light = 5893Χ10-8cm

Table 1: Measurement of the diameter of the ring

Order of Microscope reading Diameter
the ring LEFT RIGHT
S.N MSR VC DL=MSR+ MSR VC DR=MSR+ D= DL ~ DR (cm) D2 (cm2)
o
(n)
(VC*LC) (VC*LC)
1 12 (cm) (cm)

2 10
3 8
4 6
5 4
6 2

Result: The radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens is -----------------------------

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2. DIFFRACTION GRATING –MINIMUM DEVIATION

Aim: - To determine the Wavelength of a given Sodium light using diffraction grating with the
Minimum deviation method.

Apparatus: spectrometer, sodium vapor lamp, grating.

Formula: The wavelength of the given Sodium light is determined by

Å
N Number of lines on the grating per inch = (15000/2.54) cm.
n the Order of the Spectrum
Dm the angle of minimum deviation
Procedure:
• The direct image of the slit is observed through the telescope. The point of intersection of
the cross wires is set on the sharp image of the slit. The vernier table is fixed and the
reading on the circular scale is noted (adjusting to 0o and 1800 is called Direct reading).
• The prism table is released from the vernier table. The telescope is turned on one Side
(say right) and the first order-diffracted image is observed.
• The prism table is slowly rotated to the right as it is slowly rotated to the right side, the
image first moves towards the left, reaches a limiting position, and then retraces its path.
• In this limiting position, the telescope is fixed such that the point of intersection of the
crosswire is on the D1 line and the reading on the vernier I & vernier II is noted.
• The difference between the direct reading and this reading gives the angle of minimum
deviation `for the D1 line in the first-order spectrum.
• Similarly, the angle of deviation for the D2 line in the first order was noted. Next, the
angle of minimum deviation for the D1and D2 lines in the second-order spectrum is found
similarly the results are tabulated in the table.

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Precautions:
• The experiment should be performed in a dark room.
• A micrometer screw should be used for fine adjustment of the telescope. For fine
adjustment, the telescope should be first licked using the head screw.
• The directions of rotation of the micrometer screw should be maintained otherwise the
play in the micrometer spindle might lead to errors.
Observations Table:
The least count of the vernier of the spectrometer, LC = 1’
Direct reading VDL =
VDR =

Telescope Reading at minimum deviation position The angle of minimum deviation

Spectr
al line VL VR
DL= D R= D m=
MSR VC MSR+(VCΧ LC) MSR VC MSR+(VCΧ LC) VL~VDL VR~ VDR ( DL+ DR)/2

D1

D2

Result: The wavelength of sodium light radiation () for the D1 line is------------------ Å
The D2 line is-------------------- Å

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3. DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT

Aim: To determine the slit width of a single slit by using a Laser.
Apparatus: semiconductor laser, Single Slit, Screen, Scale, etc.
Formula: asin = m (for minima) (OR)
asin = (m+1/2) (for maxima)
Diagram:

Procedure:
• Set up the single slit in front of the He-Ne laser which has a wavelength of 633 nm.
• Record the distance from the slit to the screen, L.
• For each of the slits, measure and record a value for y on the viewing screen
corresponding to the center of a bright region.
• Record as many distances, y, for different values of m as you can.
• Use the largest three or four values for m which you can observe to find a value for a.
• Pull a hair from your head. Mount it vertically in front of the laser using a piece of tape.
Place the hair in front of the laser and observe the diffraction around the hair. Use the
formula above to estimate the thickness of the hair, a. (The hair is not a slit but light
similarly diffracts around its edges.) Repeat with observations of your lab partners' hair.
Precautions: Look through the slit (holding it very close to your eye). See if you can see the
effects of diffraction. Set the laser on the table and aim it at the viewing screen. DO NOT
LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE LASER OR AIM IT AT ANYONE! DO NOT LET
REFLECTIONS BOUNCE AROUND THE ROOM.

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Small Angle Approximation: The formulae given above are derived using the small angle
approximation. For small angles  (given in radians) it is a good approximation to say that  
y
sin  tan (for  in radians). For the figures shown above this means that   sin  tan =
L
Observations:
Table: for maxima
L = 40 - 50 cm
 = 633x10-7 cm

Order of y cm
sinθtanθ
Diffraction
Left (YL) Right (YR) Y = (YL+YR)/2 = Y/L a=[(m+1/2)] / sin
Maxima (m)

Avg

Result: Slit width (a) = ……….cm

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4. ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

Aim: - To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor by using p-n junction diode

Apparatus: - Germanium diode, Thermometer, Copper Vessel, Micro ammeter, Heater and
connecting wires

Formula: The energy gap of a semiconductor is

Eg = 1.725  slope 10−4 eV

Circuit diagram:

Procedure: -
• Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
• Pour some oil into the copper vessel. Fix the diode to the bakelite lid and it is fixed to the
copper vessel, a hole is provided on the lid such that it is reverse biased and a
thermometer is inserted into the vessel.
• With the help of a heater, heat the copper vessel till the temperature reaches up to 80oC.
• Note the current reading at 80oC apply a suitable voltage say 1.5v (which is kept
constant)
• Note the corresponding currently with every 5oC fall of temperature, till the temperature
reaches room temperature.

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Graph:
A graph is plotted between l /T (K) on X-axis and lnR on Y-axis is a straight line and
cuts Y-axis.

Precautions: Do not allow the temperature to rise 100oC if you switch off the heater at 80oC
it will keep on rising for a few minutes and may go up to 85/90 degrees before stabilizing/falling.

Observations:
V= 1.5 Volt

Temp in T= t + 273 Current (I) R=V/I in

Co in K µA A Ω lnR 1/T in K

Result: The energy gap of a semiconductor is (Eg) = ……eV

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5. DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM

Aim: To determine the dispersive power of a prism by the spectrometer.

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury Vapor Lamp & Prism

Formula: The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by

 A + Dm 
sin 
=  2  ------------------------- (1)
sin ( A / 2 )
Where A is the angle of the equilateral prism and
Dm is the angle of minimum deviation The dispersive power (ω) of the
material of the prism is given by
 − R
= V ____________ (2)
 −1
Where  v = the refractive index of the violet rays
 R = the refractive index of the red ray and
 + R
= V ; the mean of  v and  r
2
Diagram:

Arrangement of prism for dispersive power

Procedure:
• The telescope is focused on the direct ray (undeviated path) and the reading in vernier I
and vernier II are noted as direct readings. For our convenience, we adjust direct readings
to 0o and 180o
• The prism is placed on the prism table with the ground surface of the prism on the left or
right side of the collimator. Care is to be taken to see that the ground surface of the prism
does not face either the collimator or the telescope. The vernier table is then fixed with
the help of the vernier screw.
• The ray of light passing through the collimator strikes the polished surface BC of the
prism at ‘a’ and undergoes deviation along as and emerges out of the prism from the face
AC.
• The deviated ray (continuous spectrum) is seen through the telescope in position T2.
• Looking at the spectrum the prism table is now slowly moved onto one side so that the
spectrum moves towards the undeviated path of the beam.

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• The deviated ray (spectrum) also moves onto the same side for some time and then the
ray starts turning back even though the prism table is moved in the same direction. The
point at which the ray starts turning back is called the minimum deviation position. In the
spectrum, it is sufficient if one color is adjusted for minimum deviation position. In this
limiting position of the spectrum, the deviation is minimum.
• The telescope is now fixed on the violet color and the tangent screw is slowly operated
until the point of intersection of the cross wire is exactly on the image.
• The reading for the violet color is noted in vernier I and vernier II and tabulated. The
reading is called the minimum deviation reading for the violet color. The telescope is
now moved to the red colour and the readings are taken as explained for the violet color.
• The difference of readings between the deviated reading for the violet color and the direct
reading gives the θ angle of minimum deviation, reading for the violet color (Dv).
• Similarly, the difference of readings between the deviated reading for the red colour and
the direct reading gives the angle of minimum deviation for the red colour (DR).
• The refractive indices for the violet and red rays are calculated using equation (1)
(Assuming the angle of the equilateral prism, A = 60O , the values of  v and  R are
substituted in equation (2) and the dispersive power of the prism is calculated.

OBSERVATIONS: -
The least count of the vernier of the spectrometer, LC=1’
The angle of prism A= 600
Direct reading VDL =
VDR =

Table for angle of minimum deviation:

Readings in min. deviation position The angle of Avg value of
Left(VL) Right(VR) min. deviation deviation
S. Colour
no MSR VC VL=MSR+(VC MSR VC VR=MSR+(VC* VDL~VL VDR~VR D=(d1+d2)/2
*LC) LC) (d1) (d2)

1 Voilet
2 Red

RESULT: The dispersive power of a prism is___________________

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6. C-R CIRCUIT
Aim: To study the decay of current in a C-R circuit and to determine of a given RC combination
time constant.
Apparatus: Micro board consists of a Fixed Power supply, Switch, Ammeter, and Combination
of Resistors & Capacitors.

Formula:
The time constant is found by using the formula =RC
Where C ----Capacitance of the capacitor
R-----Resistance of the resistor
While charging It is also equal to the time taken to establish ( l – e) part of the maximum charge
in the condenser. It is equal to the time taken to establish 0.632 part of the total charge
The time constant while discharging is equal to the time, taken to decrease the charge
of the ‘e’ part of the maximum charge. It is equal to the time taken to discharge to a value of
0.368 part of the maximum charge.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
• Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
• Flip the switch toward a push to charge, the capacitor starts charging toward the power
supply. The switch is in this position for a short interval of time until the ammeter shows
maximum deflection but is within the limit. Note down the maximum current as Io.
• Now flip the switch to the other side and start the stop clock. The current starts falling.
• Note the ammeter reading at regular time intervals.
• Plot the graph of current (l) on Y-axis and time (t) on X-axis.
• Identify 0.37 I0(t) on the graph, the corresponding time is called time constant.

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Model Graph:

Observations:

Set -1 Set-2
R1= R2=
S.NO C1= C2=
Time Current Time Current

Result:
Theoretical Value of  Practical Value of 
Combination (RC) (graph)
R1 =
C1 =
R2 =
C2 =

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7. SOLAR CELL
Aim: To study V – I characteristics of a solar cell and to find the Fill Factor of a solar cell.
Apparatus: Solar cell, light bulb, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Variable load resistor and
connecting wires.

Formulae:
The fill factor of a Solar cell is given by the formula,
Fill Factor = FF = = ---------------
Where = Maximum Power in watts
= Open circuit voltage = Short circuit current
Solar cell is a PN junction forward biased semiconducting material which directly converts solar
energy into electrical energy. That means sun light can be directly converted into electrical
energy using a solar cell. Input power source is not required. Solar cell works on the principle of
Photo voltaic effect. It is a Photo voltaic cell.

circuit diagram:

Procedure:
• Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Switch on the light bulb.
• Measure the short circuit current ( when resistive load = 0
• Measure the open circuit voltage when the resistive load (or) variable load
resistance is maximum.
• Vary the load resistance slowly and note the corresponding readings of voltage and
current.

TABLE 1: Distance of solar cell = 0cm

Voltmeter readings Current readings
S.NO. in in
milli Volts milli Amperes

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TABLE 2: Distance of solar cell = 5cm

Voltmeter readings Current readings

S.NO. in in
milli Volts milli Amperes

Model Graph:
1. Plot the V–I curve and indicate and .
2. Draw a line making an angle with X –axis to meet the curve at a point
3. Find its coordinates .

OBSERVATIONS:
From graph:
1. Short circuit current, = 3. Maximum current, Im=
2. Open circuit voltage, 4.Maximum voltage,Vm=

RESULT:
1. V – I characteristics of a Solar Cell are studied
2. Fill Factor of a Solar cell is calculated. It is found to be FF =

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8. NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim: To determine the numerical aperture of an optical fiber.

Apparatus: Laser Diode Design Module, one-meter PMMA fiber patch card, inline SMA
adaptors Numerical Aperture Measurement Jig.
Formula: Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be
collected by the optical system.
calculate NA from the formula
w
NA = sin  a = 1

( 4L + w )
2 2 2

Where ‘L’ is the distance from the emitting fiber end to the red spot on the screen
and ‘ W’ is the diameter of the red spot on the screen

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
Step1: Connect one end of the PMMA FO cable to Po of the TNS20EL TX Unit and the other
end to the NA Jig, as shown.
Step2: Plug the AC mains. The light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA Jig. Turn
the Set Po knob clockwise to set to maximum Po. The light intensity should increase.

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Step 3: Hold the white scale screen, provided in the kit vertically at a distance of 15 mm (L)
from the emitting fiber end and view the red spot on the screen. A dark room will facilitate good
contrast. Position the screen-cum-scale to measure the diameter (W) of the spot. Choose the
largest diameter.
Step: 4 Compute NA from the formula NA = sinөmax = W/(4L2 +W2)1/2. Tabulate the reading and
repeat the experiment for 10mm, 20mm, 25mm and 30 mm distances.
Step5: In case the fiber is underfilled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly distributed.
To ensure even distribution of light in the fiber, first, remove twists on the fiber and then wind 5
turns of the fiber onto the mandrel. Use adhesive tape to hold the windings in position. Now
view the spot. The intensity will be more evenly distributed within the core

OBSERVATIONS:

S. No W (mm) L (mm) NA
1
2
3
4
5

RESULT: Numerical aperture of given optical fibers is ___________________

Acceptance angle of given optical fiber ( = _______

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9. LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim: The experiment aims to study bending losses that occur in optical fibers and measure
losses in dBm of three Fiber Optic cables of 1mtr, 3mtr & 5mtr at two wavelengths. Viz. 660 nm
and 850 nm.

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE FOR LOSSES AT 850nm LED.

1. Connect the power cords of both Rx & Tx unit to AC mains.

2. Short M1 terminals (+Ve & -Ve terminals) of 650nm LED on the Tx unit with patch cords.
Connect the +Ve terminal of 850nm LED to the +Ve terminal of the milliammeter & -Ve
terminal of 850nm LED to the –Ve terminal of milliammeter.
3.Relieve all the twists and stain in the fiber cable 1 (1 meter) and ensure that it is as straight as
possible.
4.Connect one end of the cable 1(1 meter) to the 850nm LED FC (Fiber Connector) adapter of
the Tx unit and the other end to the PIN diode FC adapter of Rx unit.
5. Move the switch “S1” on Rx unit towards the 850nm LED.
6. Switch on both Tx & Rx units.
7. Set the power adjustable pot Po such that the optical power meter reads 5µw i.e., -23dB. Note
this as Po1 in table 1.
8. Wing one turn of the fiber on the mandrel, hold it firmly and note the reading of the optical
power meter as PO2 in table2.
9. Now the loss due to bending is Po1-Po2.
10.Repeat the experiment for different Po values say -20dB,18dB respectively.
11. Similarly repeat steps 1 to 10 for 3mtr & 5mtr cable.
12. Convert all power meter readings in µ W to dBm using the formula.

dBm=10*log (Power meter reading in µW/1000)

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE FOR LOSSES AT 650nm LED.

1. Connect the power cords of both Rx & Tx unit to AC mains.

2. Short M1 terminals (+Ve & -Ve terminals) of 850nm LED on the Tx unit with patch cords.
Connect the +Ve terminal of 650nm LED to the +Ve terminal of milliammeter & -Ve terminal of
650nm LED to the –Ve terminal of milliammeter
3. Relieve all the twists and stains in the fiber cable 1 (1 meter) and ensure that it is as straight as
possible.
4. Connect one end of the cable 1 (1 meter) to the 650nm LED FC (Fiber Connector) adapter of
the Tx unit and the other end to the PIN diode FC adapter of Rx unit.
5. Move the switch “S1” on Rx unit towards the 650nm LED.
6. Switch “ON” both the Tx & Rx units.
7. Set the power adjustable pot Po such that the optical power meter reads 5µw i.e., -23dB. Note
this as Po1in table2.
8. Wing one turn of the fiber on the mandrel, hold it firmly and note the reading of the optical
power meter as PO2 in table2.
9. Now the loss due to bending is Po1-Po2.

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10.Repeat the experiment for different Po values say -20dB,18dB respectively.

11. Similarly repeat steps 1 to 10 for 3mtr & 5mtr cable.
12. Convert all power meter readings in µ W to dBm using formula. Given below

dBm=10*log (Power meter reading in µW/1000)

Table:1
At 850 nm LED
S.N Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Losses in
O Reading Po1 in Reading Po2 in µW Reading Po1 in dB Reading Po2 in dB dBPo1-
µW Po2

Table:2
At 650 nm LED
S. Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Losses in
NO Reading Po1 in Reading Po2 in Reading Po1 in dB Reading Po2 in dB dBPo1-
µW µW Po2

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10. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE CHARACTERSTICS

Aim: - To study the V-I characteristics of LED and find the threshold voltage and forward
resistance of led.

Apparatus: Micro board consists of Voltmeter, Ammeter, LED, Series Resistor & Variable
Power Supply.

Formula: Forward Resistance Rf =dI/dV (or from the graph1/slope)

In a P n junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross
from the n-layer to the P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the p-side while
holes are in the valence band on the p-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level
compared to the valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference in
energy is given out in the form of heat or light.

Circuit diagram: - + V
-
R

+ -
+ +
A
-
-

Procedure: -
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply voltage in steps and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings.
3. Observe the intensity of the LED as the voltage changes.
4. Plot the graph: Voltage on X-axis & Current on Y-axis.

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Voltage Current
S.No (Volts) ( mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Model graph:
I(mA)

RESULT:
The V/I characteristics of a led are studied.
Calculated Threshold Voltage Vth = ________V.
Forward Resistance Rf = _______ Ω.

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11. LASER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To Study L-I characteristics of Laser diode and to find the slope to determine slope
efficiency.
Apparatus: Micro board Consists of:
1) Variable Power Supply (0-5V)
2) Digital Voltmeter
3) Digital Ammeter
4) Digital Optical Meter
Formula: find the Slope Efficiency using the formula given below:
the slope efficiency is a measure of how good the laser is at converting electrical power to
optical power.

P1– P2
Slope Efficiency = X 100%
I1V1 – I2V2

A LASER diode is a semiconductor that emits electromagnetic radiation in optical and near
optical frequencies when a voltage is applied to them. LASER emits light only when the voltage
is forward-biased and above a minimum threshold value. This combination of conditions creates
an electron-hole pair in a diode. Electron hole pairs are charge carriers and move when placed in
electrical potential. Thus, many electron-hole pairs produce a current when placed in an electric
field. Above the threshold value, the current increases exponentially with voltage.

Procedure:

1. Connect the Laser diode circuit as shown in the figure below:

100Ω

+ V -
COARSE +
0-5V A 0-10mA
-

2 Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply using a coarse knob & note
down the values of Laser Diode voltage, Laser Diode current & Power from the optical
Meter.

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3. Note down the Current & Optical Power at different Laser voltages from the threshold
voltage at 1.5v, 2v, 2.5v, 3v, and 3.5v as shown in the tabular column.
4. Plot the graph between Threshold current Vs Optical power, the plotted graph is the L/I
characteristics of laser Diode

VOLTAGE CURRENT POWER

(Volts) (mA) (mW)

Model graph:
L (mW)

0
I(mA)

To calculate the Slope Efficiency of the Laser Diode, find the slope of the L/I curve

RESULT:
1. The L/I characteristics of a laser diode are studied.
2. Threshold current=
3. Efficiency of laser diode=

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