United States

Department of
Agriculture

INTRODUCTION TO
Forest Service
Southern Research
Station

AUGUST 2012
PRESCRIBED FIRE IN
Science Update SOUTHERN ECOSYSTEMS
SRS-054
 PRESCRIBED BURNING IS

FIRE…
• Applied in a skillful manner • In a definite place

• Under exacting weather conditions • To achieve specific results

The objective of To help resource managers • Explaining the importance

plan and execute prescribed of weather in prescribed
this Introduction burns in Southern forests and burning
to Prescribed grasslands by: • Describing the various
Burning techniques of prescribed
• Explaining the reasons for burning
prescribed burning • Giving general informa-
• Emphasizing the tion pertaining to prescribed
environmental effects burning

August 2012
Southern Research Station
200 W.T. Weaver Blvd.
Asheville, NC 28804

www.srs.fs.usda.gov
 INTRODUCTION TO
PRESCRIBED FIRE IN
SOUTHERN ECOSYSTEMS

Revised in 2012 by Thomas A. Waldrop and Scott L. Goodrick, Photographs were provided by the Auburn University Archive,
Southern Research Station with portions contributed by Craig A. Auburn University; David Guynn and Aaron Stottlemyer of
Harper, University of Tennessee, and Gene Towne, Konza Prairie Clemson University; Ron Halstead, Halstead Forestry & Realty,
Biological Station, Kansas State University. Inc.; Dale Wade of Rx Fire Doctor; Mike Bozzo of the SC Forestry
Commission, and numerous employees of the USDA Forest
This guide was originally written in 1966 by Merlin J. Dixon, Service.
Southern Region, USDA Forest Service. Revisions were completed
in 1973 and 1979 by lead author Hugh E. Mobley, Southern Appreciation is expressed to various State and Federal Agencies,
Region, USDA Forest Service. The guide was rewritten in 1988 by private industries, and other organizations for their helpful reviews,
Dale D. Wade and James D. Lunsford, Fire Management, Southern suggestions, and comments.
Region, USDA Forest Service.
Sponsored for publication by Fire Management, Southern Region,
Substantial information found in this guide came from the USDA Forest Service in cooperation with U.S. Forest Service
Rainbow Series of Wildland Fire in Ecosystems, sponsored by the Southern Research Station.
Interagency Joint Fire Science Program. These publications are
listed under Suggested Reading at the end of the guide.

This guide provides basic information needed to help you become technically proficient in the proper planning and use of prescribed
fire. A glossary toward the end of this manual will help with unfamiliar terms. To learn more about the subject of prescribed fire, a
list of suggested readings follows the glossary. Nearby State and Federal resource management agencies are also excellent sources of
information. Many of the agencies provide periodic training in fire behavior and prescribed fire.
 Contents
PAGE
IntroductIon ................................................................................................................................................ 1
History and Ecology of Fire ...................................................................................................................... 1
Present Use ............................................................................................................................................... 2
Impact of Prescribed Burning ...................................................................................................................... 3

reasons for PrescrIbed fIre In forest and Grassland ManaGeMent ...................................... 5

Reduce Hazardous Fuels ...................................................................................................................... 5
Dispose of Logging Debris ...................................................................................................................... 6
Prepare Sites for Seeding or Planting ......................................................................................................... 6
Improve Wildlife Habitat ...................................................................................................................... 6
Manage Competing Vegetation ................................................................................................................. 7
Control Insects and Disease ................................................................................................................... 8
Improve Forage for Grazing ................................................................................................................. 8
Enhance Appearance and Access ......................................................................................................... 9
Perpetuate Species and Communities that Require Fire ........................................................................... 9

envIronMental effects ............................................................................................................................ 11

Vegetation .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Soil .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Water Quality ............................................................................................................................................. 13
Air .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Human Health and Welfare .................................................................................................................... 14
Wildlife .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Aesthetics ..............................................................................................................................................17

Weather and fuel consIderatIons ....................................................................................................... 19

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 19
Important Weather Elements ................................................................................................................... 19
Collecting and Using Weather Information on the Burn ............................................................................ 33

fIrInG technIques ........................................................................................................................................ 35

General .................................................................................................................................................... 35
Backing Fire ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Strip-Heading Fire ................................................................................................................................. 36
Flanking Fire .......................................................................................................................................... 37
Point Source Fires ................................................................................................................................ 38
Prescribed Burning on Slopes .................................................................................................................. 39
Aerial Ignition ....................................................................................................................................... 40
Center and Circular (Ring) Firing ....................................................................................................... 41
Pile and Windrow Burning ................................................................................................................. 41

i
 PAGE
sMoke ManaGeMent ................................................................................................................................ 43
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 43
Smoke Management Planning .................................................................................................................. 43
Daytime Smoke Evaluation ................................................................................................................... 44
Nighttime Smoke Evaluation ................................................................................................................. 50
Other Points to Consider .................................................................................................................... 52
Executing a Smoke Management Plan .................................................................................................... 53

PlannInG the PrescrIbed burn ................................................................................................................. 55

The Written Plan ................................................................................................................................. 55
Simple Understory Prescribed Burning Unit Plan ............................................................................. 58
Understory Prescribed Burning Unit Plan ......................................................................................... 59
Postharvest Prescribed Burning Unit Plan .......................................................................................... 60

PreParInG for the PrescrIbed burn ...................................................................................................... 61

Establishing Control Lines ................................................................................................................... 61
After Control Lines are Established ...................................................................................................... 61
Burn Unit Map ........................................................................................................................................... 61

executInG the burn ................................................................................................................................. 63

Checklist ............................................................................................................................................. 64

evaluatInG the burn ................................................................................................................................ 65

General Points to be Considered ................................................................................................................ 65
Points in First Evaluation ................................................................................................................... 65
Points for Second Evaluation .................................................................................................................. 65
Indications and Guidelines ................................................................................................................... 65

coordInatIon of burnInG .................................................................................................................... 67

General rules ............................................................................................................................................. 69

red flaG sItuatIons ................................................................................................................................ 70

Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................... 71

suGGested readInG ................................................................................................................................. 76

ii
This publication is not intended to be a substitute for experience and training. Predicting fire behavior and smoke movement is difficult. The
consequences of a mistake can be dangerous and costly.
Introduction

Prescribed burning can be used in many ecosystems throughout the southeastern United States to create or maintain desired conditions.

HISTORY AND ECOlOGY OF FIRE of acres of forest land with no trees. The need to control fire
was evident to allow forests to regenerate; even prescribed
The history of fire in the forests and grasslands of the South fire was banned on lands managed by some agencies.
is as varied as the different ecosystems that span this large Although fire was never completely removed from the
region. At times, fires burned as often as once a year or more landscape, its use was diminished for several decades until
in Coastal Plain pine systems or as infrequently as every 50 early reports suggested the advantages of prescribed fire
years or more on north-facing or cove sites in the mountains. for bobwhite quail habitat and for managing longleaf pine.
Lightning served as a major fire source in most ecosystems By the 1950s and 1960s, active programs were established
for millennia before Native Americans arrived some 10,000 for prescribed burning in Coastal Plain and lower Piedmont
to 12,000 years ago. At that time, most plants had developed pine and grassland habitats.
adaptations to either survive a fire or to regenerate after one.
Native Americans were the first people of North America to Prescribed burning in the mountains did not begin until
use what we now call “prescribed burning.” Many preferred the 1980s but this practice is gaining acceptance for some
open grassland or savannah resulting from frequent management objectives.
burning— environments that provided access to grazers
and browsers and to the wild grains, berries, and legumes Forests and grasslands of the South are well adapted
that appeared after fire. European settlers, whose livelihood to fire with species that have survival or regeneration
often depended on hunting and herding, quickly learned strategies that not only tolerate fire but also may require it.
the advantages of firing the southern woods to control thick Adaptations such as thick bark, light or winged seeds, or
understory growth and provide abundant forage and browse. buried buds or meristems are common. Communities that
By the late 19th century, the logging industry had become have been burned frequently, such as Coastal Plain longleaf
established throughout the South. Excessive logging, pine, often have few trees in the overstory with a highly
followed by wildfires fueled by logging debris, left millions diverse understory of fire-adapted plants. Communities
burned infrequently, such as Piedmont or Appalachian
hardwoods, may have a diverse collection of overstory trees
which can regenerate after an intense fire by basal sprouting.
Although much experience is needed, fire can be used to
meet landowner objectives if the fire prescription matches
the life requirements and adaptations of the plants within
the community.

PRESENT USE

Prescribed burning is an important tool throughout Southern

forests, grasslands, and croplands. In 2011, over 6.4 million
acres were burned by prescription for forestry purposes in
the 13 Southern States. Prescribed burning is a desirable and
economically sound practice in many forests and grasslands;
in many cases, it is the only practical choice. Few, if any, Grid ignition.
other treatments have been developed that can compete
with prescribed fire for its combination of economy and
effectiveness. Chemical and mechanical treatments can
be 10 to 20 times more expensive than prescribed burning
and can have environmental costs such as destruction
of habitat and soil erosion. Prescribed burning can also
have environmental costs associated with smoke and soil
exposure but these problems can be reduced with a good fire
prescription and careful execution of the burn.

Pre-burn planning and safety meeting.

In this guide, prescribed burning is described as fire

applied in a knowledgeable manner to forest and grassland
fuels on a specific land area under selected weather
conditions to accomplish predetermined, well-defined
management objectives.

This manual is intended to help resource managers plan

and execute prescribed burns in Southern forests and
grasslands. Until the 1980s and 1990s, prescribed burning
was most common in Coastal Plain and lower Piedmont
forests. Several generations of resource managers gained
experience and knowledge with prescribed burning in those
regions and much of our current knowledge originated
there. More recently, management objectives have become
broader, particularly on government lands. Managers and
researchers have a new appreciation for using prescribed fire
in grasslands, in hardwood forests, and on steep mountain
slopes. Burning in these areas presents new challenges and
Use of prescribed burning, as a component of an overall complexities. This manual will serve as an introduction to
strategy of forest management, can help to maintain healthy prescribed burning in each of these regions and fuel types
forests. Credit for top photograph: Auburn University Archive, but should not be used as a substitute for experience.
Auburn University, Bugwood.org

2
IMPACT OF PRESCRIBED BURNING

Most forests and grasslands require multiple prescribed

fires over a number of years to fully reach management
objectives, but even a single fire can provide multiple
benefits. One prescribed fire can reduce wildfire hazard by
reducing fuels, improve habitat for some wildlife species,
reduce competition, enhance appearance, and
improve access.

Prescribed fires are not always beneficial. When conditions

are wrong, fire can severely damage the resources they are
intended to benefit. In forests, fire can reduce health or kill
trees, understory plants, and animals. Prescribed fires can
temporarily reduce air quality, although usually to a lesser
degree than wildfires, particularly in communities and urban
areas located near large wildland tracts. A prescribed fire
that escapes its planned boundaries immediately becomes
a wildfire. Proper planning and resources are required to
Smoke obscuring a highway.
prevent this danger and to control it if it should occur.
Each prescribed fire presents a number of tradeoffs that Prescribed fire is a complex tool and should only be used
must be recognized and carefully weighed to reach a by those trained in its use. Proper diagnosis and detailed
decision regarding if and when to burn. Proper planning planning are needed for every area where burning is
and execution are necessary to minimize any detrimental contemplated. The incomplete assessment of any factor
effects. Potential off-site impacts such as air quality and can pose serious liability questions should fire escape or its
downstream water quality should be carefully considered, smoke cause damage. A prescribed fire that does not achieve
as should on-site impacts to soil and aesthetics. Opinions its intended objective(s) is a loss of both time and money,
of the general public should always be respected as most and it may be necessary to reburn as soon as sufficient fuel
are highly concerned about local and global environmental accumulates. Keep in mind that some resource management
quality. Resource managers should work with their objectives can be met with a single fire, some require several
neighbors through open communication and consider their fires in fairly quick succession, and some can only be
concerns when defining burn objectives. accomplished by burning periodically over several decades.

3
Reasons for Prescribed Fire
in Forest and Grassland
Management
• Reduce hazardous fuels
• Dispose of logging debris
• Prepare sites for seeding or planting
• Improve wildlife habitat
• Manage competing vegetation
• Control insects and disease
• Improve forage for grazing
• Enhance appearance and access
• Perpetuate species and communities that
require fire

REDUCE HAzARDOUS FUElS—Without fire, Annual wildfire acreage depends on the age of the rough.
forest fuels can accumulate rapidly. Heavy “roughs” can
accumulate quickly in pine stands, posing a serious threat Higher wind velocities and cooler temperatures minimize
from wildfire to all forest resources. Fuels on the forest floor scorch damage in pine forests. Southern pine plantations
in hardwood stands may accumulate more slowly than in averaging 10 to 12 feet in height can be burned by
pine stands. However, after a prescribed burn, these fuels experienced people under the right conditions without
can build up to or even exceed the dangerous pre-burn levels damage. Aerial ignition can be used in young plantations for
within three to four years. the first time when they are 15 to 20 feet tall by using close
spacing of ignition spots, e.g., 100 by 100 feet, and cool,
Prescribed fire is the most practical way to reduce dangerous damp conditions with some wind to avoid crown damage.
accumulations of combustible fuels in Southern forests and Hardwoods are susceptible to stem damage from even
grasslands. Wildfires that burn into areas where fuels have cool prescribed fires until they reach 6 to 8 inches in dbh
been reduced by prescribed burning cause less damage and (diameter at breast height— 4.5 feet above ground). After
are much easier to control. The appropriate interval between that, burning must be conducted under relatively cool, damp
prescribed burns for fuel reduction varies with several conditions if tree damage is a concern.
factors, including the rate of fuel accumulation, past wildfire
occurrence, values at risk, and the risk of a wildfire. The Subsequent fuel reduction burns in pine and hardwood
time interval between fires can be as often as every year forests need not cover the entire area. The objective is to
although a 3- or 4-year cycle is usually adequate in forests break up fuel continuity. Fuel reduction on 75 to 80 percent
after the initial fuel-reduction burn. Shorter cycles are of the area is sufficient. An added advantage of “patchy”
necessary in grasslands to prevent shrub encroachment. burns is that the unburned islands provide cover for
The need to reduce hazardous fuel accumulations is wildlife. These unburned patches will not have a dangerous
increasing throughout the South. Without fuel reduction, accumulation of fuels at the time of the next burn if they
fire hazard can be extremely high in vast contiguous resulted from a lack of fuel during the previous fire. If,
stands. Also, the rapidly-growing population of the South however, they were too wet to burn, these islands could
is expanding its wildland-urban interface and greatly result in hot spots the next time if a heading fire is allowed
increasing the number and value of resources that must be to sweep through them under appreciably drier conditions.
protected. The initial hazard-reduction burn in young forest Excessive crown scorch or stem damage could result in
stands requires exacting conditions of wind, humidity, additional fuel accumulation through needle drop or even
and temperature. tree mortality.

5
 PREPARE SITES FOR SEEDING AND
PlANTING—Prescribed burning is useful when
regenerating Southern pine by direct seeding, planting, or
natural regeneration. On open sites, fire alone can prepare
an adequate seedbed and control competing vegetation
until seedlings become established. Even where competing
vegetation cannot be adequately reduced by fire alone,
it reduces the level of mechanical or herbicide treatment
needed. Fire improves visibility so equipment operators
can more easily see stumps of harvested trees, as well as
any other hazards. In addition, if the area is to be bedded
before planting, burning first consumes much of the
Winter spot fire in heavy rough. debris. The result is more tightly packed beds and thus
better seedling survival. Where herbicides are used to kill
competition, subsequent burning will provide additional
vegetation control. This also allows more efficient and
easier movement of hand-planting crews. Prescribed fire
also recycles nutrients, making them available for the next
timber crop.

For natural regeneration, knowledge of anticipated seed crop

and date of earliest seed fall is essential. If the seed crop is
inadequate, burning can be postponed. Complete mineral
soil exposure is not necessary or desirable; a thin layer of
litter should remain to protect the soil. Generally, burning
Damaging wildfire in heavy rough. should be done several weeks prior to seed fall. Timing
varies with species and locality.
DISPOSE OF lOGGING DEBRIS—After harvest,
unmerchantable limbs and stems are left either scattered Prescribed burning is also useful for regeneration of
across the area or concentrated at logging decks or hardwood forests. After harvest, coppice regeneration is
delimbing gates, depending upon the method of logging. generally anchored on the top of a stump. As the sprouts
This material is an impediment to both people and planting mature, the stump rots and decay can be introduced to
equipment. If a wildfire occurs within the next few years, the bottom log of the new tree. Burning after harvest
fireline construction can be severely hindered; the result will kill basal sprouts and force new sprouts to come
being larger burn acreages and higher regeneration losses. from belowground buds, particularly from roots. Sprouts
Although not all large material will be consumed by a originating from below ground are less susceptible to decay-
prescribed fire, what is left will be exposed so it can be causing fungi. In some cases where low-cost regeneration
avoided by tractor-plow operators. In stands that produce a of pines is desired, broadcast burning can be used to control
large amount of cull material, the debris is often windrowed hardwood growth long enough to allow pines to be planted
and burned. This practice should, however, be avoided and survive, later becoming a mixed-species forest.
whenever practical because of smoke management problems
and the potential for site degradation. Broadcast burning is IMPROvE WIlDlIFE HABITAT—Fire is essential
generally a much better alternative. If the debris must be to maintain/restore certain plant communities that many
piled before burning, construct round “haystack” piles when wildlife species require. Examples include longleaf pine
the debris and underlying ground are both fairly dry. This in the Coastal Plain, shortleaf pine in the Piedmont, Table
step will limit the amount of dirt in the pile. Piles containing Mountain and pitch pine in the southern Appalachians, oak
large amounts of dirt can seldom be burned efficiently. savannas and woodlands in the Piedmont and mid-South,
They almost always smolder for long periods, creating and early successional openings and native grasslands
unacceptable smoke problems. throughout the region. Suppression of fire in the South
through the 20th century led to significant reduction in area
In some cases, overstory trees are left during harvest covered by these communities. The quality and integrity of
whether as seed trees or as part of uneven-aged management the remnants of these communities has been compromised
system using single-tree or group selection. In both severely. With this loss and deterioration, prevalence of
situations, the logging debris can still be burned, but you associated wildlife species has declined precipitously
must take more care to protect the remaining trees.

6
over the past several decades with several species now
endangered or threatened. Likewise, several plants endemic
to these communities also are now rare.

Additionally, prescribed fire improves habitat conditions

for many wildlife species in a wide variety of vegetation
cover types, including some that are often not considered
with prescribed fire, including upland hardwoods and
emergent wetlands. Fire sets back succession, consumes
the litter layer and other dead plant material, and can
improve nutrient availability for responding plant growth.
Prescribed burning stimulates seed germination of many
species and provides open conditions at ground level for
travel, loafing, and feeding by game bird broods, rabbits,
and ground-feeding songbirds. The responding groundcover
provides forage, soft mast, and seed eaten by many birds,
mammals, and reptiles. Prescribed burning also influences
the composition and structure of cover available for wildlife.
Timing and frequency of burning determines litter depth, the
height and density of cover, as well as plant diversity. Thus,
prescribed burning can be used to tailor habitat conditions Hardwood topkill after a winter burn.
for focal species.
winter (dormant season) fire results in less root kill than a
late spring or summer burn. One system recommended in
the Mountains, Piedmont and Coastal Plain is a dormant
season burn to reduce initial fuel mass, followed by two or
more annual (if enough fuel is present) or biennial
summer burns.

If not controlled, the hardwoods will form a midstory

and capture the site once the pine is harvested. If a large
pine component is wanted in the next rotation, these
unmerchantable hardwoods must be removed during site
preparation— an expensive proposition. Generally, fire is
required in combination with other treatments involving
heavy equipment, chemicals, or both. In many locations
the preferred system is a combination summer burn and
Many game and non-game wildlife species benefit from prescribed fire.
herbicide treatment. However, a relatively inexpensive
alternative can be employed if site quality is moderate
MANAGE COMPETING vEGETATION— to poor; all residual hardwoods are felled and the area
Low-value, poor-quality, shade-tolerant hardwoods often broadcast burned under exacting fuel and
occupy or encroach upon land best suited to growing weather conditions.
pine. Unwanted species may crowd out or suppress pine
seedlings. In soils with high clay content and in areas with In some cases, overstory pines or hardwoods are the
low rainfall during parts of the growing season, competition competing vegetation that must be controlled. Restoration
for water, nutrients and growing space may significantly of open woodland conditions is a goal for landowners
lower growth rates of the overstory. Furthermore, understory who prefer a diversity of sun-loving understory plants.
trees and shrubs draped with dead needles and leaves act Conversion of pine or hardwood forests with dense canopies
as ladder fuels allowing a fire to climb into the overstory requires removal of many trees by harvesting, chemicals,
crowns. In most situations, total eradication of the or, in limited cases, prescribed fire. Once the overstory
understory is neither practical nor desirable. However, with is removed, frequent cool fires are required to maintain
the judicious use of prescribed fire, the understory can be the open character of the forest and to allow desirable
managed to limit competition with desired species while at understory plants to become established.
the same time providing browse for wildlife. Generally, a In upland hardwood stands, a predominantly woody

7
understory and midstory often prevent adequate herbaceous
groundcover to meet wildlife management objectives. In the
Ridge and Valley of Tennessee, thinning has been shown to
reduce canopy closure to approximately 60 percent. Low-
intensity prescribed burning is then implemented during the
early growing-season on a 2- to 3-year fire return interval
to stimulate herbaceous understory growth and soft mast
production, while controlling woody regeneration.

Prescribed fire is generally thought of as a silvicultural tool

for controlling hardwoods in pine management. However,
there is growing evidence that prescribed fire can be used
in mature hardwood stands to control the composition
of advanced regeneration, particularly to favor oak. Oak
seedlings and sprouts are more resistant to topkill than
other hardwoods and will sprout after numerous fires. This
advantage is most important on good quality sites where
other species, such as yellow-poplar, will grow quickly and
outgrow the oaks. Prescribed burning can be conducted in
these stands with little or no damage to overstory hardwoods
but extreme caution must be used to maintain fires of Longleaf pine infected with brownspot needle blight.
low intensity. Photo by Ron Halstead, Halstead Forestry & Realty
Inc., Bugwood.org

In grasslands, prescribed fire in different seasons and seedlings in unburned areas surrounding the burn unit.
at different frequencies is used as a tool to manipulate If reinfection occurs, additional burns may be needed.
vegetation. Late-spring burning reduces the abundance of However, longleaf is most susceptible to fire immediately
forbs and favors warm-season perennial grasses, whereas after it comes out of the grass stage. Therefore, a reburn
early-spring burning increases the abundance of many will likely kill some seedlings, so such a decision should be
forbs and favors cool-season perennial grasses and sedges. made in consultation with experienced personnel. Your local
Growing-season fires are occasionally used to increase State forestry office is a good place to begin.
species richness, with annual and perennial forbs and
many cool-season graminoids the primary beneficiaries. Prescribed burning seems to reduce problems from fomes
Annual or biennial fires in any season are required to curtail annosus root rot. This fungal disease is less frequent
encroachment of woody species, and infrequent burning where periodic burns have reduced the litter. Fire alters the
(i.e., every three to four years) stimulates the expansion of microenvironment of the forest floor and perhaps destroys
most shrub species once they have become established some fruiting bodies and cauterizes tree stumps.
in grassland. Prescribed burning has not been shown to be effective at
controlling disease in hardwood forests. Although little
CONTROl INSECTS AND DISEASE—Brownspot research has been conducted on this topic, one of the major
disease is a fungal infection that may seriously weaken and diseases in hardwoods, a root-borne disease caused by
eventually kill longleaf pine seedlings. Diseased seedlings Phytophthora cinnamomi, was not reduced by repeated
tend to remain in the grass stage. Control is recommended fire in the southern Appalachian Mountains. This fungus is
when more than 20 percent of the seedlings are infected predominant in the soil and prescribed fires generally do not
or when some of the diseased seedlings are needed for heat the soil sufficiently to lower the incidence of
satisfactory stocking. Once the seedlings become infected, soil-borne diseases.
burning is the most practical method of disease control.
Any type of burning that kills the diseased needles without IMPROvE FORAGE FOR GRAzING—Prescribed
killing the terminal bud is satisfactory. Burning the infected burning improves grazing conditions by increasing the
needles reduces the number of spores available to infect quality, palatability, and availability of grasses and forbs.
the seedlings. Generally a winter heading fire under damp Dead material low in nutrient value is removed, while new
conditions, as exist after passage of a strong cold front, is growth high in protein, phosphorus, and calcium becomes
best. Height growth of the seedlings often begins the first readily available. These benefits are manifested in increased
postfire-growing season after burning. seasonal cattle weight gains. Cattle congregate on recently
Reinfection usually occurs quickly if there are infected burned areas; thus, burn location and size must be carefully
selected to prevent overgrazing.

8
Patch-burn grazing is a system developed to reduce ENHANCE APPEARANCE AND ACCESS—
homogeneity in the pasture and create a mosaic grazing Prescribed burning improves recreation and aesthetic values.
pattern. Under this system, approximately one-third of the For example, burning maintains open stands, produces
pasture is burned each year, but cattle have access to the vegetative changes, and increases numbers and visibility
entire area. Because the animals preferentially graze in the of flowering annuals and biennials. Burning also maintains
burned section it is grazed intensively and the unburned open spaces such as mountain balds and creates vistas.
areas are either grazed lightly or are ungrazed. At the end Unburned islands increase vegetative diversity which
of the growing season, cattle are removed from the area. attracts a wider variety of birds and animals. A practical way
The following year another third of the area is burned to maintain many visually attractive vegetative communities
and cattle are allowed back into the pasture. This pattern and perpetuate many endangered plant species is through
continues with the entire area burned on a 3-year rotation. periodic use of prescribed fire.
Timing of burning should be adjusted based on vegetation
composition. For example, bluestems, indiangrass, Using fire to manage landscapes and enhance scenic values
switchgrass, and eastern gamagrass respond best to requires judiciously planned and executed burns, especially
early spring fire, while wiregrass responds best to mid- where there is considerable exposure to the public. Burning
growing-season fire. The resultant grazing pattern creates techniques can be modified along roads and in other heavily
a heterogeneous landscape, with one area heavily grazed, used areas to ensure low flame heights, which in turn will
another area lightly grazed, and a third area that received reduce visible damage to trees while still opening up the
little or no grazing. stand and giving an unrestricted view.

Burning underbrush prior to the sale of forest products

improves the efficiency of cruising, timber marking,
and harvesting. Removing accumulated material before
harvesting also provides greater safety for timber markers
and loggers due to better visibility and less underbrush.
The reduced amount of fuel helps offset the greater risk
of wildfire during harvesting. Moreover, the improved
visibility and accessibility often increase the stumpage value
of the products. Hikers also benefit from easier travel and
increased visibility and hunters are more likely to get a clear
shot at their quarry.

PERPETUATE SPECIES AND COMMUNITIES

THAT REqUIRE FIRE—Many plants have structural
adaptations, specialized tissues, or reproductive features
that favor them in a fire-dominated environment. Such traits
suggest a close association with fire over a very long period
of time. Many endemics are only found the first 1 to 2 years
after a fire. Changes in the “natural” fire pattern as a result
of attempted fire exclusion have led to dramatic decreases in
Table Mountain pine benefits from fire by opening serotinous cones and many of these fire-tolerant or fire-dependent species.
creating optimal seedbed habitat.

Early successional wildlife respond exceptionally well to Many plants, including picturesque orchids and coneflowers,
patch-burn grazing. Game birds and songbirds nest in the are currently listed as threatened or endangered and are
unburned area, but raise broods and feed in the burned area benefited by fire. Fire dependent and fire tolerant plants are
where the structure is more favorable. found throughout the South in a variety of cover types and
fire regimes ranging from pine forests that burn frequently
Patch-burn grazing is applicable to areas dominated by to lowland bogs and north-facing mountain coves that burn
native grasses as well as areas with considerable brushland very infrequently.
and woodland. The entire area is fenced, quarter- or third-
sections burned each year, and cattle manage vegetation
structure. Cattle producers who have an interest in wildlife
should give this system serious consideration.

9
 Red-cockaded woodpeckers and smooth coneflower require the conditions created by frequent burning to survive.

Prescribed burning, however, does not automatically help the past. The individual requirements of a species must
perpetuate plant and animal species because fires are not therefore be understood before a fire can be prescribed
necessarily conducted during the same season in which the to benefit that species. In some cases, such as with Table
site historically burned. The interval between prescribed Mountain pine, fire managers are only now learning the
fires as well as fire intensity may also differ from those of season and intensity of fire needed for
successful regeneration.

10
Environmental Effects
Prescribed burning has direct and indirect effects on the
environment. Proper use of prescribed fire and evaluation of
the benefits and costs of a burn require knowledge of how
fire affects vegetation, wildlife, soil, water, and air. Burning
techniques and timing of burns can be varied to alter fire
effects.

vEGETATION

Fire effects on plants can vary considerably among fires

and within the same fire. The degree of injury, mortality,
and recovery of plants from fire is influenced by fire Lethal time-temperature curve.
behavior, fire duration, season of burning, the pattern of fuel
consumption, and the amount of subsurface heating. Post-
fire responses can vary by plant species because they differ
in their ability to survive fire and their ability to regenerate
after fire.

Most plant cells are killed if they are heated to 122—131

o
F (50—55 oC) for a short time or they can be killed by
exposure to lower temperatures for longer periods. Slow-
moving cool fires can kill as many plants as faster-moving
hot fires. Actively growing meristems, such as the cambium
or buds of trees and basal meristems of grasses are most
susceptible to heat and are easily damaged. The degree to
which these tissues are protected by bark, scales, or soil
determines if a plant will survive fire. Pines and some
hardwoods have thick bark which insulates them from
heat. Tall crowns protect buds and foliage from the heat of
ground fires. Hardwood trees are generally more susceptible Most pine species are well adapted to
to fire injury than are pines because their bark is thinner. frequent low-intensity fires.
With the exception of Eastern white pine and Virginia pine,
southern pines 3 inches or more in ground diameter have
bark thick enough to protect the stems from damage by most
prescribed fires. However, the crowns are quite vulnerable

Crown scorch can add fuels to the

Hardwood topkill. forest floor, reduce growth, or cause
tree mortality.

11
to temperatures above 135 °F. Pine needles will survive regenerated hardwood coppice forest. This can also be a
exposure to 130 °F for about 5 minutes, while similar concern when prescribed burning is used to reduce fuels in
needles exposed to 145 °F for only a few seconds will die. blow-down or beetle-killed areas. Regeneration by seed is
Crown scorch in pines does not always indicate that the also impacted by prescribed burning. Although many seeds
trees will die but it usually slows growth for a year or more. on the forest floor are consumed by prescribed fire, others
If the duff layer is consumed, roots are frequently damaged remain viable for years and are stimulated by fire. Natural
which can lead to moisture stress and possibly mortality if a regeneration of pines can be successful if prescribed burning
significant portion of the feeder roots die. is timed prior to a heavy seed crop. Some pines have
serotinous cones which are stimulated to open by the heat
Larger plants are generally better protected from fire than of a fire. This can be successful with a properly executed
smaller ones because their meristems are better protected prescribed fire. Other tree species have light or winged seeds
by thicker bark, taller crowns, and thicker duff. Prescribed which are carried by wind into burned areas. Germination
fires often topkill (mortality of all aboveground portions of and survival of seedlings are generally improved by
the plant) hardwoods less than 6 inches dbh and pines less prescribed burning due to a thinner duff layer, exposed soil,
than 3 inches dbh. Prescribed burning has traditionally been and increased available sunlight reaching the forest floor.
avoided in hardwood stands because fire scars are prevalent Fire affects not only individual plant species but also entire
and can reduce the value of crop trees. However, in recent communities. Community structure can be managed by
years prescribed burning has been used in hardwood stands prescribed burning. For example, a single prescribed fire can
for site preparation, to favor establishment of oaks, enhance be used to reduce the shrub layer and, if burning is frequent,
conditions for wildlife, and to restore stand structure to a grass and forb layer will replace the shrubs. The absence
historical conditions. of fire over time will favor more shade-tolerant and less fire-
tolerant species.
Most southern pines, larger than sapling size, are able to
tolerate a high degree of crown scorch, especially during Many benefits from prescribed fire, such as increased forage
the dormant season, with minimal effects on survival. Most for grazing and improved conditions for wildlife, depend
pine species produce several flushes of needle growth on changes in the vegetation. However, fire that is used
during a growing season giving them the ability to leaf out unwisely may adversely alter plant species composition
soon after defoliation. Pines are most susceptible to scorch and structure.
in spring when leaders are succulent but can survive after
almost complete scorching at any other time although some SOIl
mortality may occur.
The interaction of many factors determines the impact of
After prescribed fires, plants regenerate by sprouting, fire on soil but most evidence indicates that low-intensity
seeding, or both. Most hardwood trees and perennial prescribed fires have few, if any, adverse effects. Prescribed
forbs produce sprouts from buds located at or beneath fires affect soil by both heat transfer and changes in soil
ground level after their aboveground portions are killed by physical properties. The most important soil physical
fire. Grasses vary by species but most sprout from basal characteristic affected by fire is soil structure because
meristems. Few pine species sprout. Wildfires that kill organic matter can be lost at relatively low temperatures.
overstory pines and hardwoods commonly shift species Loss of soil structure can increase bulk density and reduce
composition from pine-dominated forests to a newly porosity, thereby reducing soil productivity and making

Burning under dry conditions can cause erosion, especially in hilly terrain.

12
the soil more vulnerable to post-fire runoff and erosion. A major concern of land managers is how fires affect
Prescribed burning in the South normally causes little or no surface runoff and soil erosion. On most Lower and Middle
detectable change in amount of organic matter in surface Coastal Plain sites, there is little danger of erosion. In the
soils. In fact, slight increases have been reported on some steeper topography of the Upper Coastal Plain, Piedmont,
burned areas. However, burning piled or windrowed debris, and Mountains, some soil movement is possible, but not
or burning when fuel and/or soil moisture conditions are typical. If the burn is under a timber stand and some duff
extremely low, may elevate temperatures long enough to remains, soil movement will be minor, much less than after
ignite organic matter in the soil as well as alter the structure site preparation with heavy machinery. Duff should be wet
of soil clays. or damp at the time of burning to ensure that an organic
layer will remain after a prescribed burn. Moisture not only
Changes in soil fertility and nutrient content depend largely protects the duff layer adjacent to the soil, but also prevents
on organic matter because soil organic matter plays a the fire from consuming soil humus.
key role in nutrient cycling, cation exchange, and water
retention. When organic matter is combusted, the stored
nutrients are either volatilized or quickly used by microbial
organisms and vegetation. Those available nutrients not
immobilized are easily lost by leaching or surface runoff
and erosion. Nitrogen is the most important nutrient affected
by fire, and it is easily volatilized and lost from the site at
relatively low temperatures. With prescribed burning, duff
layers should not be completely consumed, so that changes
in soil pore space and infiltration rate are very slight. If
mineral soil is repeatedly exposed, rain impact may clog fine
pores with soil and carbon particles, decreasing infiltration
rates and aeration of the soil. Soil microbial populations,
important for decomposition and nutrient cycling, are
resilient to fire, especially low-intensity prescribed
fires. Recolonization to preburn levels is common when Protect streamside zones.
prescriptions that protect forest floor, humus layers, and soil
humus are followed.
WATER qUAlITY

With prescribed burning, the principal concerns for water

are runoff and increases in sediment, nitrate and heavy metal
content. When surface runoff increases after burning, it may
carry suspended soil particles, dissolved inorganic nutrients,
and other materials into adjacent streams and lakes, thus
reducing water quality. Prescribed fires are usually not
severe so these effects seldom occur after Coastal Plain
burns. On steep terrain, however, if post-fire storms deliver
large amounts of precipitation or short-duration, high-
intensity rainfalls, accelerated erosion and runoff can occur
even after a carefully planned prescribed fire.

Rainwater leaches minerals out of the ash and into the soil.
In sandy soils, leaching may also move minerals through
the soil layer into the ground water. Generally, a properly
planned prescribed burn will not adversely affect either the
quality or quantity of ground or surface water.

AIR

The Federal Wildland Fire Policy (U.S. Department of the

Interior and U.S. Department of Agriculture 1995) and the
Backing fires produce less smoke than heading fires. Clean Air Act as Amended 1990 (PL 101-549) resulted

13
in the need to significantly raise the level of knowledge Smoke adversely impacts air quality, particularly for two
about the effect of fire on air quality in order to meet of the EPA’s pollutants covered by the National Ambient
regulatory and management requirements. For example, new Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), PM2.5 (particulate matter
information is needed to assess, monitor, predict, smaller than 2.5 microns) and ozone. Wildland fires release
and manage: significant amounts of PM2.5 and while fires do not release
ozone, they do release various nitrogen oxides and volatile
• Emissions and air quality impacts from wildfires organic components that play a role in ozone formation. The
• Acute health effects of human exposure to smoke EPA’s AirNow website (http://www.airnow.gov) provides
• Natural and anthropogenic sources of visibility reduction daily estimates of the air quality as well as forecasts of
• Cumulative air quality impacts from expanded fuel expected changes in air quality.
management programs
• Tradeoffs between air quality impacts from wildland fire Smoke can be managed by burning on days when it will
and prescribed fire blow away from smoke-sensitive areas. Precautions must
be taken when burning near populated areas, highways,
hospitals, airports, and other smoke-sensitive areas. Weather
and smoke management forecasts are available as a guide
for wind speed and direction. Any smoke impact downwind
must be mitigated before lighting the fire. All burning
should be done in accordance with applicable smoke
management guidelines and regulations. During a regional
alert when high pollution potential exists, all prescribed
burning should be postponed.

Nighttime burning should be done with additional care

because a temperature inversion may trap smoke near the
ground. This smoke can create a serious visibility hazard,
Prescribed burning can be used in a manner to avoid smoke
sensitive areas. Smoke from wildfires cannot be controlled.
especially in periods of high humidity (which occurs on
most nights). In particular, smoke mixing with existing fog
Prescribed fires may contribute to changes in air quality. will drastically reduce visibility. In mountainous areas, cool
Air quality of a regional scale is affected only when many air drainage at night will carry smoke down slopes, causing
acres are burned on the same day. Local problems are visibility problems in lowlands and valleys. On the Coastal
more frequent and occasionally acute because of the large Plain, nighttime air drainage often follows waterways.
quantities of smoke that can be produced in a given area Conditions can be especially hazardous near bridge
during a short period of time. crossings because of the higher humidity there. Of course,
the earlier in the day a fire is completed, the less likely it is
Smoke consists of small particles (particulate) of ash, partly to cause nighttime smoke problems.
consumed fuel, and liquid droplets. Other combustion
products include invisible gases such as carbon monoxide, HUMAN HEAlTH AND WElFARE
carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and small quantities of
nitrogen oxides. Oxides of nitrogen are usually produced at Occasional brief exposure of the general public to low
temperatures only reached in piled or windrowed slash or in concentrations of drift smoke is more a temporary
very intense wildfires. In general, prescribed fires produce inconvenience than a health problem. High smoke
inconsequential amounts of these gases. Except for organic concentrations can, however, be a very serious matter.
soils (which are not generally consumed during prescribed Health of all neighbors is of great concern but several
burns), forest fuels contain very little sulfur, so oxides of subgroups within the population are more sensitive
sulfur are rarely a problem. than others. Children are more likely to have decreased
pulmonary function, while increased mortality has
Particulates, however, are of special concern to the been reported in the elderly and in individuals with
prescribed burner because they reduce visibility and cardiopulmonary disease. Asthmatics are especially
increase health risks. The amount of particulate put into susceptible to smoke exposure. Great care must be taken
the air depends on amount and type of fuel consumed, fuel with any management fire, particularly near homes of people
moisture content, and rate of fire spread as determined by with respiratory illnesses or near health-care facilities.
timing and type of firing technique used. Rate of smoke
dispersal depends mainly on atmospheric stability and
wind speed.

14
Smoke can have negative short-and long-term health effects. Season and frequency of burning and the size of the area
Fire management personnel who are exposed to high smoke burned is crucial to the successful use of fire to improve
concentrations often suffer eye and respiratory system wildlife habitat. A change in vegetation structure and
irritation. Under some circumstances, continued exposure to composition can be good for some species and not so good
high concentrations of carbon monoxide at the combustion for others. Prescriptions must recognize the biological
zone can result in impaired alertness and judgment. Over 90 requirements of focal wildlife species.
percent of the particulate emissions from prescribed fire are
small enough to enter the human respiratory system. These GRASSlAND BIRDS, SCRUBlAND BIRDS,
particulates can contain hundreds of chemical compounds, FOREST BIRDS—Prescribed fire rejuvenates and
some of which are toxic. The repeated, lengthy exposure to maintains grassland habitat for eastern meadowlark,
relatively low smoke concentrations over many years can Henslow’s sparrow, grasshopper sparrow, dickcissel, field
contribute to respiratory problems and cancer. But, the risk sparrow, and others. However, because a litter layer is
of developing cancer from exposure to prescribed fire has important for some ground-nesting birds, a 2- to 3-year
been estimated to be less than one in a million. fire return interval at the end of the dormant season may be
appropriate in such cases. Unburned habitat should always
Although the use of herbicides in forest management be present for nesting. Thus, it is important to not burn all
has increased, all chemicals are now tested before being available habitat in one year.
approved for use, and we are more careful than ever to
minimize their potential danger. Many of them break down Scrubland birds, such as indigo bunting, loggerhead shrike,
rapidly after being applied. Moreover, both theoretical blue grosbeak, song sparrow, common yellowthroat,
calculations and field studies suggest prescribed fires are hot yellow-breasted chat, and brown thrasher require some
enough to destroy any chemical residues. Minute quantities level of shrub component in their habitat. Dormant-season
that may end up in smoke are well within currently-accepted prescribed fire implemented on a 3- to 5-year fire return
air quality standards. Threshold limit values (TLVs) are interval in areas that receive full sunlight will maintain a
often used to measure the safety of herbicide residues in shrub component that attracts these birds.
smoke. Expected exposure rates of workers to various
brown-and-burn combinations have been compared with Prescribed burning in a closed-canopy forest will not
TLVs. They showed virtually no potential for harm to improve conditions for forest songbirds that require a well-
workers or the general public. developed understory, such as black-throated blue warbler,
hooded warbler, worm-eating warbler, white-eyed vireo, and
There is at least one group of compounds carried in smoke Kentucky warbler. However, forests with a broken canopy
that can have an immediate acute impact on individuals. that allows more than 30 percent sunlight to reach the forest
Smoke can cause skin rashes when noxious plants such as floor may be managed with fire to develop suitable structure.
poison ivy burn. These rashes can be much more widespread In these forests, dormant-season fire on a 3- to 5-year fire
on the body than those caused by direct contact with the return interval will maintain a well-developed understory.
plants. Wear respirators or avoid inhaling any smoke when In more open hardwood woodlands a 3- to 4-year fire
burning areas where poison ivy grows. return interval will maintain suitable habitat for northern
flicker, red-headed woodpecker, prairie warbler, indigo
WIlDlIFE bunting, eastern towhee, fox sparrow, chipping sparrow, and
chestnut-sided warbler. Open pine woodlands and savannas
The major effects of prescribed burning on wildlife are should be maintained with a 2- to 3-year fire return interval
indirect. However, a change in the structure and composition for red-cockaded woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker,
of vegetation impacts availability of food and cover, which Bachman’s sparrow, and brown-headed nuthatch.
directly influences the health, abundance, and diversity
of wildlife. Direct mortality of wildlife from prescribed GAME BIRDS—The northern bobwhite is considered
burning is rare. the “model” fire-adapted species. It requires frequent
disturbance and prescribed fire is essential to promote and
Prescribed burns can be scheduled during periods that are maintain suitable quail habitat. Burning in closed-canopy
not critical to reproduction and survival of wildlife. For woods will not benefit northern bobwhite. Basal area of
example, burning can be conducted outside the primary forested areas should not exceed 50 square feet per acre
nesting season of focal species, and areas may be burned where the bobwhite is a focal species. Suitable cover may
on a rotation and scale such that adequate cover is always be promoted and maintained in woodlands, savannas,
available in the appropriate proximity for nesting, rearing shrublands and grasslands by burning on a 2- to 5-year fire
young, feeding, escaping predators, and winter survival. return interval. Alternating dormant- and growing-season
fire will maintain structural diversity. A diverse composition

15
of native grass, forb, and shrub cover is critical. Do not mating season begins. Recently burned emergent wetlands
burn all available cover in one year, but burn on rotation so are favorite spots for snipe to feed.
that cover for nesting, raising broods, and escape is always
present in a given area. WHITE-TAIlED DEER—Burning in closed-canopy forest
will do little to improve browse availability or fawning
A recently burned area is an immediate attraction for wild cover for white-tailed deer. However, pine and upland
turkeys. Seeds, acorns, and invertebrates are exposed and hardwood stands that allow >30 percent sunlight and early
made more available to foraging turkeys. Burning on a 2- to successional areas can be burned during the dormant- or
4-year fire return interval in pine and upland hardwoods early growing season on a 3- to 4-year fire return interval
that allow more than 30 percent sunlight to reach the forest to increase/maintain browse, bramble, forb, and soft mast
floor will stimulate increased groundcover and soft mast availability. Plants such as old-field aster, pokeweed,
production that will enhance conditions for nesting and ragweed, beggar’s-lice, and blackberry are preferred foods
raising broods. Early successional openings should be for white-tails and respond well to periodic fire. Old-fields
burned on a 2- to 3-year interval to provide open conditions may be burned during the late growing season to control
at the ground level and facilitate brood use. Burning during woody competition and increase forb coverage. Periodic
the growing season in longleaf systems has been a concern prescribed fire will maintain browse species, such as
because of potential nest destruction. However, wild turkeys greenbrier, blackgum, and winged elm, at a height available
readily re-nest, especially if the nest is disturbed during the to white-tails and stimulate highly palatable and nutritious
laying or early incubation period. Nonetheless, the overall fresh growth.
benefit of habitat improvement to the population generally
out-weighs the potential negative of losing a few nests. OTHER MAMMAlS—Prescribed burning can increase
or maintain dense understory cover and production of soft
Burning upland hardwoods on southern, western, and mast (blackberries, blueberries, huckleberry, and pokeweed)
eastern exposures in the southern Appalachian Mountains that is critical for black bear. Gray and red fox, coyote, and
can benefit ruffed grouse if adequate sunlight is available to bobcat are also attracted to these areas, either for soft mast
stimulate understory development. Dormant-season fire on or small mammal prey. Rabbits, groundhog, and several
a 4- to 5-year fire return interval may be used to maintain species of small mammals benefit from fresh vegetation
woody stem density and brood cover. Fire consumes the arising postfire, especially where fields are adjacent to dense
litter layer and increases availability of mast, seed, and cover. Maintaining early successional openings with early
invertebrates. Early growing-season fire should not be used growing-season fire on a 2- to 4-year fire return interval
because ruffed grouse do not readily re-nest in the southern is highly recommended. Fox squirrels in pine-dominated
Appalachians. systems along the Coastal Plain benefit from frequent
growing-season fire that maintains an open understory
Other game birds in the South that benefit from prescribed and midstory.
burning include the mourning dove, American woodcock,
and Wilson’s snipe. Recently burned cut-overs and old fields REPTIlES AND AMPHIBIANS—Prescribed fire is
are extremely attractive sites for doves to feed. Woodcock critical to restore and maintain habitat for species endemic
are also attracted to burned cut-overs in mid-winter as the to fire prone systems, such as the indigo snake, pine snake,
eastern diamondback rattlesnake, eastern coral snake,
gopher tortoise, gopher frog, and pine barrens treefrog.
In upland hardwoods, prescribed burning may lead to
drier site conditions as the litter layer is consumed and
overhead vegetation is removed; however, populations of
Plethodontid salamanders have not been found adversely
affected and lizards and other reptiles may benefit from the
altered conditions. Infrequent burning of isolated wetlands
or bogs helps limit encroachment by woody vegetation and
maintains more open conditions favored by many species of
reptiles and amphibians.

AqUATIC ORGANISMS—Prescribed fire does not

necessarily benefit aquatic organisms, but it should not
Prescribed burning attracts wildlife. Photo by Dale Wade, Rx Fire Doctor,
have adverse effects when implemented properly. Burning
Bugwood.org conditions are often unfavorable along riparian zones
because of increased fuel moisture and humidity. However,

16
waterways are often used as firebreaks, and when fire
creeps into a riparian zone, it should not cause alarm. If
a waterway is not allowed to act as a firebreak, a plowed
or disked firebreak should not be established adjacent to
the waterway. An adequate buffer should be maintained
between the firebreak and riparian zone to prevent possible
sedimentation, which is much more likely to result from a
plowed or disked firebreak than underburning in the riparian
zone. Indeed, the positive effects of prescribed burning on
vegetation and associated wildlife are just as applicable in a
riparian zone as in the uplands.

AESTHETICS Aesthetics and species diversity can be enhanced by

prescribed fire.

Prescribed burning creates immediate and substantial Undesirable aesthetic impacts are relatively short term and
changes to the appearance of Southern forests and can be minimized by considering scenic qualities when
grasslands, particularly if the area has not been burned in planning a burn. For example, the increased turbulence and
three years or more. Grasslands are blackened and plants updrafts along roads and other forest openings will cause
are consumed. Forests have dead understory plants, char more intense fire with resulting higher tree trunk char and
along the stems of trees, and possibly crown scorch. These needle scorch.
short-term changes can be perceived as negative or positive
depending on the values and experiences of the observer. Variety or diversity in vegetative cover can create a more
Many prefer unmanaged forests and dislike widespread and pleasing, general visual character. Similarly, scenic qualities
sudden change, especially when large tracts are burned. of the forest can be better appreciated if the stand can be
Others appreciate the benefits of prescribed burning and made more transparent. An example is the reduction of an
are less concerned with blackened surfaces. Many people understory buildup along a forest road that will permit the
prefer the appearance of open forests created by repeated traveler to see into the interior of the stand, perhaps to a
prescribed burning to forests with a dense understory that landscape feature such as a pond or interesting rock outcrop.
are burned infrequently or never. The smutty appearance of the ground will “green up” fairly
quickly and burning during the growing season can help
minimize the length of time before green-up. Any scorched
needle will soon drop and not be noticeable.

17
Weather and Fuel
Considerations
INTRODUCTION ambient air which favors the movement of moisture from
the warmed fuel to the atmosphere. When temperatures
The choice of weather conditions under which a prescribed drop below freezing and liquid water in and on fuels turns
fire is conducted is key to controlling the fire and meeting to ice, fire intensity will be significantly lower as more heat
the objectives of the burn. For a given site, the topography is required to change ice to liquid water before it can be
and fuel type/loading are generally fixed constraints, while vaporized and driven off as steam. Consequently, it does
the weather parameters that influence fire behavior and not take much moisture at below freezing temperatures to
fuel moisture content are the variables that a manager can produce a slow moving fire that tends to leave large
choose to obtain a fire of the desired intensity. The weather areas unburned.
variables of primary interest for determining fire behavior
are temperature, relative humidity, wind, rainfall and For debris burning, cleared areas are often burned with
atmospheric stability (for smoke management considerations high ambient air temperatures as there is no overstory to
mixing height and transport winds are also relevant). Since protect. These high temperatures also frequently coincide
weather is such a critical factor in successful prescribed with high mixing height values which can help with smoke
burning one should become familiar with local weather dispersion. It is important to use an ignition pattern that will
patterns and develop an understanding of how the weather draw heat into the cleared area to help prevent heat damage
changes throughout the day for a given site. Experienced to trees in adjacent stands. On fairly flat terrain a ring fire
prescribed burners can utilize an understanding of how local including center ignition is often used. On steep slopes,
weather and fuels interact to conduct successful prescribed the upper control line is first ignited and when the fire has
burns even with one or more factors outside the desired backed down hill far enough to create a substantial black
range as long as other factors can compensate. The judicious line, the remainder is burned with strip headfires proceeding
burner will become familiar with the location of agency downhill (and igniting both flanks as you proceed) or by
weather stations where data is collected so that differences igniting the two flanks at the same time and then firing the
between the agency site and the burn site can be bottom line. One should always bring fire down the flanks as
mentally reconciled. the burn proceeds to help prevent slopeover.

IMPORTANT WEATHER ElEMENTS In mountainous terrain temperatures vary substantially with

elevation. As a general rule the temperature decreases
TEMPERATURE—Temperature needs to be considered for 3.5 °F for every 1,000-foot increase in elevation. The
two reasons. First, high temperatures can damage overstory primary exception to this rule being the occasional presence
vegetation. The average instantaneous lethal temperature of a warm band part way the slope called a thermal belt.
for living tissue is around 140 °F. Lower air temperatures Most common at night, the thermal belt results when an
are recommended for most prescribed burning because the inversion (a layer of air in which the temperature increases
lower the temperature, the more heat is required to raise with height) intersects the slope. North facing slopes tend to
foliage temperature to a lethal level. Air temperatures below be cooler than south facing slopes.
60 °F are recommended for winter understory burning.
If the burn objective is to control undesirable species (or ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE—Atmospheric moisture
preserving the overstory is not a concern) then growing content plays a crucial role in wildland fire as it exerts the
season burns with ambient air temperatures of major influence on fine-fuel moisture content. The moisture
80 °F are recommended. How susceptible a stand is to content of the atmosphere can be expressed in a number
temperature related damage is related to bark thickness, of ways, but the most commonly used in prescribed fire is
crown base height, and duration of the heat pulse. relative humidity. As the name implies, relative humidity
is not an exact measure of the moisture content of the
Secondly, temperature plays a role in the moisture dynamics atmosphere, but rather a relative expression of the moisture
of forest fuels. For the same atmospheric moisture content, content compared to the saturation value for a given
higher temperatures help to dry fuels more quickly. Fuels temperature and pressure. The lower the relative humidity,
exposed to direct solar radiation become warmer than the the more rapidly fuels will dry.

19
 Daily cycle of temperature and relative humidity.

The linkage of relative humidity and temperature causes landing outside the planned burn begin to ignite spot fires.
the relative humidity to reach a daily minimum when the In many southern states relative humidities below 30-35
temperature peaks, generally early to mid-afternoon. As percent warrant a Red Flag Warning issued by the National
the temperature rises, the saturation moisture content of Weather Service for potentially hazardous fire weather
the atmosphere also increases which causes the relative conditions. However, note that these low relative humidities
humidity to decrease; providing the actual moisture content are often measured and forecast for open areas and do
of the air stays the same. For every 20 °F increase in not fully consider the presence of a tree canopy. In-stand
temperature, the relative humidity is decreased by half as humidities are often higher than in open areas due to lower
long as the air mass is not replaced, such as with passage of temperatures and the tendency for fuels to dry more slowly
a sea-breeze front. When the temperature drops by 20 °F, the under canopy. Be aware that the air above the canopy will
relative humidity doubles. have considerably lower relative humidity values which can
be transported through the canopy by convective eddies and
This relationship holds as long as the moisture content of the lead to erratic fire behavior.
air remains the same. When a cold front passes over an area,
the air behind the front is cooler and drier than the old air As relative humidity increases, less fuel will burn resulting
mass it is replacing and both the temperature and the relative in a lower fireline intensity and patchier burn; the end result
humidity drop. A common weather parameter useful for may be a burn that did not accomplish the
tracking such changes in moisture content is the dew point. desired objective(s).
The definition of dew point is the temperature to which air
must be cooled to reach its saturation point. When the dew For debris burning one is normally concerned with fuels
point is high there is much more water vapor in the air than larger than the fine dead fuels that carry an understory
when the dew point is low. In the case of the passing cold fire. Relative humidity and temperature also influence the
front, both the temperature and the dew point drop; and it is moisture content of these larger fuels but with a much
the drop in dew point that accounts for the drop in relative longer time lag. Liquid moisture in the form of rainfall or
humidity behind a cold front. The dew point can provide dew can also influence fuel moisture depending upon the
additional useful information. As the definition states, when amount and duration. Recently cut pine tops have a drying
the air temperature approaches the dew point the air mass rate that is somewhat independent of relative humidity while
begins to saturate, leading to the formation of dew and fog. the moisture content is above 32 percent. Once the tops
have dried past this threshold they respond to drying similar
The preferred range in relative humidity for prescription to other dead fuels and respond more readily to changes
burns is between 30 and 55 percent, although some in relative humidity. The spatial arrangement of fuels is
uncommon objectives call for a relative humidity above or important in how fast they dry. Needles/leaves on elevated
below this range. At the lower end of this range prescribed branches dry much more rapidly than those in contact with
burning can become dangerous as fire intensities increase the litter as the damp litter layer acts as a source of moisture
and fine dead fuels quickly dry to the point where embers for the needles/leaves.

20
When burning debris piles, once the larger fuels ignite, use cross slope and down-slope surface wind directions to
increases in relative humidity have little impact on fire reduce fireline intensity of fires burning upslope, but this
behavior during the active burning phase. Low humidities should not be attempted by the novice. In-stand winds of
(below around 30 percent), however, will promote spotting 1 to 3 miles per hour (measured at eye level) are preferred
and increase the likelihood of fire spreading between piles. for most fuel and topographic situations. For a fairly dense
canopy this would require 20-foot wind speeds of at least
In mountainous areas, as with temperature, relative humidity 10 miles per hour (for more open conditions a minimum
is going to vary with elevation and aspect. Be aware of wind speed of 6 miles per hour would be sufficient to move
how conditions will likely change as a fire move across the the fire). The maximum 20-foot wind speed generally
terrain. Acceptable weather conditions/fire behavior on one recommended for prescribed burning is 20 miles per
part of the slope may lead to undesirable fire behavior hour; although some stands can tolerate burning at higher
on another. wind speeds. The maximum 20 foot wind speed generally
recommended when using a backing fire is 12-14 miles
WIND—Wind speed and direction along with topography per hour because of fire control implications from an
control how fast and in which direction a fire will spread. unexpected wind shift.
In addition, winds play a critical role in limiting crown
scorch by rapidly diluting the heat pulse from the fire before Winds that are consistent in direction make executing the
it rises through the canopy. When using backing fires, burn easier and keep smoke moving as planned. Standard
the combination of strong winds and cold temperatures operating procedure for dormant season burns are to utilize
protects overstory crowns from scorch; although any shift west to northwest winds following passage of a cold front
in wind direction is likely to produce a sudden increase in because they are generally strong and fairly consistent
fire behavior. Limiting crown scorch with headfires is more in direction as they slowly shift clockwise over the next
complex as the advantage of stronger winds in reducing the few days. Prefrontal winds from the southwest are also
heat pulse is offset by increases in rate of spread and reliable and are a good alternative when smoke sensitive
flame length. areas preclude burning on northerly winds. The only caveat
here is that the burn should be completed before the front
Two types of wind information are generally reported passes because of the associated wind shift and likelihood
in fire weather forecasts, transport winds and surface of precipitation. If the burn is ongoing when the front
winds. Transport winds are often reported as part of a arrives, fireline intensity will change, smoke will move
smoke management section of a forecast and represent the in an unplanned direction, and precipitation will likely
average wind speed and direction from the ground up to the extinguish the fire thereby forcing you to return another day
mixing height (more on this term later). Surface winds are to finish the burn—not an efficient use of time and money.
measured 20 feet above the average height of surrounding If, however, the burn is completed before precipitation
obstructions, so unless burning open areas more than about begins, mopup is greatly facilitated. Prudent burners often
200 feet on a side, these wind speeds have to be reduced to ask for a spot weather forecast when contemplating a burn
conform to in-stand conditions, the amount of the reduction utilizing pre-frontal winds so ignition can be timed to ensure
dependent upon understory density and height and canopy burn completion an hour or two before the precipitation is
tree density. forecast to arrive.

some general rules of thumb are: It is important to understand local factors that can lead to
1) In well maintained open longleaf pine stands or other changes in wind direction such as sea and land breezes
open stands, multiply surface wind speeds by 0.5; along the coast and winds driven by topography. The sea
2) For more dense stands with minimal understory (those breeze is a mini front produced because land heats faster
burned every 1-4 years), multiply surface wind speeds than nearby bodies of water, creating a thermal gradient
by 0.3; that drives an onshore wind; the bigger the temperature
3) For more dense stands with thicker understory (those difference, the stronger the wind and the farther it will
burned every 5-10 years), multiply by 0.2; move inland. As the sun goes down, the ground then cools
4) For very dense stands and dense understory (dog hair faster than nearby water bodies and airflow reverses moving
stands), multiply surface wind speeds by 0.1. from land to water. Land breezes are weaker than sea
breezes as the temperature differences are normally smaller.
Prescribed fires behave in a more predictable manner when Sea breezes are typically strongest in spring when the
the surface wind speed and direction are steady and are temperature gradient is sharpest but they can occur any time
necessary to give the burner control over direction of fire of year. Sea breezes tend to cross the coast at a right angle to
spread on flat ground. In rough terrain, slope acts like wind it and thunderstorms and lightning are often associated with
to give a fire direction. Experienced burners sometimes the leading edge. A sea breeze can override gradient wind

21
 Wildfire burning under fairly steady conditions
prior to sea breeze arrival.

Fire Smoke

Sea Breeze

Convergence ahead of sea breeze fronts

enhances vertical motion, making the plume
more upright, inflows into fire increase in
strength, feeding more oxygen into the fire.
Potential for spotting increases.

Small change in weather brought about just

prior to the passage of the sea breeze front was
enough to transition this fire from a wind driven
fire to a plume dominated fire.

Approach of sea breezeof

Approach front
seacanbreeze
bring about rapidcan
front short bring
term increases
aboutinrapid
fire intensity.
short term increases in fire intensity.

resulting in a different wind direction. Sea breeze pattern is different slopes/aspects at differing rates. This differential
consistent so local knowledge can provide the hour of the heating forces winds to flow upslope and up valley during
day it arrives at a given location; this information is used the day with the strongest winds typically being on
to determine whether a burn can be conducted before its southwest facing aspects. A key feature of these locally
arrival or to provide an ignition time if this phenomenon is driven winds is that they are just that, local phenomena.
to be used to move the smoke in that direction. In areas of Local knowledge of an area will help one better understand
complex topography, as the day progresses the sun warms these local wind patterns. Other local features to consider

22
for changing wind conditions include major changes in ATMOSPHERIC STABIlITY AND DISPERSION—
canopy density and land use, large lakes and rivers, urban Atmospheric stability is the resistance of the atmosphere to
areas, transmission line rights of way and roads. vertical motion and its primary importance for prescribed
burning is related to fire behavior and smoke dispersion.
Thunderstorms are a major problem when a prescribed burn A stable atmosphere typically results in poor burning
is in progress: 1) rain may dose the fire, 2) personnel face conditions and limits formation of a well defined convective
the threat of lightning and, 3) dramatic temporary changes column thereby severely stifling vertical mixing of smoke
in wind speed and direction will take place; thunderstorm through the lower atmosphere. In an unstable atmosphere,
downdrafts hit the ground and spread in all directions at smoke and combustion products from a fire rapidly rise,
speeds up to 60 miles per hour resulting in sudden changes forming a well defined convective column. The rising
in fireline intensity and direction of fire spread. Prudent air strengthens indrafts into the fire which increase fire
burners try to schedule growing season burns so they will intensity, further strengthening the convective column.
be completed before daily thunderstorm activity picks up. While these conditions are ideal for removing smoke from
Thunderstorm outflows can travel long distances the burn site and dispersing it downwind, they often bring
(30+ miles), particularly across the coastal plain of the fire behavior and containment concerns such as erratic
southeast and can produce very abrupt wind shifts that can’t winds, enhanced spotting and an increased potential
currently be forecast. for crowning.

When broadcast burning heavy fuel loads in open areas Inversions are very stable layers in the atmosphere that
such as logging debris, eye-level winds over about 4 miles act as lids which severely limit vertical motion within that
per hour can create control problems if a head fire is used; layer. The most common inversions in the southeastern
experienced burners can often compensate for high wind United States are nocturnal inversions and the upper level
speeds by altering planned ignition patterns. With piled inversions that often mark the top of the mixed layer. A
debris, winds of 8-10 miles per hour can be tolerated, but nocturnal inversion forms at night as the ground cools.
relative humidities above 40 percent are desirable to reduce This surface cooling also cools the adjacent atmosphere
the spotting potential. and gradually builds an inversion at the surface. When
the sun rises and begins heating the ground, the surface
In mountainous terrain, winds typically increase with inversion is rapidly eroded. The mixed layer, that region
height in the atmosphere. Looking at a wind profile (or of the atmosphere adjacent to the ground, where thermally
at least looking at the transport wind speed) will provide driven eddies quickly mix atmospheric conditions towards
information on how strong the winds are above the surface. a homogenous state, is often capped by an inversion. The
As elevation increases, the probability of exposure to these mixing height is defined as the distance from the ground
stronger winds aloft also increases. to the base of this inversion. Inversions act as barriers to

20-FOOT WINDSPEED IS ADJUSTED TO

MIDFLAME WINDSPEED BASED ON UNSHELTERED
FUELS

WIND
Fuel on high ridges
PARTIALLY where trees o!er little
SHELTERED shelter from wind
FUELS
Fuel beneath standing timber at
FULLY midslope or higher with wind
SHELTERED blowing at slope
PARTIALLY UNSHELTERED FUELS
SHELTERED FUELS
FUELS Fuel sheltered beneath standing
timber with foliage on at or gentle
slope or near base of mountain with
steeper slopes

Fuel beneath timber near clearing

Fuel beneath Fuel exposed
Fuel beneath or clearcuts
patchy timber to wind - no
timber that has
where it is not overstory or
lost its foliage
well sheltered sparse
overstory

How slope position and canopy closure influence wind speed.

23
 Smoke plume for a low intensity fire on a windy day with a stable atmosphere. Plume rises gradually and smoke is fairly
evenly distributed between the ground and the mixing height downward of the fire.

vertical motion within the atmosphere and will therefore ability to transport smoke. Note that the availability of the
tend to limit the vertical mixing of smoke within the indices in fire weather forecasts varies as different states
atmosphere. However, these barriers are not impenetrable. may require the use of different indices.
Smoke will continue to rise vertically as long as it is warmer
than the surrounding air; therefore for smoke to be injected The Ventilation Index (VI) expresses the lower atmosphere’s
above the mixing height requires a fire with enough intensity ability to diffuse and disperse smoke and is calculated by
that the ascending smoke column is warmer than the air at multiplying the mixing height and transport wind speed.
the top of the inversion. Injecting smoke above the mixed Care should be taken in choosing acceptable ranges for
layer is often accomplished through aerial ignition as large mixing height and transport winds. Do not consider these
areas can be ignited simultaneously to produce well defined parameters independently. The VI is a handy tool to show
convective columns. whether your selected values provide an acceptable level
of ventilation. Note that the VI is really only applicable
The Haines Index is a stability index specifically designed far downwind of the source, once atmospheric eddies have
for fire weather that ranks both the lapse rate and the mixed the smoke throughout the mixed layer.
presence of dry air aloft on scales of 1-3 and then combines
these values to give an index value from 2 (stable and moist) The Atmospheric Dispersion Index (ADI) developed
through 6 (unstable and dry). The Haines Index is primarily by Lavdas (1986) improves upon the VI by including
used on wildfires to evaluate the potential for large fire atmospheric stability in the calculation through the use of
growth (index values >=5). For prescribed fires, the Haines
Index provides a means to evaluate the stability with an eye
towards possible control problems as the index increases.

For smoke management purposes the primary tools for

understanding atmospheric stability center around the
mixing height, transport winds and various indices derived
from these them. Mixing height, as stated previously, is
the height to which vigorous mixing of the atmosphere
occurs and is often marked by the presence of an inversion.
Transport wind is the vertically averaged wind from
the ground up to the mixing height. A variety of indices
(ventilation index, atmospheric dispersion index and low
visibility risk occurrence index) combines mixing height and Change in temperature structure between 0700 and 1500. Strong surface
transport wind to provide an estimate of the atmosphere’s inversion at 0700 is eroded throughout the day by surface heating
producing an unstable layer at the surface.

24
 Smoke plume for a high intensity fire on a windy day with an unstable atmosphere. Plume rises rapidly and penetrates
above the mixing height. Most of the smoke is at or above the mixing height and will gradually mix back down toward the
ground later in the day.

a surface-based climatological dispersion model. The ADI atmosphere is considered in the calculation of the transport
rates the potential impact of a pollutant source at one end winds. After sunset the mixing height decreases fairly
of a 50-km rectangular control volume. Low values of ADI quickly. If you are starting a burn before noon, it may be a
indicate poor dispersion. A doubling of the ADI implies good idea to ask for a spot weather forecast that includes
a doubling of the of dispersion effectiveness. During the information on expected mixing height and transport wind
daytime, good values for prescribed burning range from 40 information for mid-morning from the National Weather
to 60. Values exceeding 60 while producing good dispersion Service or other weather provider.
can be accompanied by erratic fire behavior; therefore,
caution should be used when burning with ADI values over A special note needs to be made for evaluating nighttime
60. At night, dispersion is normally much poorer than during conditions with regard to stability and the potential for fog
the day and is therefore generally evaluated on a separate (or a mixture of smoke and fog). A separate index, the Low
scale from daytime conditions. Nighttime ADI values rarely Visibility Occurrence Risk Index or LVORI, combines the
exceed a value of 10. ADI with maximum nighttime relative humidity to estimate
the likelihood of smoke or fog being reported at a roadway
Exercise caution for cases with high transport winds and accident site (Lavdas and Achtemeier, 1995). The index
low mixing heights as this can prevent smoke from rising ranges from 1 (few smoke/fog related accident occurred
vertically due to the plume being bent over, which can result under these conditions) to 10 (majority of smoke/fog related
in much higher than expected surface smoke concentrations. accidents occurred under these conditions). It should be
At the other end of the scale, be cautious of conditions with noted that the LVORI was developed using accident records
low transport wind speeds and high mixing heights as these from Florida; therefore its applicability in other regions
conditions usually coincide with a very unstable may be questioned. From a meteorological perspective the
atmosphere which can lead to erratic fire behavior and LVORI as developed should apply for the coastal plain of
containment problems. the southeast but may not be applicable in the mountains.
Other criteria to consider when evaluating the potential for
Keep in mind that forecast mixing height and transport wind fog or nighttime smoke problems include: clear skies, moist
values are the values expected for mid-afternoon, not all ground, light winds, and dew point and low temperature
day. The mixing height increases with heating during the within 2 °F of each other.
day and as the mixing height grows a deeper layer of the

25
 Mixing Height (ft)
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3500 4000 4500
4 7040 8214 9387 10560 11734 12907 14080 15254 16427 17600 20534 23467 26401
5 8800 10267 11734 13200 14667 16134 17600 19067 20534 22001 25667 29334 33001
Transport Wind Speed (mph)

6 10560 12320 14080 15840 17600 19360 21120 22881 24641 26401 30801 35201 39601
7 12320 14374 16427 18480 20534 22587 24641 26694 28747 30801 35934 41068 46201
8 14080 16427 18774 21120 23467 25814 28161 30507 32854 35201 41068 46934 52801
9 15840 18480 21120 23761 26401 29041 31681 34321 36961 39601 46201 52801 59401
10 17600 20534 23467 26401 29334 32267 35201 38134 41068 44001 51335 58668 66002
11 19360 22587 25814 29041 32267 35494 38721 41948 45174 48401 56468 64535 72602
12 21120 24641 28161 31681 35201 38721 42241 45761 49281 52801 61601 70402 79202
13 22881 26694 30507 34321 38134 41948 45761 49574 53388 57201 66735 76268 85802
14 24641 28747 32854 36961 41068 45174 49281 53388 57495 61601 71868 82135 92402
15 26401 30801 35201 39601 44001 48401 52801 57201 61601 66002 77002 88002 99002
16 28161 32854 37548 42241 46934 51628 56321 61015 65708 70402 82135 93869 105602
17 29921 34907 39894 44881 49868 54855 59841 64828 69815 74802 87269 99736 112203
18 31681 36961 42241 47521 52801 58081 63361 68642 73922 79202 92402 105602 118803
19 33441 39014 44588 50161 55735 61308 66882 72455 78028 83602 97536 111469 125403
Table of Ventilation
Table Index values,
of Ventilation red values
Index represent
values, poor ventilation
red values represent (<25,800
poor sq ft per second),
ventilation yellow values
(<25,800 sq ft are
perfair levels of ventilation
(25,800-38,750 sq ft per second), and green values are good ventilation (>38,750 sq ft per second).
second), yellow values are fair levels of ventilation (25,800-38,750 sq ft per second) and green
values are good ventilation (>38,750 sq ft per second).

Mixing Height (ft)

1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3500 4000 4500
4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 18 20 23
5 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 22 25 28
Transport Wind Speed (mph)

6 9 11 12 14 15 17 18 20 21 23 26 30 34
7 11 13 14 16 18 19 21 23 25 26 31 35 39
8 13 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 35 40 45
9 14 16 18 20 23 25 27 29 32 34 39 45 51
10 16 18 20 23 25 28 30 33 35 38 44 50 56
11 17 20 23 25 28 31 33 36 39 41 48 55 62
12 19 22 25 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 53 60 68
13 20 23 27 30 33 36 39 42 46 49 57 65 73
14 22 25 29 32 35 39 42 46 49 53 61 70 79
15 23 27 31 34 38 42 45 49 53 56 66 75 84
16 25 29 33 37 41 44 48 52 56 60 70 80 90
17 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 56 60 64 74 85 96
18 28 33 37 41 46 50 54 59 63 68 79 90 101
19 30 34 39 44 48 53 57 62 67 71 83 95 107
Table of average
Table of ADI valuesADI
average for moderately
values for unstable conditions,
moderately red values
unstable represent poor
conditions, reddispersion (<=20), yellow
values represent poorvalues are fair dispersion
(21-40), and green values
dispersion (<=20),are good dispersion
yellow values(>40). The ADI
are fair is a function
dispersion of stability
(21-40) and thisvalues
and green table only
areshows
goodADI values assuming a
dispersion
moderately
(>40).unstable atmosphere.
The ADI If actual of
is a function conditions areand
stability morethis
stable (or unstable)
table only showsthe actual
ADIADI values
values would be lower
assuming a (or higher) than those
in the table. If available fuel load exceeds about 3 tons/acre and burn unit size is more than a couple of acres, only burn when the forescast
ADI ismoderately unstable atmosphere. If actual conditions are more stable (or unstable) the actual
in the green zone.
ADI values would be lower (or higher) than those in the table. If available fuel load exceeds
For debris burning,
aboutstrong convection
3 tons/acre over unit
and burn cleared
size areas area and
is more than a couple allow burn
of acres, crew when
only burn to clearly see along control lines
the forecast
burned for site preparation
ADI is in theofgreen
slashzone
disposal helps vent and quickly attack any slopovers. Be on the alert for large
smoke into the upper atmosphere. A convection column pieces of burning fuel sucked into the column that are still
will continue to rise until it cools to the temperature of the smoldering when they drop to the ground at some distance
surrounding air or encounters a sufficiently strong inversion downwind; burning with relative humidity above 45 percent
layer. A strong convection column also forms surface will virtually eliminate this potential problem unless the
level indrafts that help confine the fire to its prescribed material is still flaming.

26
 Atmospheric Dispersion Index (ADI)
RH 1 2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-16 17-25 26-30 31-40 > 40
< 55 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
55-59 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
60-64 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1
65-69 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1
70-74 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
75-79 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
80-82 6 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
83-85 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
86-88 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4
89-91 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4
92-94 8 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4
95-97 9 8 8 7 6 6 6 5 5 4 4 4
> 97 10 10 9 9 8 8 7 5 5 4 4 4

Table of LVORI values as a function of Atmospheric Dispersion Index and Relative Humidity. Green = conditions
with lowest proportion of accidents. White = proportion of accidents increased by a factor of 2-10 over green.
Yellow= proportion of accidents increased by a factor of 10-40 over green. Orange = proportion of accidents
increased by a factor of 40-150 over green.

Whenever a burn is conducted in mountainous terrain, When using aerial ignition techniques at the high end of
diurnal slope winds must be considered. As soon as the the prescription window it is possible to ignite too much
slope is heated by the morning sun, an upslope breeze area too quickly; which can combine with an unstable
results which will increase in strength into the early atmosphere to enhance spotting, crowning and other
afternoon. Igniting a fire at the base of the slope during the indicators of erratic fire behavior. The prudent burn boss
day will allow the heat of the fire to work with the heated will temporarily halt ignition and assess behavior of the first
slope to provide extra lift to the smoke, increasing chances row or two of spot fires before deciding whether to adjust
of venting smoke above the mixed layer but be exceeding ignition pattern, change firing technique, terminate the burn,
cautious when contemplating this tactic because fireline or continue as planned.
intensity will continue to rapidly increase until the crest/
ridgeline is reached generally resulting in crown scorch, RAINFAll AND DROUGHT—Rainfall prior to a
bole damage and containment problems unless the control prescribed burn is extremely important as it affects both
line is located 50-100 feet downhill over the ridge. At night fuel moisture and soil moisture. Damp soil protects tree
surface cooling drives wind and residual smoke downslope roots and microorganisms. Even when burning to expose a
as mentioned above, concentrating smoke in low mineral soil seedbed, it is desirable to leave a thin layer of
lying areas. organic material. Burning should cease during periods of

Visual Indicators of Atmospheric Stability

Stable Unstable
Clouds in layers, stratus type clouds Clouds grow vertically, cumulus type clouds
Smoke columns drift apart after limited rise Smoke columns rise to great heights
Poor visibility due to haze or smoke Good visibility
Fog Dust devils and firewhirls form
Steady winds Gusty surface winds

27
 KBDI and Prescribed Fire Guidelines
KBDI Notes
Range
0-100 Conditions generally so wet fires will go out
Too wet to accomplish most prescribed burn objectives
100- Marginal conditions for most understory burns.
200 100- and 1000-hour fuels do not contribute to fire intensity.
Most soil organic material, duff and lower litter layers left intact.
Some re-ignition likely needed for burns to meet objectives.
Good range for re-introductory fires after long periods of exclusion. Minimal mopup
required.
Smoke management focused on the period of the burn as little smoldering is expected.
Any depression likely to stop fire spread resulting in patchy burns.
Natural features such as creeks are effective control lines.
Fires can still be quite intense as KBDI is not an indicator of 1- and 10-hour fuel
moisture contents.
200- Lower litter and duff layers begin to show signs of water loss and contribute to fire
400 intensity.
Expect an overall increase in fuel consumption.
Smoldering more of a concern for smoke management as larger fuels are more likely to
ignite and duff/litter layers may also contribute to residual smoke.
Evaluate all line conditions, especially any natural barriers. Ensure that lines are clear of
debris that would allow the fire to creep across.
400- Most likely in late summer/early fall (Florida with its summer rainy season being one
500 exception).
Very intense fires are likely in this range.
Most duff and litter will be consumed, exposing mineral soil in many cases.
Where duff is colonized by feeder roots expect increasing damage.
Consider postponing burns where a duff layer is present.
Mortality should be expected from fire as Index approaches 500.
Less residual smoke because less moisture in fuel allows more flaming consumption
and thus
less smoldering after passage of flame front.
All but the largest dead fuels will be consumed.
Long term smoldering will contribute to smoke management problems.
Control problems from spotting are likely.
Live fuel moistures will drop making ignition of understory vegetation easier.
500- Transition to extreme fire behavior conditions
600 Significant tree mortality should be expected where duff is present.
Most components of the fuel bed will burn intensely
Stop all prescribed fire activity
Expect all fires to harm the ecosystem
Rest crews for wildfire suppression.
Limit annual leave to family emergencies
600- Expect extensive overstory mortality in all species except pond pine & Melaleuca.

28
prolonged drought (KBDI [see below] above 450 on all but indicates that an intense burn may cause some feeder-root
sandy sites with well-maintained longleaf where cutoff is damage. However, a value of 400 can also be achieved by
around 550 – consult with local forestry agency for more having received over an inch of rain when the KBDI was
area specific thresholds) and resume only after a soaking around 500. In the case where a KBDI of 400 was achieved
rain of at least 1 inch. When the KBDI is below these through a rapid drop due to heavy rains, a brief window
threshold levels a quarter to half inch of rain followed by of adequate soil moisture for burning may occur, provided
sunny skies, brisk winds and low humidity will generally there are only 1-2 large (3+ inches in diameter) down logs
result in several days of good prescribed fire conditions with or stumps per acre. These larger fuels may appear wet on
adequate soil and feeder-root protection. the surface, but they are dry in the middle and if the fire gets
through this moist layer, the fuels will ignite and smolder for
On clay soils, such as found in the piedmont, much of days creating horrendous smoke management problems.
the rainfall is lost through runoff, and duration is more
important than amount. An inch of rain occurring in half Information on the KBDI can be obtained from local state
an hour will not produce the same soil moisture benefits as forestry agencies. Note that since the KBDI depends on
a half inch of rain over a two hour period. Even on sandy rainfall information there can be a great deal of spatial
Coastal Plain sites, small diameter fuels less than ½ inch variability in the value over short distances when areas have
in diameter will become saturated after just a few minutes been experiencing isolated to scattered shower activity.
of rain, but logs larger than 3 inches in diameter require a
soaking rain lasting several hours to approach saturation. Precipitation and drought conditions after the burn should be
considered as well as conditions leading up to the burn. Fire
DEBRIS BURNING—Generally rain has a greater impact is a stress on the stand and additional stress in the form of
on fuel moisture in cleared areas than under a canopy as no drought after a burn can seriously damage a stand. Consult
rain is lost to interception by the canopy. However, fuels long range (seasonal) weather forecasts available from the
in the open also tend to dry faster due to direct exposure to National Weather Service or state forestry agency to assess
sunlight and higher wind speeds. Burn cleared areas after the potential for below normal rainfall over the next
a hard rain while fuels in surrounding forested areas are few months.
still damp. Mountain burners often ignite open areas while
adjacent timbered areas still have a blanket of snow. When FUEl CONSIDERATIONS—Fine fuel moisture is
burning cleared areas, soil damage is as much a function strongly influenced by rainfall, relative humidity and
of fire intensity and duration as it is soil moisture. Intense, temperature. The preferred range in fine fuel moisture of
long duration fires will bake the soil regardless of the the upper litter layer (the surface layer of freshly fallen
moisture present at ignition. Both the chemical and physical needles and leaves) is from 8 to 15 percent. This range
properties of the soil can be altered. Undesirable fire effects is deliberately conservative and broad to encompass a
are often produced when burning windrowed or piled debris wide range of ecosystems. When fine fuel moisture levels
which is one reason that windrowing slash prior to burning reach around 7 percent damage to plant roots and soil is a
is not recommended; piles, if constructed, should be less possibility and postponing the burn should be considered
than 10-12 feet in diameter and piled using a root rake when as spot fires will become problematic and fire control will
both soil and fuel are dry. be a major issue. Moisture levels exceeding 16 percent in
hardwood stands and 20 percent for conifers can result in
The Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI) is one tool overly patchy, incomplete burns that do not accomplish the
available for assessing soil/duff moisture conditions. The desired objectives. However, such high fuel moisture levels
KBDI is based on the notion that the upper soil and duff can be desirable for heavy fuel loads to keep fire intensity
layer have a moisture capacity of eight inches at saturation. manageable, especially if aerial ignition is to be used. Note
At saturation the KBDI has a value of zero, reflecting zero that fine fuel moisture levels obtained from the National Fire
moisture deficit. A KBDI of 800 reflects a moisture deficit Danger Rating System (NFDRS) or fire behavior tables tend
of 8 inches or a complete lack of moisture in the theoretical to be lower than actual values as they reflect worst
soil layer. The KBDI is designed to be easily calculated and case conditions.
only requires information on mean annual rainfall, daily
rainfall and maximum daily temperature. Some experienced practitioners can accurately estimate fuel
moisture by examining a handful of litter or bending pine
Care should be taken in interpreting KBDI values as fire needles into loops to see if they snap, but the only accurate
behavior can differ for a given value of the index. For means of getting at the fuel moisture content is by oven
example, a value of 400 can indicate a prolonged period of drying samples (though this is not operationally practical).
drying during which the Index has steadily increased which Fuel moisture sticks that respond to weather changes like

29
 Fine Fuel Moisture
Reference Fuel Moisture
Daytime (8am-8pm)
Temperature Relative Humidity (%)
(F)
30- 35- 40- 45- 50- 55- 60- 65- 70- 75- 80- 85-
34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 89
30-49 5 6 7 7 7 8 9 9 10 10 11 12
50-69 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 11 12
70-89 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 10 10 11
90-109 4 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 10 10 11
Night Time (8pm-8am)
Temperature Relative Humidity (%)
(F)
30- 35- 40-
45- 50- 55- 60- 65- 70- 75- 80- 85-
34 39 4944 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 89
30-49 7 8 9 9 11 11 12 13 14 16 18 21
50-69 6 8 9 8 10 11 11 12 14 16 17 20
70-89 6 7 9 8 10 10 11 12 13 15 17 20
90-109 6 7 9 8 9 10 10 11 13 14 16 19
Seasonal Adjustment Factor
Nov-Dec-Jan Feb-Mar-Apr May-June-July Night Time
Aug-Sep-Oct
Daytime 8am-8pm 8am-8pm 8am-8pm 8pm 10pm
8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 9 14
Exposed (Less Than 50% Shading of Surface Fuels)
4 3 2 2 3 4 3 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 0 0 1 2
Shaded (Greater Than or Equal to 50% Shading of Surface Fuels)
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 4

Fine Fuel Moisture = [Reference Fuel Moisture] + [Seasonal Adjustment Factor]

If Fine Fuel Moisture less than 10 then Add 1
If Fine Fuel Moisture greater than or equal to 10 then Add 2
Example: Its 11:30 am December 16 and you have an RH of 68% and a temperature of 72F in
open flatwoods with 30% canopy cover and fair sky.
Reference Fuel Moisture = 8
Seasonal Adjustment Factor = 3
Fine Fuel Moisture = 8 + 3 = 11
Since the Fine Fuel Moisture is greater than 10, the Fine Fuel Moisture = 11 + 2 = 13%
Source: http://weather.gfc.state.ga.us/Info/FineFuelMoistureTable.pdf
(source: http://weather.gfc.state.ga.us/Info/FineFuelMoistureTable.pdf)

ten hour fuels are also a viable option provided they are oven dried samples. NFDRS values can be used as long as
placed correctly and properly maintained. Digital lumber their underestimation is taken into account.
moisture probes (available from most forestry suppliers) The lumber probe is recommended as it is fairly accurate
may be used to estimate the moisture content of fuels; and can be used to determine the moisture content of various
however, it is important to test the instrument before hand fuels. Litter moisture content can be estimated collecting
by comparing its estimates to fuel sticks, NFDRS values or a handful of surface litter (wear a glove), crumple it to get

30
rid of air spaces and stick it with the probe; take several
samples including lower litter/upper duff. Use the probe
consistently to build a mental database of the affect that
estimated fuel moisture content (using the probe) has on
fire behavior.

Do not just check the moisture condition of the upper litter/

duff but also check lower layers as well. Dry conditions
in the lower litter/duff often follow prolonged drought
periods (high KBDI values). Fires following prolonged dry
periods can often burn with unexpected intensity. When
burning on organic soils, this phenomenon can have drastic
consequences. If the fire dries the moist surface layer of
litter/duff, the underlying organic layer can ignite; leading
to a fire with the potential to smolder for weeks is spite of
control efforts, causing extensive smoke problems.
Effects of humidity and days since rain on fine-fuel moisture.
The prudent burner checks the moisture condition of the
upper litter in sun and shade as well as the duff layer if
present, and dead logs of various sizes. Dry conditions in How fuels respond to changes in relative humidity is a
the lower litter/duff often follow prolonged drought periods complex process that depends on fuelbed characteristics
(high KBDI values); and once the damper surface litter is and recent weather conditions. Different fuel types can
ablaze, these lower layers will likely burn with unexpected reach different fine fuel moisture levels under the same
intensity and undesirable results such as feeder root damage. humidity conditions. Because of these complexities and
When burning on organic soils, this phenomenon can have natural variability across a landscape, recommended
drastic consequences. If the fire dries the moist surface fine fuel moisture values are only guidelines. On-the-
layer of litter/duff, the underlying organic layer can ignite; ground knowledge of fuels must be incorporated into the
leading to a fire with the potential to smolder for weeks is prescription.
spite of control efforts, causing extensive smoke problems.
Once ignited, organic soil requires vast amounts of water to Fuel moisture influences smoke production. Damp fuels
extinguish. These soils are consumed through smoldering, release large amounts of dense white smoke, which is
not flaming, combustion and often show little evidence that mostly condensed water vapor. These water droplets are
they are burning at first as the horizontal rate of spread for very efficient at scattering light and thereby
organic soil fires is measured in inches per hour. Extensive reducing visibility.
smoke problems are almost guaranteed when organic soils
are involved; therefore burning in areas with organic soils is For most prescribed fires the preferred fine fuel moisture
not recommended for the novice burner; consult with your 8 to 15 percent.
local forestry agency.
Harvested areas should be burned when dry as the object
is to consume large fuels. They will ignite easier, burn
more quickly and completely, shortening the time needed
to complete the burn. Aggressive firing techniques such
as aerial ignition or ground ignition using a ring fire with
center ignition as well should be strongly considered.
Often less mopup is required and the impact on air quality
is reduced. Short but severe drought periods common
during the summer in the southeast provide ideal burning
conditions on cleared areas, provided soil moisture levels do
not get too low and the fire can be confined to the burn unit.

To avoid damage to the site, do not windrow harvest debris.

Moisture of 10-hour fuels can be measured with fuel Consider burning debris as it lies (broadcast burned),
moisture sticks. although constructing small circular piles with a root rake
when the debris has had time to cure (it won’t dry well when

31
 Probability of Ignition
S h a d in g Temp F in e D e a d F u e l M o is tu re (p e rc e n t)
(p e rc e n t) ° F 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
110+ 100 100 80 70 60 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 20 10
100-
100 90 80 70 60 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10
109
90-
100 90 80 70 60 60 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10
99
80-
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10
89
70-
Unshaded 100 80 70 60 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10
79
< 50%
60-
90 80 70 60 50 50 40 30 30 20 20 20 20 10 10 10
69
50-
90 80 70 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 10
59
40-
90 80 70 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 10
49
30-
80 70 60 50 50 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10
39
110+ 100 90 80 70 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10
100-
100 90 80 70 60 50 50 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10
109
90-
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10
99
80-
100 80 70 60 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10
89
70-
Shaded 90 80 70 60 50 50 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10
79
> 50%
60-
90 80 70 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 10
69
50-
90 80 70 60 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 10
59
40-
90 80 60 50 50 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 10
49
30-
80 80 60 50 50 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10
39

piled) and when the fuel and ground is dry to minimize soil If larger fuels need to be consumed (those over 2 to 3
in the piles, will result in much better consumption of larger inches), piling will probably be necessary. Piling in wet
fuels. It takes a month or two after cutting for the severed weather should be avoided. Keep the piles small and free of
tops to cure. Once the needles turn a greenish-yellow and dirt. Allow fresh logging debris to cure for several weeks
hardwood leaves have withered, the debris is ready to burn. before piling because drying conditions within the piles are
extremely poor. Much of the smoke problems associated
Because fuels on logged areas receive full solar radiation, with burning piled debris is caused by the inefficient
they dry more quickly than the surrounding forested area combustion of damp, soil-laden piles. These piles can
so once fully cured, burning can be safely done shortly smolder for weeks.
after a rain. For slash fuels, ten hour fuel moisture values
(fuels ¼ to 1 inch in diameter, such as small branches and Fine fuel moisture values can be used to estimate the
stems) are a better indicator of burning conditions than probability ignition to help the practitioner better understand
fine fuel moisture. Fuel moisture sticks will generally give the potential for embers igniting spot fires outside of the
excellent results. Place one set of sticks in the area to be burn unit. Probability of ignition is determined using
burned and another in the adjacent forested area. Allow the the table above which requires the fine fuel moisture,
sticks to acclimate for at least two weeks. The logged area temperature and percent shading of the fuels (shading
is considered ready to burn when the moisture content is includes shade from both canopy and clouds).
around 10 percent, provided the forest area is still above
15 percent.

32
 good weather observations during the fire is essential to
understanding the fire impacts during post-fire monitoring.
Make observations at hourly intervals and whenever
changes in fire behavior are noticed. Take measurements
in the burn unit or in fuels adjacent to the unit if heat from
the fire may influence the readings. Measurements taken
in open areas and within a stand are likely to be different.
Observations can be made using a belt weather kit, digital
handheld instruments (Kestrels as an example) or a portable
weather station. If using a handheld digital instrument or
portable weather station it is critical that the instruments be
calibrated on a regular basis as prescribed by
the manufacturer.

Estimated Smoldering Potential (ESP) of root mat soils expressed as a

percent based on soil moisture and mineral content.

DUFF MOISTURE—Owing to the potential for prolonged

emissions and severe fire effects from the smoldering
combustion of organic soils and mineral soils with thick
organic horizons, organic soil moisture is an important
management concern for fire practitioners. The Estimated
Smoldering Potential provides fire practitioners a means
to assess the likelihood of sustained smoldering in organic
soils that possess mineral content less than 10 percent.

Burning in areas with organic soils is beyond the skills/

experience of the novice burner; consult with local forestry
agency in both the planning and execution of the burn Standard belt weather kit.
to help insure that these soils do not ignite. Estimated
smoldering probabilities should be 30 percent or less and the
water table should be at the surface.

COllECTING AND USING WEATHER

INFORMATION ON THE BURN

Knowledge of the weather is the key to successful

prescribed burning, and is mandatory for proper smoke
management. Weather information is included in the
prescription to help define the fire behavior best suited for Kestrel pocket weather meter.
accomplishing the burn’s objectives. In preparing for the
burn it is vital to monitor weather forecasts to ensure that Weather forecasts are a critical part of the prescribed
weather elements will be within prescription and during burning process and can be obtained from the National
the burn weather conditions should be monitored to verify Weather Service (NWS), State forestry agencies, or private
that conditions remain within prescription. Remember to weather forecasting services. It is important to get a fire
document all weather observations as an important part weather forecast and not the common public forecast
of the burn process as this information can be valuable in provided through the local media as the public forecast will
evaluating burn objectives and fire effects. These records lack the detailed information needed for a prescribed burn,
can also aid in refining future prescriptions. They should be particularly smoke management information such as mixing
stored along with the unit prescription as vital documents. height and transport winds. The contents of fire weather
Routine weather observations should be made at the burn NWS forecasts can vary by office as the contents of the
site before, during and after the fire. Such observations are forecast are typically agreed upon by local land management
important as they serve as a check on the applicability of agencies and NWS as part of a fire weather operating plan.
the weather forecast and help keep the burn crew apprised This plan will contain information on the types of forecasts
of any local weather influences or changes. Also, keeping

33
issued and their contents as well as criteria for issuing fire
weather watches and red flag warnings.

The basic types of fire weather forecast products issued by

NWS include a general fire weather forecast, site specific or
spot forecasts, smoke management forecasts and fire danger
forecasts. The general fire weather forecast is issued each
morning and will be your primary source of information. A
spot forecast is a special forecast issued for a specific burn
location and requires contacting the local NWS office. This
forecast will contain more detail than the general forecast;
but this level of detail requires more work by the forecaster
and should only be used when the general forecast indicates
borderline conditions for your burn that could present a
safety hazard or your local observations/knowledge have
shown you that the general forecast is typically a poor fit Smoke column showing winds changing with height, which can indicate a
for your location. Smoke management forecasts provide potential wind shift.
additional information on mixing height, transport winds
and other indices such as ventilation index, dispersion index
and low visibility occurrence risk index.

Fire weather watches and redflag warnings are also products

geared toward wildfire preparedness and are issued when
high winds and low relatively humidity are both in the
forecast. Land management agencies respond by having
extra suppression resources on standby, and by being extra
alert for extreme fire behavior while making initial attacks.

Document all weather observations and fire behavior at the

time of the reading as this information can be valuable in
evaluating burn objectives and fire effects. These records
can also aid in refining future prescriptions.

34
FIRING TECHNIqUES
GENERAl
Various firing techniques can be used to accomplish a
burn objective. The technique chosen must be correlated
closely with burning objectives, fuels, topography, and
weather factors to prevent damage to forest resources. The
proper technique to use can change as these factors change.
Atmospheric conditions should be favorable for smoke to
rise into the upper air and away from smoke-sensitive areas
such as highways, airports and urban areas.

Based on behavior and spread, fires either move with the

wind (heading fire), against the wind (backing fire), or at
right angles to the wind (flanking fire). The movement of
any fire can be described by these terms. For example, a spot
fire would exhibit all three types. Heading fire is the most Flame dimensions for a wind driven fire.
intense because of its faster spread rate, wider flaming zone,
and longer flames. Backing fire is the least intense, having a BACkING FIRE
slow spread rate regardless of wind speed. This type of fire
has a narrow flaming zone, and short flames. Flanking fire A backing fire is started along a baseline (anchor point),
intensity is intermediate. The slope of the land has an effect such as a road, plow line, or other barrier, and allowed to
on rate of spread similar to that of wind. Fires behave as back into the wind. Variations in wind speed have little
heading fires as they travel up slopes and as backing fires as effect on the rate of spread of a fire burning into the wind,
they travel down slopes. although some wind is necessary. Such fires proceed at a
speed of 1 to 3 chains per hour. Backing fire is the easiest
If you encounter slight variations in fuel volumes or and safest type of prescribed fire to use, provided wind
weather conditions, consider combining two or more firing speed and direction are steady. It produces minimum scorch
techniques to achieve the desired result. A solid line of and lends itself to use in heavy fuels and young pine stands.
fire always spreads faster and thus builds intensity quicker Major disadvantages of a backing fire are the slow progress
than does a series of spot ignitions spaced along the same of the fire and the increased potential for feeder-root damage
line. Intensity increases abruptly when two fires burn
together. The magnitude of this increase is greater when
fires converge along a line rather than along a moving point.
The line of crown scorch often seen paralleling a downwind
control line delineates the zone where a heading fire and a
backing fire meet. Fires build in intensity for a period after
being set, particularly when moving upslope. Intensity can
be controlled, to some degree, by setting spots or lines next
to heavy fuels before the fire gathers intensity. However,
safety of the ignition crew is of primary concern.

Residence time is the time it takes the flaming zone to

move past a given point. The residence time of heading and
backing prescribed fires is often about the same because
the deeper flame depth of a heading fire compensates for
its faster movement. Generally, backing fires consume
more forest floor fuels than do heading fires. The total heat
applied to a site may be roughly equal for both heading and
backing fires, as long as additional fuels are not involved.
This result can be expected even though the fireline intensity Backing fire technique.
of the heading fire would be greater. In a backing fire, the
released heat energy is concentrated closer to the ground.

35
with increased exposure to heat if the lower litter is not
moist. When a large area is to be burned, it often must
be divided into smaller blocks with interior control lines
usually every 5 to 15 chains (hand or harrowed lines). All
blocks must be ignited at about the same time to complete
the burn in a timely manner. In-stand winds of 1 to 3 miles
per hour at eye level are desirable with backing fires. These
conditions dissipate the smoke and prevent heat from rising
directly into tree crowns.

When the relative humidity is low, a steady wind is

blowing, and fuels are continuous, an excellent burn can be
anticipated once the fire backs away from the downwind
control line. Under such conditions, however, extra care
must be taken to make sure the initial fire does not spot
across the line.
Strip-heading fire technique.
factors associated with backing fires:
• Must be ignited along the downwind control line.
• Use in heavy roughs. STRIP-HEADING FIRE
• Use in young stands (minimum basal diameter of 3 inches
for pine) when air temperature is below 45 °F. In strip-headfiring, a series of lines of fire are set
• Normally result in little scorch. progressively upwind of a firebreak in such a manner that
• Costs are relatively high because of additional interior no individual line of fire can develop to a high energy level
plow lines and extended burning period resulting from before it reaches either a firebreak or another line of fire. A
slower movement of the fire. backing fire is generally used to secure the base line and the
• Not flexible to changes in wind direction once interior remainder of the area then treated with strip-heading fires.
lines are plowed. Strips are often set 1 to 3 chains apart. The distance between
• Requires steady in-stand winds (optimum: 1-3 miles ignition lines is determined by the desired flame length.
per hour). Much experience is required to predict the relationship
• Will not burn well if actual fine-fuel moisture is above between strip width and flame length.
20 percent.
• Requires good fuel continuity to carry well. This distance can be varied within a fire to adjust for slight
• A single torch person can progressively ignite lines. changes in topography, stand density, weather, or the type,
amount or distribution of fuel.

Ignition can be done with a helicopter on large areas or with drip torches on smaller areas.

36
Compensation for minor wind direction changes can be FlANkING FIRE
made by altering the angle of strip fire with the base line.
Treat major changes in fuel type separately. The flanking-fire technique consists of treating an area
with lines of fire set directly into the wind. The lines
An effective method of reducing fire intensity is to use a spread at right angles to the wind. This technique requires
series of spots or short 1- to 2-foot-long strips instead of a considerable knowledge of fire behavior, particularly if used
solid line of fire. An added advantage of these short strips or by itself. It is used quite often to secure the flanks of a strip-
spots is that driptorches will not have to be filled as often. heading fire or backing fire as it progresses. It is sometimes
Strip-heading fires permit quick ignition and burnout, and used to supplement a backing fire in areas of light fuel or
provide for smoke dispersal under optimum conditions. under more humid weather conditions. It is useful on a small
However, higher intensities will occur wherever lines of fire area or to facilitate burning a large area in a relatively short
burn together, increasing the likelihood of crown scorch. time when a strip-heading fire would be too intense.

Occasionally, on areas with light and even fuel distribution,

a heading fire may be allowed to move over the entire area
without stripping to better accomplish the objective(s).
This method reduces the number of areas of increased fire
intensity that occur each time two fires burn together.

Caution: Be sure the fire will not escape control. First set
a backing fire along the downwind control line and allow
it to burn a strip wide enough to control the heading fire.

factors associated with strip-heading fires:

• Secure the downwind base line before igniting a
heading fire.
• Cost is lower than other line-firing techniques because fire
progress is rapid and few plow lines are required.
• Needs just enough wind to give direction (1 to 2 miles per
hour in-stand).
• Do not use in heavy roughs. Consider backing or flanking
Flanking fire technique.
techniques if fire-free interval exceeds 3 years or if
understory vegetation is taller than 3 to 4 feet. This method of firing can stand little variation in wind
• The technique can accommodate wind shifts up to about direction and requires expert crew coordination and
45 degrees. timing. For safety, all lines of flank fire should be ignited
• Winter use is best because cool weather (below 60 °F) simultaneously and all torch people should keep abreast of
helps avoid crown scorch. one another.
• Flame lengths can be high whenever heading fire
converges with a backing fire, thereby increasing the If only one or two torch people are available, this technique
possibility of crown scorch. is usually altered to set the ignition lines 45 degrees into
• Can be used in a wide range of forest types depending on the wind.
management objectives.
• A single torch person can progressively ignite strips. In hilly or mountainous terrain, any ignition line that drops
• Do not force a burn on a marginal day at the low end of the perpendicularly off a ridge creates a flanking fire under no-
prescription window. The fire may burn slowly until after wind conditions. If several lines are ignited off the end of a
the crew leaves, then pick up intensity and escape. ridge or knoll, the pattern looks like a chevron or maple leaf.
• Can be used in “flat” fuels such as hardwood leaves.
• Because fire movement is fast, large blocks can be burned. factors associated with flanking fires:
• Can be used with high relative humidity (50 to 60 percent) • Always secure downwind base line first.
and high actual fine-fuel moisture (20 to 25 percent). • Fuel loading should be light to medium-less than 8 tons
per acre.

37
• Wind direction must be steady. of successive ignition lines thus takes place along a moving
• Best used in medium-to-large sawtimber or if crown point rather than along a whole line at the same time.
scorch is not a concern (e.g. hardwoods in winter). Merger along a moving point can be ensured by beginning
• Allows fast area ignition. with a closely spaced square grid (2 chains by 2 chains is
• Needs few control lines. recommended).
• In areas with a high understory, multiple torch people
are needed and coordination is very important. Use radio Close spacing between lines helps the individual spots
communications whenever torch people cannot see develop, but ensures that the head of one spot will burn
one another. into the rear of the downwind spot before the heading fire’s
• Useful in securing flanks of other fire types. potential flame length and intensity are reached. With close
spacing there will be more merging points; but a large
POINT SOURCE FIRES number of small fires burning simultaneously can produce
the same kind of explosive convective energy as a single
A prudent burning boss will often switch from strip-heading large fire because too much heat energy is released too
fires to point source fires as the day progresses, relative rapidly. This situation is discussed under the Aerial
humidity drops, and continuous lines of fire become too Ignition section.
intense. When properly executed, a grid of spot ignitions
will produce a fire with intensity much greater than that Rectangular grids with wider spacing between lines than
of a line-backing fire but somewhat less than that of a within a line should not be used initially because such a
line-heading fire. Timing and spacing of the individual pattern may allow the spots along a line to merge into a line
ignition spots are the keys to the successful application of heading fire before running into the rear of the downwind
of this method. First a line backing fire is ignited across spots. Once the first few lines have been ignited and fire
the downwind side of the block and allowed to back 10 behavior has been assessed, intensity can be regulated to
to 20 feet into the block to increase the effective width some extent by changing the time between ignition points
within a line, the distance between points, and the distance
between lines. Thus the balancing act between spacing and
timing has to be continually adjusted as fire behavior reacts
to both temporal and spatial changes in fuel and weather.

Intensity is decreased by widening the interval between

ignition points along a line. If fireline intensity is still too
high after doubling this interval while maintaining a 2-chain

Grid, or point source ignition technique.

of the control line. A line of spots is then ignited at some

specified distance upwind of the backing fire and the process
continued until the whole block has been ignited.

To reduce flame length, ignition-grid spacing is selected to

allow the spots along a line to head into the rear of the spots
along the downwind line before the flanks of the individual
spots merge to form a continuous flame front. The merger

Point source ignitions.

38
distance between lines, firing should be halted. Allow the column ahead of the fire. The indraft, which tends to slow
area to burn with a backing fire or plow it out. Although heading fires, does not occur on slopes. Fires traveling down
intensity at the head of an individual spot is increased by slopes resemble those backing into the wind. Flame tips are
widening the distance between lines, the average intensity tilted away from unburned fuel, so drying is not as rapid and
of the burn as a whole is usually somewhat lower. Check to fire intensity remains low.
see that convergence-zone flame lengths are within tolerable
limits and that other fire behavior parameters appear Wind patterns on sloping terrain must also be considered.
satisfactory. If everything is within prescription, you can As the earth’s surface warms during daylight hours, air rises
increase both between- and within-line distances. This step causing a prevailing upslope wind. Wind speed increases
will reduce ignition time and decrease the number of people with elevation because greater volumes are moving upslope.
on the ignition crew. The number of convergence areas with The combination of upslope effects and upslope winds will
their higher intensities will also be decreased. cause heading fires to travel much more quickly than on flat
terrain. Prevailing upslope winds are most common under
Experience to date shows grids up to 4 chains by 4 chains clear skies and weak pressure gradients. Strong pressure
(one ignition point every 1.6 acres) can produce excellent systems create heavy winds that may completely offset
results. The time needed to complete the burn can be convection effects. In rugged terrain, particularly in the
reduced by offsetting successive ignition lines by one half of steep southern Appalachian Mountains, deep cuts between
the within-line spacing. The heading fires from one line will toe slopes, known as draws, can impact fire behavior.
then come up between the backing fires on the next line. Upslope winds are funneled into these draws, creating the
effect of a chimney. Fires set at the bottom of a draw can
factors associated with Point source fires: be especially fast moving because of the combination of a
• Assume much of the area will be burned by heading and heading fire, upslope wind, and the chimney effect.
flanking fires and very little by backing fires.
• If conditions are ideal for traditional line-backing fires, Fuel moisture content varies by aspect in sloping terrain.
point source fires may be too intense. Ridges and slopes with a southern exposure receive more
• Preferred burning conditions include low (1-2 miles per radiation than those with a northern aspect. Therefore, fuel
hour) in-stand wind speeds. Wind direction can be variable. drying is much slower on north-facing slopes and prescribed
Actual fine-fuel moisture should be above 15 percent. burning is more difficult. In many cases, a backing fire can
• When underburning, start with a square ignition grid readily be used on the southern side of a mountain whose
(equal distance between spots within a line and between northern side cannot support even a heading fire because
lines). Two chains by 2 chains is often used. fuel moisture content is too high.
• Always secure the downwind base line first.
• Be careful when underburning stands with a flammable
understory or a heavy rough.
• Severe crown scorch is likely if fuel is too dry.
• The usual changes in weather during a typical winter day
may require modification of ignition patterns throughout the
day. Burn until fires verge on getting “too hot.” Then either
quit burning or resort to backing fires only.
• Continually modify the ignition grid to take advantage of
topography and changes in understory fuels.
• Costs are low because firing is rapid and no interior control
lines need to be constructed.

PRESCRIBED BURNING ON SlOPES

Sloping terrain, which is common throughout the Piedmont

and Mountain regions of the South, can complicate
prescribed burning. Effects of slope on fire are similar in
some way to those of wind. A fire traveling up a steep slope
resembles one being pushed by a steady wind. The hot tip
of the flame is tilted toward unburned fuels promoting fuel
drying and increasing fire intensity. However, fires burning
on level terrain produce an indraft caused by a convection Fires burning up a slope behave like a heading fire.

39
Differences in species composition between north- and
south-facing slopes can also impact fire behavior. At
elevations less than 4,000 feet, south-facing slopes and
ridges may have a higher component of pines and ericaceous
shrubs than north-facing slopes which are dominated by
hardwoods. Pine needles and leaves of ericaceous shrubs
ignite more easily than do the leaves of hardwoods. Also,
shrubs can act as a vertical fuel creating intense fires when
they are dense.

AERIAl IGNITION

When ground ignition techniques are used, the downwind

spots will usually coalesce and burn out before the whole Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (DAID) mounted in a
helicopter, Bugwood.org.
block has been ignited. In contrast, aerial firing permits
ignition of a block to be completed before the downwind
spots have burned out. This does not present a problem Aerial ignition dramatically reduces the time needed for
at the damp end of the prescribed burning window when an area to burn out. Although roughly the same amount of
actual fine-fuel moisture is near 20 percent. Rapid ignition smoke is produced, it is emitted over a shorter period and
of a block reduces both flying time and the time needed to more of it is entrained in the convection column. Thus, the
complete the burn. However, when using aerial ignition impact of any adverse air quality effects is much reduced.
techniques under “traditional” ideal burning conditions for
line-backing fires, rapid ignition of the entire area can result factors associated with aerial Ignition:
in fire intensity increasing to unacceptable levels. In this • Rapid firing and burnout allows use of a much smaller
situation, there is little recourse except to let the area prescription window.
burn out. • Damp, fine fuels are of critical importance. Actual fine-fuel
moistures of 15 to 25 percent are preferable.
Some experienced burners start firing early in the day, • Requires an experienced burn boss to make ignition grid
before the fuel is dry enough to carry fire well. They reduce adjustments and to determine when to halt ignition due
the distance between spots within a line to less than 2 chains to conditions.
by 2 chains. The increased number of ignitions creates • Although not likely under prescribed fire conditions, too
more heat and helps dry the surface fuels. The distance much heat energy released over too short a period will result
between spots must be expanded as the morning progresses in a sudden, dangerous increase in fire intensity.
and burning conditions improve. Otherwise, the spots will • Large acreages can be safely burned in a single
merge laterally forming lines of heading fire that get too burning period.
intense before reaching the next downwind line of ignition • Many widely dispersed tracts can be burned during a
points. The distance between lines can also be increased as single day.
necessary to maintain a square ignition grid. • A contingency plan is essential in the event the aircraft is
reassigned or equipment breaks down during operation.
The most common aerial ignition device used today is the • Best suited for continuous fuels or when a mosaic pattern
DAID (Delayed Aerial Ignition Device) or ping-pong ball is desired.
system. Small plastic spheres, similar in size and appearance • Ignition spacing within and between flight lines can be
to ping-pong balls, contain potassium permanganate and easily adjusted.
are injected with ethylene glycol by the DAIDS machine. • Make sure no DAIDs are mistakenly dropped outside the
Spheres are jettisoned before the chemicals react thermally burn as the helicopter turns at the end of each line.
to produce a flame that consumes the ball. The dispensing
machine can be mounted in small airplanes or helicopters.
The ping-pong ball system works best in continuous fuels or
in areas where a mosaic burn pattern is desired.

40
CENTER AND CIRCUlAR (RING) FIRING

This technique is useful on cutover areas where a hot fire

is needed to reduce or eliminate logging debris prior to
seeding or planting. It works best when winds, if any, are
light and variable. This procedure should never be used for
underburning because of the likelihood of severe fire effects
as the flame fronts merge.

As with other burning techniques, the downwind control

line is the first line to be ignited. Once the base line is
secured, the entire perimeter of the area is ignited and the
flame fronts are allowed to converge. One or more spot fires
are often ignited near the center of the area and allowed to
develop before the perimeter of the block is ignited. The
convection generated by these interior fires creates indrafts
that help pull the outer circle of fire toward the center. This
firing method can generally be used in any season, and
weather conditions are not as critical. However, caution is
in order, particularly when the atmosphere is unstable. This Piles burn more efficiently than windrows.
type of fire tends to develop a strong convection column
which can cause spotting a considerable distance downwind. windrows is lost to production because the debris is rarely
consumed completely and what remains makes planting
difficult or impossible. Even when windrows contain breaks
spaced every couple of chains, they still present a barrier to
firefighting equipment and wildlife.

The biggest deterrent to windrow burning, however, is that

it causes a high percentage of all smoke incidents. Large
volumes of fuel, including large pieces that contain a lot
of moisture, are consumed. However, oxygen for good
combustion is lacking, especially in large piles and wide
windrows. Large amounts of soil are often mixed in, further
compounding the problem. The result is a fire that continues
to smolder for days or weeks, creating air quality problems
because the smoke produced by smoldering combustion
is not hot enough to rise into the atmosphere. The smoke
stays near the ground where it cools even more, drifting and
Center firing technique.
concentrating in low areas because of cool air drainage. To
make matters worse, the smoke often mixes with humid air
to produce fog which further reduces visibility. For these
reasons, air quality regulations prohibit pile and windrow
PIlE AND WINDROW BURNING
burning in some areas.
The objective of piling logging debris before burning it is
Although it generally costs more to pile than to windrow,
to prolong fire residence time on a restricted area so that
piles are preferable to windrows because access within the
larger materials have time to be consumed. Some areas will
area is not a problem, planting is easier, burning is safer and,
contain an unacceptable amount of large, scattered debris
most important, smoke problems are significantly reduced
that must be concentrated to ensure consumption. This
since piles burn out much quicker.
material should be piled and not windrowed. Windrowing
can reduce site quality by removing topsoil. Full exposure of
Generally, piles contain less dirt and dry faster. Burning
the soil to the sun and rain bakes the top layer. Furthermore,
piles can be “bumped” with heavy equipment to remove any
the direct force of raindrops will clog soil pores and often
dirt and compressed to increase consumption.
results in erosion on steep slopes. The area beneath the

41
Keep piles small and minimize the amount of soil in them factors associated with Pile and Windrow burning:
so surface water can pass through, and the debris can dry • A large majority of all smoke-related incidents are caused
quickly. Always pile when the ground surface is dry; less by this type of burning.
soil compaction will take place, and considerably less soil • Produces the most smoke of all firing techniques.
will end up in the piles. Allow fresh logging debris to cure • Burns can continue to smolder for many weeks.
first and to dry after rain. Then “shake” the debris while • Smoke produced at night tends to stay near the ground.
piling to remove as much soil as possible. If material is • Cannot be readily extinguished after ignition. If
piled while green or wet, the centers of the piles take an extinguished, even more effort is required to reignite them
exceedingly long time to dry. Piles that contain little soil the next day.
and are constructed to allow some air movement will result • Can burn in light or variable winds.
in a burn that consumes significantly more of the debris • Usually safe and easy to control, provided piles are not
and produces less smoke. More efficient burning and next to the edge of the area and are not left unattended,
greater heat output will lift smoke higher, reducing smoke particularly when burning during periods of high fire danger.
concentrations near the ground. Burn when the atmosphere • Piles should be as free of soil as possible.
is neutral to slightly unstable, but not unstable enough to • Fuel should be dry.
create control problems. • Burn area should be as small as economically practical.
• Need neutral to unstable conditions for good smoke
Techniques used in burning piled debris are somewhat dispersion -which generally do not occur after sunset.
fixed because of the character and placement of fuel. • Need good mixing heights and transport winds.
Traditionally, each pile is ignited along its perimeter, but • Use of heavy equipment to bump piles expedites burning.
burnout can be speeded up considerably by igniting the pile
center by tossing one or more fusees into the pile.

42
Smoke Management
INTRODUCTION public safety. A State’s Smoke Management Program
(SMP) is designed to help limit potential smoke problems
Prescribed burning helps achieve many desired resource by establishing a basic framework of procedures and
benefits, but it nevertheless pollutes the air. We therefore requirements for managing prescribed fires with the goal
have an obligation to minimize adverse environmental of successfully balancing the use of prescribed fire with the
effects. If this obligation is disregarded, prescribed burners constraint of maintaining clean air. Consult with your local
can be held liable for damages from accidents or other forestry agency to learn more about your State’s SMP.
problems resulting from their actions.
SMOkE MANAGEMENT PlANNING
Smoke management can be broken down into three primary
tasks: knowing how much smoke will be produced, knowing This section describes the development of a rather extensive
where the smoke will go, and understanding the potential but flexible smoke management planning process. The
impacts the smoke will have. The amount of smoke planning process is divided into two components: a daytime
produced is directly related to the amount and moisture smoke evaluation and a nighttime smoke evaluation. This
content of the fuel that is to be burned, fireline intensity and process is designed to fulfill the following objectives:
combustion rate. Where the smoke will go is controlled by
the prevailing weather, particularly the transport winds and • Minimize exposure of populated areas to smoke.
mixing height during the day. At night, topography becomes • Minimize public health and safety hazards (impacts to
an important factor as smoke tends to drift and collect in sensitive sites such as schools, hospitals and nursing homes
drainages. The impact smoke will have is dependent upon and visual impairment of roadways and airports).
the smoke concentration and who/what is impacted. • Avoid violations of National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS).
Mitigating the adverse impacts of smoke is the key to • Protect visibility of Class I areas (Table 1).
effective smoke management. Impacts range from simple • Make certain that you fully comply with your State’s
nuisance levels and regional haze to more severe health mandatory or voluntary Smoke Management
impacts and visibility reductions that pose a threat to Program (SMP).

Table 1: Listing of Class I Areas in the South

State Class I Area Acres
Alabama Sipsey Wilderness Area 24,922
Arkansas Caney Creek Wilderness Area 14,460
Upper Buffalo Wilderness Area 12,035
Florida Everglades National Park 1,506,499
Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge 23,580
St Marks National Wildlife Refuge 17,350
Bradwell Bay Wilderness Area 24,602
Georgia Cohutta Wilderness Area 36,977
Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge 353,981
Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge 5,126
Kentucky Mammoth Cave National Park 52,707
Louisiana Breton National Wildlife Refuge 5,000
North Carolina Linville Gorge Wilderness Area 12,002
Shining Rock Wilderness Area 16,133
Swanquarter National Wildlife Refuge 8,785
South Carolina Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge 29,000
Tennessee/North Great Smoky Mountains National Park 520,269
Carolina
Joyce Kilmer – Slickrock Wilderness Area 17,394
Texas Big Bend National Park 801,163
Guadalupe Mountains National Park 46,850
Virginia Shenandoah National Park 79,579
James River Face Wilderness Area 8,903

43
DAYTIME SMOkE EvAlUATION a site (often expressed in tons of fuel per acre). The basic
fire behavior fuel models (Anderson, 1982; http://www.
Estimating the potential smoke impacts from a fire can fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr153.pdf) can provide a rough
be complicated. This process is designed such that the estimate. In many cases digital maps are available that show
complexity of the smoke management process should not the spatial distribution of the fire behavior fuel models or
exceed the scale/complexity of the prescribed fire. Elements other fuel modeling tools such as the fuels characteristics
that increase the complexity of a prescribed burn (from a classification system (FCCS; http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/
smoke management standpoint) are: fccs). Digital photo series are also available for a variety of
ecosystems that allow for fairly rapid characterization of the
SIzE–not just total acres, but also the number of acres in fuels at a site (http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/research/fuels/
the active fire phase at any given time. photo_series). Multiplying a fuel load estimate by the area
of the burn provides an estimate of the total fuel available.
DURATION—the longer the duration, the more likely
weather conditions are to change during the burn. Primary The amount of fuel consumed by the fire will depend on the
focus is the duration of the flaming phase of combustion. moisture content of the fuels. Moisture in the fuels acts as
a heat sink to the fire as energy must be expended to drive
FUEl lOAD—the more fuel consumed in the flaming the moisture out of the fuels, leaving less energy available
phase, the more heat released during that phase, and the for combustion. Fuel moisture content can be estimated
stronger the convective column. While a well-developed as described in the weather chapter. A rough estimate of
convective column is good for smoke management as it fuel consumption is provided in Table 2 and more detailed
gets the smoke up and away from the surface; it typically estimates can be obtained from a number of computer
requires more planning as winds above the mixed layer can programs (e.g., CONSUME, FOFEM, or FEPS). A good
be quite different from surface or transport winds. rule of thumb is to assume most prescribed underburns
conducted under the range of acceptable conditions used
The amount of smoke produced by a fire depends upon the in this guide will consume less than 5 tons of fuel per acre.
amount of fuel consumed which in turn depends on the Fuel consumption in a number of grass dominated systems
amount of available fuel and its moisture content. A number such as tall-grass prairies and salt and fresh water marshes
of tools are available to assist in estimating the fuel load on can approach 10 tons per acre. Consumption of broadcast

Table 2: Fire Behavior Fuel Models, Fuel Load and Consumption Estimates.
Number Description Fuel Load Estimated Fuel Consumption
(tons per (tons per acre)
acre) Moist Moderate Dry
Grass dominated
1 Short grass (<= 1 ft) 0.74 0.5 0.6 0.7
2 Timber with grass 4.00 1.8 2.6 3.2
understory
3 Tall grass (>2.5 ft) 3.00 2.0 2.3 2.4
Chaparral and shrubs
4 Chaparral 16.00 10.0 12.1 13.0
5 Brush 3.50 2.2 2.6 2.9
6 Dormant brush 6.00 3.8 4.5 5.0
7 Southern rough 4.87 2.6 3.4 4.0
Timber litter
8 Closed timber litter 5.00 2.6 3.0 3.3
9 Timber litter 3.48 2.0 2.4 2.7
10 Timber (litter and 12.00 5.2 6.5 7.1
understory)
Slash
11 Light logging slash 11.50 8.0 9.7 10.5
12 Medium logging slash 34.00 23.6 28.8 31.0
13 Heavy logging slash 58.00 40.0 49.0 52.8
Consumption estimates calculated using FEPS v 1.1.0 and default fuel moisture scenarios as named above. These numbers are provided as a
Consumption estimates calculated using FEPS v 1.1.0 and default fuel moisture scenarios as
rough estimate
named and may
above. not match
These a particularare
numbers site provided
or fuel moisture
asconditions.
a rough estimate and may not match a particular
site or fuel moisture conditions.
44
DAYTIME SMOkE MANAGEMENT COMPlExITY WORkSHEET
The following worksheet is provided as a guide to determining the complexity of a smoke management situation. Knowing
the complexity can help determine the appropriate level of smoke screening required for a burn. Note this worksheet is only
dealing with the daytime, active burning portion of the burn, not residual burning/smoldering or nighttime conditions.

Acres in Flaming Combustion Stage per Hour

(1) Size in acres ________acres
(2) Expected duration of flaming combustion stage for burn _______hours
(3) Divide (1) by (2) ______ acres/hour
(4) Select values based on (3)
< 150 acres/hr = 0
150-300 acres/hr = 1
> 300 acres/hr = 2 Score _______________

Fuel Load Consumed

< 4 tons per acre = 0
4-8 tons per acre = 1
> 8 tons per acre = 2 Score _______________

Topography
Flat terrain with no significant topography within 30 miles downwind of the burn unit = 0
Flat terrain with significant topography within 30 miles downwind of the burn unit = 1
Burn unit is in significant topography = 2 Score _______________

Ambient Air Quality (based on AQI from http://www.airnow.gov)

Good = 0
Moderate = 2
Other = Do not burn Score _______________

Atmospheric Dispersion (as determined from tables in weather section)

Good dispersion = 0
Acceptable dispersion = 1
Poor dispersion = DO NOT BURN Score _______________

WuI
No urban areas with in 60 miles downwind of burn site = 0
Burn unit not in an urban area, but urban areas are within 60 mile downwind = 1
Burn unit is in a WUI area = See Wade and Mobley (2007)
Score _______________

Total _______________

Scores
0-2 (with no individual elements receiving a score of 2) = Low complexity smoke situation
3-6 (with no more than two elements receiving a score of 2) = Moderate complexity smoke situation
7+ = High complexity smoke situation
Low complexity burns – simple smoke screening

45
burned heavy debris generally ranges between 6 and 8 tons lOW COMPlExITY BURNS—use simple smoke
per acre although when jackstrawed and deep (can’t walk screening.
on ground), consumption can exceed 20 tons per acre. If
debris is piled in roughly circular piles less than about 15 Step 1: Determine the screening distance based on the
feet in diameter when cured and dry, burned when dry, and expected fuel consumption (table 3).
“bumped” during burning expect more than 85 percent to
be consumed. Step 2: Using a map on which smoke sensitive areas can be
identified, locate the burn unit and mark its center.
TOPOGRAPHY—topography adds to the complexity of
daytime burns by altering wind patterns and channeling Step 3: Draw a line through the center point along the
smoke under stable conditions. At night down drainage preferred wind direction for this burn that extends out the
flow tends to dominate most of the time and will control the distance calculated in Step 1 (fig. A).
movement of smoke at night.
Step 4: Draw a line through the center point perpendicular
BACkGROUND AIR qUAlITY—the ambient to the line drawn in Step 3 that extends the width of the burn
atmosphere always has some level of particulate matter. unit (fig. B). At each end of this line, draw lines parallel to
The Air Quality Index (AQI) provided by the EPA through the line drawn in Step 3. This is your anticipated
http://www.airnow.gov provides guidance on how air quality smoke path.
may impact human health and considers impacts from both
particulate matter and ozone.

ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION—the atmosphere’s

ability to disperse pollutants changes with the weather as
this ability is a function of the mixing height, transport
wind, and atmospheric stability. Dispersion is normally
characterized by an index such as the Ventilation Index (VI)
or Atmospheric Dispersion Index (ADI). See the chapter on
weather for tables of acceptable values of these indices.
Figure A
WIlDlAND URBAN INTERFACE—close proximity to
urban areas is a complicating factor as it provides less time
for the atmosphere to disperse smoke to levels low enough
to prevent adverse impacts. Urban areas downwind of burn
units can also present a complicating factor as the mixed
layer can often be deeper over the urban area due to the
urban heat island effect. This deeper mixed layer can take
smoke that was injected above the mixed layer and mix it
back down to the surface over the populated area.

Figure B

Table 3: Downwind Screening Distance

Consumption (tons per acre) Distance (miles)
< 0.5 0.25
0.5-1.0 0.50
1.0-2.0 4.00
2.0-3.0 12.00
3.0-4.0 25.00
4.0-6.0 60.00
6.0-8.0 100.00

46
 Examples of Mitigation Techniques
Contact people known to be sensitive to air pollution prior to the ignition of the prescribed fire if they
could be impacted by smoke. This could include hospitals, nursing homes, isolated residences, etc.
News releases in newspapers and by radio or TV may be appropriate. Notification to local law enforce-
ment and government agencies prior to burning can save much time in answering citizen concerns.
Temporarily relocate affected people by providing hotel rooms for the day/night of the burn. Encourage
people to close all windows and doors during the day and night of the burn to reduce their exposure to
smoke.
Notify public safety agencies such as State Highway Patrol, County Sheriff, Local Law Enforcement,
Highway Departments. State Forestry and Air Quality offices should also be included.
Post smoke-warning signs to warn the public of areas where smoke may create a hazard to driving.
Patrol potentially affected areas (especially at night and during early morning hours) to ensure residual
smoke is not causing safety concerns. Be prepared to move smoke signs as needed.
Temporarily closing roads to traffic until smoke clears. Obtain assistance of appropriate jurisdictional
authorities (Department of Transportation (DOT), Sheriff, State Highway Patrol) when traffic control is
necessary to reduce the risk of accident from smoke on public roads.
If you anticipate a road visibility problem ask for assistance of appropriate jurisdictional authorities
(Department of Transportation (DOT), Sheriff, State Highway Patrol) several days before planned
burn day. Consider public service announcement asking people to use alternative route for a given time
period. For sudden unexpected serious reductions in road visibility, call 911 and stop traffic until smoke
clears. You don’t want any traffic accidents on your conscience

To allow for horizontal dispersion of the smoke as well as MODERATE COMPlExITY BURNS—By definition
wind shifts draw two lines at 30 degree angles from the moderate complexity burns are more likely to cause
anticipated smoke path. The result is the probable daytime smoke problems than those of low complexity, and they
smoke impact area. Note that you will need to repeat this therefore require a greater level of precision in assessing
process if the wind direction is expected to change during their potential impacts. The Southern Forestry Smoke
the burn. On many maps, one can manipulate placement Management Guidebook (see Mobley and others, 1976
of the center line intersection because of map scale or unit in Suggested Reading) presents a system for estimating
shape—be conservative and err on “do not burn” side. particulate matter concentrations at various distances
downwind of a burn. VSMOKE is a computer program
Locate all smoke sensitive targets within or immediately that provides an alternative means of estimating smoke
adjacent to the area of potential smoke impacts. Smoke concentrations from a burn (Georgia Forestry Commission
sensitive targets include, but are not limited to areas of has implemented a web-based version of VSMOKE, http://
existing air pollution/visibility problems, non-attainment vsmoke.gfc.state.ga.us/Vsmoke/index.aspx, as has the
areas, airports, communities, schools, highways, hospitals/ Southern High Resolution Modeling Consortium, SHRMC,
nursing homes, Class I areas, and metropolitan areas. http://shrmc.ggy.uga.edu/maps/vsmoke.html).
Determine what adjustments to the prescription or
mitigation steps are necessary to achieve the smoke As with the simple smoke screening for the low complexity
management objectives. burns, VSMOKE assumes a constant wind direction
throughout the burn. If weather conditions are expected to
Clearly document any measures to be taken in dealing with be changing throughout the course of the burn (sea breeze
smoke sensitive targets and note who is responsible for each or approaching frontal system as examples) then a more
mitigation measure. complex smoke dispersion model such as HYSPLIT or
BlueSky should be used as both of these models utilize
If results from the simple smoke screening appear too detailed, time varying weather information to predict smoke
restrictive, try the more detailed planning approach movement in three dimensions.
recommended for moderate complexity burns.

47
 Hysplit trajectories showing possible plume paths over a 12 hour period.

The HYSPLIT (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian accessed online at http://www.arl.noaa.gov/ready/hysplit4.

Integrated Trajectory) model developed by NOAA is a html. HYSPLIT provides a pair of useful tools for smoke
complete system for computing simple air parcel trajectories management: trajectories and concentration predictions.
and conducting complex dispersion simulations. The model Trajectories show the path that the smoke will follow
can be run either interactively on the Web through the through time and can be useful in cases where the winds
READY system or run on a Windows PC. HYSPLIT can be are expected to shift somewhat during the day. While these

48
Sample output from Bluesky showing surface PM 2.5 concentrations.

paths do not provide information on how much smoke will HIGH COMPlExITY BURNS—Smoke modeling for
reach a location, they do help in determining the potential this class of burn is no different than for the moderate
smoke impact area. The surface concentration output complexity burns presented above; the real difference comes
from HYSPLIT provides information on expected smoke in the level of coordination/communication required with
concentrations every hour which can help to further refine local air quality and forestry agencies as well as the public.
estimates of potential smoke impact. At this level of complexity adverse smoke impacts are
probable and the goal for smoke management becomes one
BlueSky is not a smoke model, but rather a modeling of trying to maintain the impact as no more than a nuisance
framework that integrates a number of the tools mentioned while preventing the impact from threatening public health
previously in this chapter to predict cumulative impacts and safety. Review the prescription and determine which
of smoke from forest, agricultural, and range fires across aspects of the prescription can possibly be altered to offer
the landscape. BlueSky includes tools for estimating improvements for smoke management such as changing the
fuel loading, fuel consumption, emissions calculation, amount and/or rate of fuel consumption, better ventilation
trajectories (using HYSPLIT) and dispersion using a model values, or use of a firing technique more likely to loft smoke
known as CalPUFF. Utilizing predictions from a weather above the mixed layer such as aerial ignition.
forecast model and fire information, BlueSky creates
forecasts of ground concentrations of smoke. See http:// BURNING AT THE WIlDlAND URBAN
www.getbluesky.org and http://www.fcamms.org for INTERFACE—Few WUI prescribed fire projects can
more information. pass any of the smoke screening systems currently in

49
use, but prescribed burning is none-the-less necessary to smoke dispersion conditions typically begin to develop
perpetuate fire-dependent plant communities in the WUI around one hour before sunset and continue until one hour
and help reduce hazardous fuel accumulations. For these after sunrise. These conditions are normally characterized
reasons, the Southern Smoke Screening System originally by a surface temperature inversion which acts as a lid to
described in the Southern Forestry Smoke Management limit the vertical dispersion of the smoke. The primary non-
Guidebook has been modified to facilitate successful smoke fire factors that need to be evaluated for nocturnal smoke
management when burning is conducted at the WUI. The dispersion are topography, winds and relative humidity.
resulting system, the WUI Smoke Screening System, is
largely based on extensive fieldwork conducted by Hugh Winds at night are often weaker than during the day. The
Mobley, which he used to modify the original version of the inversion which acts to trap smoke near the ground also
Southern Forestry Smoke Management Guide. (To see the acts to decouple the surface winds from larger scale wind
guide as modified by Mobley, go to https://fp.auburn.edu/ patterns which allows local features such as topography to
fire/, click on “Fire Management,” then click on “Smoke play a greater role in shaping smoke dispersion conditions.
Management.”) Wade and Mobley (2007) further modified As the air cools, it tends to flow down drainages. The
the Southern Forestry Smoke Management Guide screening steeper the slope of the drainage, the faster these winds
system for application in the WUI as part of a training will be. The cold air will pool in valleys at the base of the
course developed by the Florida Division of Forestry; drainage. Smoke will also follow this pattern, most of
the resulting WUI Smoke Screening System is a five step the time.
system intended specifically for WUI burns smaller than 50
acres and is available online at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed. As the wind speed at night gets stronger, the role of
us/pubs/28550. topography decreases. This can cause smoke at night to
instead move upslope/upvalley. Key factors to look at for
NIGHTTIME SMOkE EvAlUATION assessing the potential for wind to alter the anticipated down
drainage flow are orientation of the wind direction to the
Evaluation of nighttime smoke dispersion conditions is topography and the depth of the drainages/valleys. The more
important for any burn that is still expected to have flaming the wind direction parallels the axis of the drainage/valley,
combustion one hour before sunset or when significant the greater its potential influence on smoke dispersion.
smoldering is expected to continue into the night. Nighttime Deeper drainages tend to be more resistant to influence from
larger scale winds.

Atmospheric Dispersion Index (ADI)

RH 1 2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-16 17-25 26-30 31-40 > 40
< 55 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
55-59 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
60-64 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1
65-69 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1
70-74 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
75-79 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
80-82 6 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
83-85 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
86-88 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4
89-91 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4
92-94 8 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4
95-97 9 8 8 7 6 6 6 5 5 4 4 4
> 97 10 10 9 9 8 8 7 5 5 4 4 4

Table of LVORI values as a function of Atmospheric Dispersion Index and Relative Humidity. Green = Conditions with lowest
proportion of accidents. White = proportion of accidents increased by a factor of 2-10 over green. Yellow = proportion of accidents
increased by a factor of 10-40 over green. Orange = proportion of accidents increased by a factor of 40-150 over green.

50
Relative humidity is a complicating factor for smoke The first step is to figure out how far the smoke is likely to
management at night. Conditions that favor poor smoke travel over the course of the night. Use a screening distance
dispersion, light winds and a strong temperature inversion, of 10 miles for the coastal plain, 15 miles for the piedmont,
also favor the formation of fog when the relative humidity or 30 miles for the mountains. If surface wind speed exceeds
nears 100 percent. Since the primary smoke concern at 5 miles per hour, extend the radius an additional 5 miles in
night is visibility reduction, the added possibility of another the coastal plain and piedmont and 10 miles in
factor capable of reducing visibility increases the potential the mountains.
threat to public safety. Further complicating the situation is
the fact that combustion releases additional moisture in the If winds are over 5 miles per hour, the problem is much
air which can raise the relative humidity evens further, in more complicated as the winds can overpower the drainage
rare instances resulting in supersaturation (relative humidity flows which can move smoke up drainage in some cases.
values that exceed 100 percent!). Examine the relationship between the forecast wind
direction and the drainages. If the winds are forecast to be
The Low Visibility Occurrence Risk Index (LVORI) is parallel to the drainage then the winds will either enhance
designed to provide burners with an indicator for the or reverse the flow in the drainage. If the wind direction is
potential for visibility related accidents to occur under a perpendicular to the drainage then the wind might have little
certain set of meteorological conditions (relative humidity impact on the drainage flow. Deep, narrow drainages are less
and atmospheric dispersion index). The LVORI was likely to be impacted by cross flows.
develop by examining vehicle accident reports from the
Florida Highway Patrol and examining the portion of these Draw a circle on a topographic map with a radius equal to
accidents that cited fog, smoke or both as a contributing the screening distance.
factor along with the meteorological conditions. This is
a conservative estimator because one can smell minute Determine which drainages pass through or are adjacent
concentrations of smoke, long before it can be seen. The to the burn unit. Use the topographic map to find nearby
LVORI estimates the likelihood of smoke or fog being a streams and drainages as well as local knowledge of forest
contributing factor in an accident and is expressed on a gaps such as roads and power lines to identify where smoke
scale of 1-10 (with 10 representing the highest likelihood of is likely to move. Do not neglect open areas such as pastures
smoke/fog contributing to an accident). in which smoke can pool and possibly connect with other
drainages. Follow down these drainages out to the screening
Residual smoke from a daytime burn and smoke released distance.
during a nighttime burn typically flows down drainages
and through gaps (such as power lines, streams and roads). Identify smoke sensitive features in the marked drainages.
However, smoke will also tend to pool in open areas such
as pastures and if smoke is being produced faster than it is Describe in the prescribed burn plan what will be done to
flowing down slope, then the smoke may find other means mitigate potential smoke impacts (especially for roads).
of escaping the area and may even move up drainage. If
down drainage smoke encounters dense vegetation, as it As an alternative to this screening process, a predictive
well might in a swamp or bottomland forest, it will dam up model is available. Planned Burn-Piedmont, or PB-
and spread across open areas even if uphill. The following is Piedmont is a weather/smoke dispersion model specifically
a basic screening process for nighttime smoke management. designed for nocturnal smoke movement. PB-Piedmont
Keep in mind that a screening process is designed to give requires digital elevation data and forecast weather
you an idea of where the smoke is likely to go. It is not a information as inputs. Additional information on PB-
substitute for monitoring where your smoke is Piedmont is available through the Southern High Resolution
actually going. Modeling Consortium (http://www.shrmc.org).

51
OTHER POINTS TO CONSIDER Avoid igniting organic soils as they are difficult to
suppress and can smolder for long periods of time, creating
When using mass ignition or other techniques that favor the significant residual smoke problems. A good rule of thumb
development of a vertical convective column, a portion of is not to burn such areas when the water table is below
the smoke (30 percent or more typically) is likely to disperse the surface.
ABOVE the mixing height where dispersion is generally
poor. The wind above the mixing height is often from a Verify that the smoke is behaving as expected. Document
different direction than the transport wind. smoke behavior with photographs when possible,
particularly in cases where smoke may impact a road.
The mixing height is generally deeper over urban areas than
over the forest. Smoke lofted above the mixing height while If smoke sensitive targets are likely to be adversely
not impacting rural areas is likely to mix back down to the impacted, explore possible mitigation strategies. Managing
ground over urban areas. emissions revolves around manipulating the amount of fuel
consumed. This can be accomplished by burning a smaller
Plumes from multiple prescribed fires can merge and cause area, burning under higher moisture conditions, or applying
a much larger air quality impact than one might expect. a preburn herbicide or mechanical treatment.
Thus the prudent burner will ask the agency issuing the
burn permit/authorization if any other units over about 750 Have a contingency plan if things go wrong. If smoke
acres in size have received a go-ahead on that day. If the begins reducing visibility on a roadway know who to
answer is yes, one should spend some time ruminating over call and be prepared to take whatever steps necessary to
the information including the distance and direction from minimize the threat—road closure, posting signs, traffic
his/her planned burn before deciding whether to proceed or control, suppressing the fire if needed.
postpone the burn. It is often worthwhile to call the other
burner and discuss the situation as you might be able to When nighttime residual smoke is expected within a mile
stagger the timing of the burns if using aerial ignition, or or so of an urban area or paved road, or when it is obvious
one or both of you might be willing to burn less acreage that there is considerable smoldering after the flame front
that day.

Sample output from PB-Piedmont showing smoke (yellow particles) moving down drainages and crossing roads at points A,
B, and C.

52
passes, begin mopup ASAP and continue until dark, then CONSIDER BACkING FIRES WHEN SMOkE IS
patrol throughout the night. Be advised that visibility can AN ISSUE—Backing fires consume dead fuels more
deteriorate from clear to less than a few feet in less than 10 completely and produce less smoke. However, backing fires
minutes at night so constantly patrol nearby paved roads. are not always the answer.

ExECUTING A SMOkE MANAGEMENT • Backing fires are slow, which is a concern as this spreads
PlAN the smoke out over a longer period thus making prediction
more difficult as the weather is more likely to change
OBTAIN AND USE FIRE WEATHER FORECASTS— (particularly the mixing height). Using a backing fire may
Fire weather forecasts contain information that is not require you to start your burn earlier, before the mixing
commonly part of the general forecast provided in the height attains its predicted early afternoon value, thereby
radio/TV forecast. Smoke management information such restricting combustion products to a shallower layer. A
as mixing height, transport winds, ventilation index and/ backing fire may also cause the burn to continue late into
or dispersion index should be part of the forecast you use. the afternoon when mixing heights will drop and trap smoke
Don’t rely on yesterday’s forecast, get an updated one the near the surface.
day of the burn. Do not routinely ask for a spot-weather
forecast as they require significant effort to produce, but • Backing fires are lower intensity and therefore do not
don’t hesitate to ask for one when you believe it is necessary develop as strong of a convection column. The weak
for a successful burn. convection column limits smoke plume rise which keeps
all of the smoke within the mixed layer. Other burning
DON’T BURN DURING POllUTION AlERTS techniques can be used to produce more heat and loft smoke
OR STAGNATION CONDITIONS—Do not add to over nearby smoke sensitive targets.
the problem. Such conditions are often reported in the
discussion section of the fire weather forecast. TRY TO BURN DURING THE MIDDlE OF THE DAY
AND BE DONE WEll BEFORE SUNSET—Dispersion
COMPlY WITH All AIR POllUTION CONTROl conditions are generally best at this time.
REGUlATIONS– Know the rules that apply at the
proposed burn site. Check with the State fire control agency MOPUP AlONG ROADS—Start mopup along roads
if unsure. as soon as possible to reduce any impact on visibility.
Extinguish all stumps, snags and logs. Be particularly
NOTIFY YOUR lOCAl FIRE CONTROl OFFICE, aggressive when roads are in or near drainages that may
NEARBY RESIDENTS AND ADjACENT lAND channel smoke at night.
OWNERS—This is common courtesy and can go a long
way in reducing complaints, in addition it is required in MONITOR YOUR SMOkE—Patrol the burn perimeter
most areas. People need to know that your fire is not after burn and document where the smoke is/is not going.
a wildfire.
HAvE AN EMERGENCY PlAN—Be prepared to
USE TEST FIRES TO CONFIRM BEHAvIOR OF extinguish the fire if the weather, fire behavior or smoke
BOTH THE FIRE AND ITS SMOkE—Test fires are conditions are not within the ranges specified in the
often used to make certain that the fire behavior is within burn plan. Have warning signs available. Have contact
acceptable limits. Use these fires to make sure the smoke information for local law enforcement.
is doing what you expect which means a two minute 100
square foot fire is not acceptable. The test fire should ideally kEEP IN MIND THAT THIS IS YOUR FIRE, AND THE
be located within the burn unit, but if not, in similar fuels. SMOkE IS YOUR PROBlEM.

53
Planning the Prescribed
Burn
The first step to a successful prescribed burn is a stand by PURPOSE AND OBjECTIvES—Include in the written
stand analysis of your forest lands. Determine the needs of plan the reason for prescribing fire as a treatment for this
each stand and what actions should be taken to meet these piece of land. Examples include: prepare seedbed, control
needs. Prescribed fire as well as other alternatives should insects or disease, reduce hazardous fuels, improve wildlife
be addressed here and a decision reached regarding the habitat, control understory, improve forage, increase
preferred treatment. accessibility and enhance aesthetics. In addition, include
one or more specific, quantifiable objectives. State exactly
Prescription burning is a highly technical job requiring what the fire will do—what it should kill or consume, how
knowledge of fire behavior, suppression techniques and much litter/duff should be left, etc. Also, concisely describe
environmental effects of fire. Well in advance of the burning the expected fire behavior, including desired range of flame
season, scout stands that may need a fire treatment and lengths and fireline intensities. In case prescribed weather
choose those to burn. The number of suitable burning days conditions do not materialize, this description may allow
varies widely from year to year. Aerial ignition can be used the objective(s) to still be achieved by varying the firing
to maximize the number of acres burned on each suitable technique. This information will also be useful in evaluating
burn day. Set priorities if you have several blocks to burn. the success of a burn.
Specifically designate any planned burns that require
exacting weather conditions. Considerations include heavy MAP OF THE BURNING UNIT—A detailed map of each
fuels, small trees, potential smoke problems etc. Indicate burn unit is an important part of the burn plan. The map
all blocks to be burned on an administrative map. When the should show the boundaries of the planned burn, adjacent
burns are completed, record the dates on the map. land owners, topography, control lines (both existing and
those needing construction), anticipated direction of the
A written prescribed burn plan prepared by a knowledgeable smoke plume, smoke-sensitive features, holding details
person is needed for each area to be burned. Complete the and other essential information. Plowed control lines are
plan before the burning season and be prepared to burn often not necessary. Consider expanding the planned burn
when the prescribed weather conditions occur. Some of the to employ existing fire breaks and natural barriers. For
plans may be quite short and simple while others will be example, use fuel type boundaries such as occur near creek
long and complex. Individual blocks can vary from a few bottoms where the fire will go out as it encounters fuels with
acres to over a thousand, but topography and amount/type higher moisture content. Show areas that should be excluded
of fuel should be similar in a unit. Your plan can consist of
a series of blocks in the same compartment or management
unit as long as the same objectives apply and the fuel
is similar.

THE WRITTEN PlAN

A prepared form with space for all needed information is

best. The form will serve as a checklist to be sure you have
not overlooked some aspect or potential impact. Sample
forms for both understory burns and post-harvest burns can
be found at the end of this chapter. Contents of the written
plan should include:

REqUIRED SIGNATURES—Provide spaces for

signature(s) of person(s) who prepared the plan. This
identifies the people who know the most about the plan.

Burning unit map

55
or protected such as improvements, young reproduction, TIME OF DAY—Normally, plan prescribed burn operation
threatened and endangered species, etc. Subdivide areas so that the entire job can be completed within a standard
into logical, 1-day burning blocks or smaller areas if smoke workday. Prescribed fires are typically ignited between 10
management dictates. a.m. and noon, after any morning dew has had a chance to
evaporate and any surface inversion from the previous night
EqUIPMENT AND PERSONNEl—List equipment has lifted. If the forecast is for poor nighttime dispersion,
and personnel needed onsite and on standby with assigned halt ground ignition before 3 p.m. Halt aerial ignition before
duties. 4 p.m. to allow adequate time for the fire to burn out before
atmospheric dispersion conditions deteriorate.
FIRE PRESCRIPTION—The amount of fuel, weather
conditions and desired intensity of the burn will determine Burning conditions are usually better during the day than
the firing technique and ignition pattern to use to meet the at night because wind speeds are higher, wind directions
burn’s objectives. Species involved and height of overstory are more steady, and an unstable atmosphere favors the
will determine the maximum intensity that can be tolerated. vertical dispersion of smoke. These conditions make smoke
Where large amounts of fuel are present, cooler burns can be management much easier during the day. At night smoke
accomplished by burning when humidity and fuel moisture tends to stay near the ground and collects in depressions.
are near the high end of the range so a smaller fraction of Also, relative humidity is higher at night, resulting in spotty
the fuel will be consumed. Lower temperatures are desirable burning and an increased likelihood of fog formation.
with more intense fires, especially when understory fuels are
tall, to limit the potential for crown scorch. However, on some winter nights when a strong cold front is
moving through the area, winds remain strong and persistent
Behave-plus (http://www.firemodels.org/content/ and relative humidity does not rise greatly. These conditions
view/30/39/) is a useful program for predicting fire behavior can provide good prescribed burning conditions especially
values to include in a burn plan. The calculations are based when cooler temperatures are needed. Whenever night
on data about fuels, weather, and topography. Important burning is done, keep a close watch on the weather and
to look at potential fire behavior in the burn unit and in smoke drift.
surrounding areas to aid in contingency planning for a
possible escaped fire. FIRING PlAN—Key parts for a successful prescribed burn
are plans for firing and holding the burn. This plan should
SEASON consist of a narrative section and a detailed map (the burn
unit map is ideal for this). Important information to include:
WINTER—Most understory burning is done during the
winter dormant season when acceptable fuel/weather • Firing technique, ignition pattern and planned
conditions are most frequent. Good for high fuel loads. ignition time.
• Manpower and equipment needed and planned distribution
SPRING—Weather and fuel conditions are more variable for setting, holding, patrolling and mopping up the fire and
and often fire danger is higher, particularly in late spring. managing the smoke.
Also must consider potential impact on nesting wildlife. • Location and number of reinforcements and equipment
Vegetation can be more susceptible to heat damage that can be mobilized rapidly in the event that the fire
(pine buds). escapes. Also include location of water sources.
• Instructions for all supervisory personnel, including
SUMMER—Hot weather during the summer means that complete description or illustration of assignment, and
less heat is required to raise the temperature of plant tissue forces needed to fire, hold and mop up the fire.
to lethal levels. For this reason summer burns are often used
to kill undesirable hardwoods. Care must be taken to avoid AlTERNATIvE PRESCRIPTION—Consider alternative
damaging overstory crowns. Late summer is a good time for sets of weather and fuel conditions, along with firing
post-harvest burns as the high temperatures help dry out the techniques that will produce a fire of roughly the same
larger material. intensity and accomplish the desired objectives. Sometimes
this alternative may require two separate burns when dealing
FAll—Exercise care when burning in early fall just prior with heavy fuel loads.
to the dormant season. Both loblolly and slash pine are more
likely to die if severely scorched or root damaged at
this time.

56
PREPARATION WORk AND PROTECTION OF held responsible, regardless of whether compliance would
SENSITIvE FEATURES—Include the fire lines to be have changed the outcome. For more information see the
constructed, snags to be lined or felled, special features to be summary article, Legal Implications of Prescribed Burning
protected and the installation of any monitoring equipment. in the South by William C. Seigal, listed in the Suggested
Give instructions for the protection of sensitive areas. Reading section.
Consider historical and archeological sites, streams, habitats
of threatened and endangered species, and fragile soils. ESCAPED FIRE PlAN—Identify potential fire escapes
and specify actions to take in the event such an escape
NOTIFICATION OF INTENT TO BURN—List the names occurs. Designate who will be in charge of suppression
and telephone numbers of the local State fire protection action and what personnel and equipment will be available.
officer and other officials who should be contacted prior to Using Behave-plus to estimate potential fire behavior in
the burn. Make direct contact with all homes and businesses areas adjacent to the burn unit can help in determining
in the area likely to be impacted by the burn. Consider suppression needs.
written notification explaining the reasons for the burn and
encouraging those with respiratory problems to contact CONTROl AND MOP UP—The plan must include
you – include a telephone number for them to use. Offer to necessary safeguards to confine the fire to the prescribed
evacuate anyone with respiratory problems during the burn area and reduce smoke impact. Mop up promptly and
(consider putting them up in a hotel if necessary). Establish completely when practical. Consider and make plans for any
responsibility for burn-day contacts and how they will be variation in forecasted weather that may change a prescribed
made. Consider a newspaper article describing the reasons fire into a damaging wildfire, increase the pollution in
for the burn if you expect to produce lots of smoke and smoke-sensitive areas, or create a visibility problem on
anticipate negative reactions. adjacent roads.

IMPACT OF SMOkE—List any sensitive areas near to, EvAlUATION—Include space for a written evaluation
downwind, or down drainage of the burn unit. Include of the prescribed burn. A record of actual and forecasted
smoke management strategies (avoidance, emissions weather conditions, fire behavior, and total environmental
reduction, dispersal) used to minimize adverse impacts effects of the burn is essential. This information is used to
at these sites. Attach the smoke management plan (e.g. determine if the objectives of the burn were achieved and
screening system calculations) as part of the burn plan. can help in planning future burns.

lEGAl REqUIREMENTS—List any legal requirements At the beginning of the prescribed burn, record the
that might apply and what the prescribed burner must do to forecasted weather and current conditions (wind speed and
comply. Remember, the person conducting the prescribed direction, temperature, relative humidity, fuel moisture, days
burn may not be the one who conducted the analysis and since and amount of last rain and the dampness of the litter
wrote the prescription. Follow all applicable statutes, and duff). Documenting that weather conditions are within
regulations and agency procedures. The need for a written the acceptable ranges specified in the prescription is critical
prescribed burning plan, documentation of deviations from to supporting ones decision to burn. Also, fire behavior
the plan, and good judgment cannot be overemphasized. information such as the firing technique, flame length and
Erroneous forecasts, unforeseen local influences, and forward rate of spread should be recorded to document that
accidents occur despite our best efforts to prevent them. the fire behavior matches expectations. Continue to record
Proper documentation will help establish that the prescribed this weather and fire information periodically throughout
fire was conducted in a prudent and professional manner. If the burn. After the burn record the amount of crown scorch,
a prescribed fire results in damage or bodily harm and you consumption of brush, litter and duff, and any evidence of
cut corners, neglected any mandatory requirements, or acted fire intensity such as unburned areas, exposed mineral soil,
with disregard to the welfare of others, you are likely to be and cracks in bark or cupping on the lower bole due to bark
consumption. Also include a short narrative on the success
of the burn.

57
 Simple Understory Prescribed Burning Unit Plan
Landowner Permit no.
Address Phone no.
S T R County Acres to burn Previous burn date
Purpose of burn
(Draw map on back or attach)

Stand Description
Overstory type & Size Height to bottom of crown
Understory type & height
Dead fuels: description and amount

Preburn Factors
Manpower & equipment needs
List smoke-sensitive areas & locate on map
Special precautions

Estimated no. hours to complete Passed smoke screening system

Adjacent landowners to notify

Weather Factors: Desired Range Predicted Actual

Surface winds (speed & dir.) _______________________ ____________________________
Transport winds (speed & dir.) _______________________ ____________________________
Minimum mixing height _______________________ ____________________________
Dispersion/stagnation index _______________________ ____________________________
Minimum relative humidity _______________________ ____________________________
Maximum temperature _______________________ ____________________________
Fine-fuel moisture (%) _______________________ ____________________________
Days since rain Amount _______________________ ____________________________

Fire Behavior: Desired Range Actual

Type fire
Best month to burn Date burned
Flame length
Rate of spread
Inches of litter to leave

Evaluation: Immediate Future

Any escapes? Acreage Evaluation by
Objective met Date
Smoke problems Insect/disease dam.
% of area with crown discoloration of Crop Tree Mortality
5-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76%+ % understory kill
Live crown consumption Soil movement
% understory veg. consumed Other adverse effects
Adverse publicity
Technique used OK Remarks
Remarks

Prescription made by
Title Date / /

58
Understory Prescribed Burning Unit Plan
Prepared by Signature Date Permit no.
State County District Comp’t
Burning unit no. S T R Gross acres Net acres
Landowner Address & phone no.
Person responsible & how to contact day & night
(Draw map on back or attach)
A. Record of Previous Burning: Date Fire type Results
B. Description of Stand:
1. Overstory: Type, density, size Height to bottom of crown
2. Understory: Type, density, height
3. Dead fuels: Type, density, age, volume
4. Soil type and topography
C. Purpose(s) of Burn:
D. Specific Objectives:
E. Preburn Factors:
1. Chains to plow (see map): Exterior Interior Total
2. Chains to fire (see map): Exterior Interior Total
3. Crew size: Equip. needs
4. Estimated tons/acre Total tons to be burned
5. Ignition procedure (see map)
6. Passed screening system? Special precautions

7. Notify:

8. Regulations that apply

9. List smoke-sensitive areas & critical targets (see map):

F. Weather Factors: Desired Range Predicted Actual

1. Surface wind (speed & dir.)
2. Transport wind (speed & dir.)
3. Stability/stagnation index
4. Minimum mixing height
5. Dispersion index
6. Minimum relative humidity
7. Maximum temperature
8. Fine-fuel moisture
9. Days since rain Amount
10. Burning index Drought index
G. Fire Behavior: Desired Range Actual Range
1. Type fire
2. Best month to burn Date burned
3. Time of day to start Time set
4. No. of hours to complete Completed
5. Flame length
6. Rate of spread
7. Fireline intensity
8. Inches of litter to leave Litter left
H. Evaluation Immediately After Burn: Future Evaluations:
1. Acres burned Evaluation by
2. Spotting Distance Date made
3. Any escapes Insect/disease dam.
4. Objectives met
5. Smoke problems Crop tree morality
6. % understory veg. consumed
7. % of area with crown discoloration of % Understory kill
0 5-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76%+ Soil movement
8. Live crown consumption Other adverse effects
9. Adverse publicity
10. Remarks Remarks

59
 Postharvest Prescribed Burning Unit Plan
Prepared by Signature Date Permit no.
State County District Comp’t
Burning unit no. S T R Gross acres Net acres
Landowner Address & phone no.
Person responsible & how to contact day & night
(Draw map on back or attach)
A. Description of Area:
1. Natural stand or plantation Stand age Harvest date
2. Clearcut Harvest method Pine basal area removal
3. Organic soil Hardwood basal area Hardwoods utilized
4. Unmerchantable trees felled Snags felled Debris evenly distributed
5. Debris (light, medium or heavy) Brush (light, medium or heavy)
6. Herbaceous fuels (light, medium, heavy Herbaceous fuels continuous
7. Herbicide used Date applied / /
8. Drum chopped Single or double pass Date completed / /
9. Windrowed and/or piled Date piled / / Piled when wet
10. Pile of windrow dimensions: Ht. Width (dia.)
11. Windrow break interval
B. Preburn Factors and Desired Fire Intensity:
1. Areas to exclude
2. Chains to plow (see map): Exterior Interior Total
3. Chains to fire (see map): Exterior Interior Total
4. Equipment needs
5. Crew size Type of fire Type of ignition
6. Ignition procedure (see map):
7. No. of hours to complete Tons/acre to consume Litter to leave (in.)
8. Special precautions:

9. Notify:

10. Regulations that apply

11. Passed screening system? List smoke sensitive areas, critical targets & locate on map

C. Weather Factors Desired Range Predicted Actual

1. Surface wind (speed & dir.)
2. Transport wind (speed & dir.)
3. Mixing height
4. Dispersion Index (or comparable)
5. Relative humidity (%)
6. Temperature (°F)
7. Fine-fuel moisture (%)
8. 10-hr. fuel moisture (%)
9. Days since rain Amount
10. Burning index Drought index
11. Best month to burn Dates burned
12. Time of day to start Time set
D. Summary of Burn:
1. Type fire & ignition
2. All piles, windrows & logging decks ignited
3. % of area burned Did area between piles burn?
4. Spotting frequency Distance Firebrand material
E. Evaluation Immediately After Burn:
1. Any escapes: Number Adjacent to burn area? Acres involved
2. Hours to burnout: Active flaming Smoldering Total hours
3. % understory veg. consumed Depth of litter remaining (in.)
4. % material < 3” dia. consumed Did piled debris burn down?
5. Objectives met
6. Adverse publicity
7. Smoke problems
8. Remarks
F. Future Evaluation (date, signature, and remarks)

60
Preparing for the Prescribed
Burn
Good preparation and a clear objective are the keys to ESTABlISHING CONTROl lINES
successful burning and are essential in realizing maximum
net benefits at acceptable costs. Preparation consists of all • Construct lines in advance of burning, preferably after
activities necessary to make an area ready for firing and leaf fall to reduce effect of fallen material on prepared
having all needed tools equipment and information ready lines. Control lines should reach mineral soil and can be
to go. Much of this work is conducted by the burn boss. To constructed by plowing, disking, tilling or raking.
do this job skillfully, the burn boss should have personal • Use existing barriers such as streams, logging roads, or
knowledge or information available about: cultivated fields whenever possible.
• Hold plow lines to a minimum, keeping them shallow and
• Weather elements involved on the contour as much as possible in hilly terrain. Consider
• Fire behavior igniting from wet lines. Use skid trails and logging roads
• Smoke management where feasible.
• Amount and type of fuel on the area • Keep control lines as straight as possible. Bend them
• Location of natural and man-made fire barriers around excluded areas, avoiding abrupt changes in direction.
• Degree of risk and hazard present • Avoid rock outcrops and boggy ground.
• Burning technique and intensity of fire to be used • Double or widen control lines in hazardous places.
• Burning objectives for the particular area • Subdivide large areas into logical 1-day burning jobs.
• Restrictive measures dictated by law or local custom • Avoid leaving dense timber stands or heavy fuel pockets
• Fire suppression safety near lines.
• Location of any improvements which could be endangered • Mow problem fuel spots near control lines to reduce
• Areas within the prescribed unit that may need to be potential spotovers.
excluded from fire such as:
areas with extreme mop up or breakover potential AFTER CONTROl lINES ARE
(sawdust piles, muck soils, snags, etc.)
highly scenic areas
ESTABlISHED
highly erodible areas
• Remove any material above the line that could carry fire
areas harboring special-quality wildlife or plant
across the control line such as vines and overhanging brush.
communities that would be damaged by fire
• Fall snags near line (inside and outside) – this should be
desirable hardwood areas
done judiciously and in consideration of the value to wildlife
timber and grass areas susceptible to fire damage
of the snag.
• Construct water bars and leadoff ditches in steeper terrain
All site-specific information should be included in the
to prevent soil erosion.
written prescription. Before starting work, the burn boss
• Seed and fertilize exposed soil with native or non-invasive
should inspect the area by walking over it and should give
species on control lines in steep topography to prevent
safety instruction to all work crews.
soil erosion.

BURN UNIT MAP

• Locate all control lines on the map noting changes from the original plan.
• Note on the map any danger spots along control lines having potential for fire escape.

61
 Eddies caused by forest openings.

Convections and eddies for open areas.

62
Executing the Burn
For any particular burn prescription there are only so many
days in a year that will meet all of the burn’s criteria so
the burn crew must be prepared for these opportunities. A
typical burn crew consists of a burn boss and three to six
crew members. The burn boss should be an experienced
prescribed burner with an understanding of fire behavior.
The other members of the crew will typically be divided
into ignition and holding groups. If aerial ignition is used, a
minimal ignition crew consists of the pilot and an ignition
specialist who is responsible for operating the ping-pong
ball system. Good communication is essential for all
prescribed burns, but especially for aerial ignition burns.

The burn boss should have the crew ready to fire the areas
as early in the day as conditions permit, leaving maximum
time for mop up and patrol of lines and to reduce chances
of nighttime smoke problems. The burn boss must make
sure that crew members are fit and have proper clothing and
safety equipment. Proper clothing includes long-sleeve fire
resistant or cotton shirts, pants without cuffs, leather boots
with non-skid soles, safety glasses, hardhat, gloves and
plenty of drinking water. During the summer, the possibility
of heat exhaustion and heat stroke must be considered. Post warning signs on public roads.

Conduct a test burn.

63
CHECklIST

 Make sure all equipment is in working order  Post signs on public roads and be prepared
and that it is safe to use to control traffic if potential exists for smoke to
reduce visibility
 Carry burn plans and maps to the site
 Check duff and soil for dampness
 Have a means of instant communication
with all crew members. Portable radios are  Test burn with a small fire before firing off
very useful as are cellphones, but make sure the unit; check fire and smoke behavior and
that all sections of the burn unit have good make sure they match expectations. If not,
reception. decide whether the observed fire /smoke
behavior are acceptable. This is the time to
 Check the weather before starting to burn cancel the burn if you are not comfortable
and keep updated throughout the day with the observed behavior. Note on the plan
the results of the test burn and your decision
 Check all control lines, clean out needles to burn or not.
and leaves and reinforce if necessary
 Be alert to changing conditions and be
 Notify adjoining property owners and local prepared to change burning techniques or
fire control organizations before starting fire plow the fire out if an emergency arises

 Instruct crew on procedures, including  Burn so the wind will carry the smoke away
safety precautions and the proper operation from sensitive targets
of equipment and use of hand tools
 Mop up and patrol perimeters constantly
 Inform the crew of starting point and firing during the operation and thereafter until there
plan. Give each member a map. is no further danger of fire escape or smoke
problems.

64
Evaluating the Burn
Burn evaluations are an important means for determining • Any adverse public comment or reaction prior to, during or
how well the the stated objectives of the burn were met as immediately after the burn
well as gaining information to be used in future burns. An
initial evaluation should be made immediately after the POINTS FOR SECOND EvAlUATION
burn, perhaps the following morning. A second evaluation
should be made during or after the first postfire growing • Resin exuding from pine trees, an indicator of cambrium
season. damage or insect attack
• Signs of disease or insect damage
GENERAl POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED • Mortality of timber or other desirable vegetation
• Sprouting vigor of undesired vegetation
• Was preburn preparation properly done and adequate for • Remaining duff layer, mineral soil exposed, and any
the burn? soil movement
• Were objectives met? • Public expression for or against the burning program
• Was the burn plan followed? Were changes made • Ground cover response
and documented? • Invasive species
• Were weather conditions, fuel conditions, fire behavior • Impacts to target species
and smoke dispersion within planned limits? Were any
deviations documented? INDICATIONS AND GUIDElINES
• What were the effects on soil, air, vegetation, water
and wildlife? Needle SCorCh—The best indicator of crop tree
• Was the fire confined to the intended area; any escapes? damage is percent of foliage discoloration. Assuming that
• Was the burning technique correct? buds and branchlets are not heat-killed, even crown scorch
• Were costs commensurate with benefits derived? approaching 100 percent generally will not kill trees unless
• What could be done to improve similar burns next time? secondary factors such as insect attacks, disease or drought
materialize. However, loblolly pine stands burned in the fall
POINTS IN FIRST EvAlUATION after their last needle flush prior to dormancy, are likely to
be killed by 100 percent crown scorch. Slash pine appears to
• Amount of overstory foliage discoloration be more tolerant of severe crown scorch during the fall.
• Amount of consumption and top-kill of
understory vegetation If more than 15 percent of a southern pine tree’s needles are
• Amount of litter/duff remaining on forest floor actually consumed by flames, the tree’s chances of survival
• Amount of mineral soil exposed would be poor even if very little of the rest of the crown is
• Impacts to non-target species scorched. Young vigorous trees are more likely to survive
• Degree of success in avoiding smoke-sensitive features severe crown damage than are older individuals.
• Protection of areas not to be burned; any escapes?

Percent Crown Scorch Damage

0 to 33 Some volume growth loss may occur the first postfire growing
season but it will be minor.
34 to 66 Volume growth loss usually less than 40 percent and confined to the
first postfire growing season.
67 to 100 Reduction may be as high as a full year's volume growth spread
over 3 years.

65
Magnitude and duration of growth responses in southern
pines due to various levels and seasons of defoliation are not
well documented. Both negative and positive responses have
been observed, but the preponderance of evidence shows a
direct relationship between diameter and height growth loss
and crown scorch. Providing no crown consumption occurs,
the following table will help estimate potential growth loss
in loblolly and slash pines over 3 inches dbh. These “ball
park” estimates can be used for other southern pines as well,
until more specific results become available.

A good indicator of hardwood control is a series of bark

cracks extending into the cambrium near ground level. This
indicates sufficient heat was applied to penetrate the bark
and kill the cambrium. Although large hardwoods can be
damaged by periodic fires, they are hard to kill.

Judge the success of burning for brownspot control by Post-burn evaluation helps to determine if the objectives of the fire
the number of longleaf seedlings with all infected needles were met.
burned off, but still having a protective sheath of green burns are conducted over dry soils (drought conditions)
needles around an unharmed terminal bud. or when a deep litter layer is present. New root growth in
vigorously growing pines can usually offset losses, but older
SOIl AND ROOT DAMAGE—Burning under prescribed trees, having survived such fires without crown damage,
conditions in the South generally does not expose much bare often die six months to a year later for no apparent reason.
soil. If duff remains after a burn, the physical properties
of the soil were probably not harmed. If mineral soil is AIR qUAlITY—Smoke behavior must be continually
exposed, especially on steep slopes, soil movement and monitored from the time the fire is ignited until smoldering
deterioration of site quality may occur. ceases. Unusual or unexpected smoke plume behavior
should be noted and correlated with other parameters of the
Root damage is likely whenever the organic layer is burn for future reference. Any public complaints should be
completely consumed. It should also be expected whenever recorded as part of the evaluation.

66
Coordination of
Burning These guidelines are general and will not fit all situations.

PURPOSE TIME OF BURN SIZE OF BURN TYPE OF FIRE FREQUENCY REMARKS

REDUCE FUELS Winter Large enough to Not critical. Do 2 to 4 years Use line-backing fire, or point
break fuel continuity not ring fire source fires under moist
conditions for initial burn. Grid-
firing technique excellent for
maintenance burns.

IMPROVE General—Protect transitional or

WILDLIFE fringe areas. Do not burn stream
HABITAT bottoms.
Deer Winter preferred Small or leave Backing fire or 2 to 4 years Want to promote sprouting and
unburned areas point-source keep browse within reach. Repeat
fires summer fires may kill some
rootstocks.
Turkey Winter preferred; Small or leave Backing fire or 2 to 4 years Avoid April through June nesting
summer burns in unburned areas point-source season.
July - August fires

Quail Late winter 25+ acres Not critical. Do 1 to 2 years Avoid April through June nesting
not ring fire season. Leave unburned patches
and thickets.

Dove Winter Not critical Not critical. Do Not critical Leave unburned patches and
not ring fire thickets.

Waterfowl Late fall or winter Not critical Heading fire 2+ years Marshland only. Do not burn in
hardwood swamps.

CONTROL Heavy roughs in Not critical Not critical. Do 2 to 8 years Summer burns result in higher
COMPETING winter, otherwise not ring fire rootstock kill and affect larger
VEGETATION not critical stems. Exclude fire from desirable
hardwoods in pine-hardwood type.

IMPROVE Winter through late Not critical but will Not critical. Do 3 years Split range and burn one-third
FORAGE FOR spring for most be damaged by not ring fire each year. Individual herbs and
GRAZING situations overuse if too small grasses respond differently to fire
for herd. and season of burn. Consult
expert.

IMPROVE Will vary with Varies with Depends on As needed Coordinate with other resource
ACCESSIBILITY understory and individual situation amount of fuel objectives. They will dictate size,
desired use present timing and frequency of burn.

CONTROL Brownspot, winter Depends on size of Strip-heading or 2 to 3 years Burn when humidity is above 50%.
DISEASE infected area. heading fire Avoid leaving unburned pockets of
Include a buffer strip infected seedlings within of
adjacent to burn.

67
 PURPOSE TIME OF BURN SIZE OF BURN TYPE OF FIRE FREQUENCY REMARKS

ENHANCE Late fall through Varies with each Backing fire or 1 + years Requires precise prescription to protect
APPERANCE late winter situation Point-source fire vegetative type changes. Know effect of
fire frequency and season of burn on
both annual and biennial flowering
plants. Provide pleasing visual lines.

PERPETUATE Will vary with Will vary with Will vary with Will vary with Fire intensity, timing and frequency all
FIRE species species fuel conditions species dictated by species requirements.
DEPENDENT and species
SPECIES requirements.

YOUNG PINE Winter Varies with size of Backing fire 2 to 4 years Pine diameter 3 inches or more at
STANDS stand ground. Pine height above 10 ft. Burn
only after a strong cold front with rain.

DISPOSE OF Not critical Small areas mean Center firing with __ Smoke management is a must! Take
LOGGING fewer nighttime helicopter care not to damage soil or water
DEBRIS smoke problems preferred resources with these hot fires. If a
broadcast burn will not meet objectives,
pile–do not windrow debris.

__
PREPARE Natural seeding, Large enough to Not critical. Do Be careful not to kill seed trees. If
SITES FOR summer to early prevent not ring fire logging debris present, manage your
SEEDING fall prior to seed concentrations of smoke.
fall. birds & rodents
(usually 10 acres
or more).

__
Direct seeding, Large enough to Not critical. If logging debris present, smoke
fall to late winter prevent Center firing with management is a must! Take care not
for spring sowing. concentrations of helicopter to damage soil or water resources with
Previous winter birds & rodents preferred if slash these hot fires
for fall sowing of (usually 10 acres present.
longleaf. or more).

__
PREPARE Growing season Large enough to Not critical. If logging debris present, smoke
SITES FOR for hardwood prevent Center firing with management is a must! Take care not to
PLANTING concentrations of helicopter damage soil or water resources with
birds & rodents preferred if slash these hot fires
(usually 10 acres present.
of more).

68
General Rules
1. Observe and follow all local laws and guidelines. 13. Windrows are the most polluting of all southern
fuel types.
2. Obtain and use latest weather and smoke
management forecasts. 14. Broadcast burn scattered debris if possible.

3. Relative humidity will roughly halve with each 20° F 15. Do not pile debris when either ground or debris is wet.
increase in temperature in a given air mass.
16. Dirt in piled debris will increase the amount of smoke
4. Expect increased spotting when relative humidity drops produced by up to four times. Shake out dirt while piling;
below 30 percent. “bump” piles while burning, and re-pile as necessary.

5. Burn when mixing height is above 1,650 feet 17. Use a smoke management plan. Consider smoke
(500 m). sensitive areas. Look several miles downwind and down-
drainage for potential targets.
6. Do not burn under temperature inversions.
18. If nighttime Dispersion Index forecast is very poor (less
7. Never underburn during a drought. Soil moisture is than 6), try to have burning complete two hours before
needed to protect tree roots and lower litter. sunset to limit the amount of smoke trapped under the
nocturnal inversion.
8. Don’t burn on organic soils unless the water table is very
close to the surface. 19. Doubling the Dispersion Index implies a doubling
of the atmospheric capacity to disperse smoke within a
9. Heading fires produce about three times more particulate 1,000-square-mile area.
than backing fires.
20. Assuming 1 ton of fuel per acre is being consumed by
10. Burn when fuels are dry, but not too dry. Wet fuels smoldering combustion during poor nighttime dispersion
produce substantially more particulate than do dry fuels. conditions, expect visibility in the smoke to be less than 1/2
mile within 1 1/2 miles of the fire.
11. Start burning logging debris by midmorning.
21. Be familiar with all topographic features in the burn unit
12. Site prep burning behind chopping or other mechanical to understand how wind direction and fire behavior
treatment gives best results if done 10 to 15 days may change.
after treatment.
22. A fire escape contingency plan is an important part of the
prescription process.

69
Red Flag Situations
If any of the following conditions exist, analyze further
before burnings.

UNDERBURNING:
• No written plan
• No map
• No safety briefing
• Heavy fuels
• Dry duff and soil
• Extended drought
• Inadequate control lines
• No updated weather forecast for area
• Forecast does not agree with prescription
• Poor visibility DEBRIS BURNING - IN ADDITION TO THE ABOvE:
• Inadequate personnel or equipment • Area contains windrows
• Burning large areas using aerial ignition • A lot of dirt in piles
• Communications for all crew members not available • Poor nighttime smoke dispersion forecast
• No backup plan or forces available • Have not looked down drainage
• No one notified of plans to burn • Mixing height is below 1,650 feet (500 m)
• Behavior of test fire not as prescribed • Debris was piled when wet
• No smoke management plan • Pile exteriors are wet
• Smoke-sensitive area downwind or down drainage
• Organic soil present IF ANY OF THE FOllOWING CONDITIONS ExIT,
• Daytime Dispersion Index below 40 STOP BURNING AND SUPPRESS ExISTING FIRE.
• Not enough personnel or equipment available to control an • Fire behavior erratic
escaped fire • Spot fire or slop-over occurs and is difficult to control
• Personnel on fire not qualified to take action on • Wind shifting or other unforeseen change in weather
escaped fire • Smoke not dispersing as predicted
• Smoke impacting a public road or other sensitive area
• Burn does not comply with all laws, regulations,
and standards
• Large fuels igniting and burning, not enough personnel to
mopup before dark and likely to smoke in a smoke
sensitive area.

70
Glossary
Aerial Fuels - Standing and supported live and dead Broadcast Burn - Prescribed fire that burns over a
forest combustibles not in direct contact with the ground designated area, generally in the absence of a merchantable
consisting mainly of foliage, twigs, branches, cones, bark, overstory, to consume debris that has not been piled
stems, and vines (See Draped Fuels, Ladder Fuels) or windrowed.

Aerial Ignition - Ignition of fuels by dropping incendiary Brown and Burn - Application of herbicide to desiccate
devices or materials from aircraft. living vegetation prior to burning.

Age of rough - Time in years since the forest floor was last Brownspot Control - A prescribed burn to control a fungal
reduced by fire. infection (brownspot disease) of longleaf pine in the “grass”
(small seedling) stage.
Air Stagnation Advisory (ASA) - A statement issued
by a National Weather Service office when atmospheric Buildup - Cumulative effects of long-term drying on current
conditions are stable enough that the potential exists for fire danger.
pollutants to accumulate in a given area.
Buildup Index (BUI) - A relative number expressing the
Anemometer - General name for instruments designed to cumulative effect of daily drying factors and precipitation
measure windspeed. on fuels with a 10-day timelag constant.

Area Ignition - Igniting, throughout an area to be burned, Burn Boss - Person responsible for managing a prescribed
a number of individual fires either simultaneously or in fire from ignition through mopup.
rapid succession and so spaced that they soon influence
and support each other to produce a hot, fast-spreading fire Burning Index (BI) - A relative number related to the
throughout the area. contribution fire behavior makes to the amount of effort
needed to contain a fire within a given fuel type. A doubling
Aspect - Direction toward which a slope faces. of the BI indicates twice the effort will be needed to contain
a fire in that fuel type as was previously required.
Atmospheric Stability - A measure of the degree to which
the atmosphere resists turbulence and vertical motion. In Category day - A numerical index related to the ability of
prescribed fire activities the atmosphere is usually described the atmosphere to disperse smoke. For example, in South
as stable, neutral, or unstable. Carolina the current scale, based on Ventilation Factor,
ranges from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent).
Available Fuel - That portion of the total fuel that will be
consumed under a specific set of burning conditions. Center Firing - A method of broadcast burning in which
fire(s) are set in the center of the area to create a convection
Backing Fire - A fire spreading or set to spread into column with strong surface indrafts. Usually additional fires
(against) the wind, or downhill. (See Flanking Fire, are then set progressively nearer the outer control lines as
Heading Fire). the indraft builds up, to draw the flames and smoke toward
the center of the burn.
BehAVe PlUS - A user friendly computer system to
predict fire bevavior. Chain - Unit of measure in land survey equal to 66 feet; 80
chains equal 1 mile.
Belt Weather Kit - Belt mounted canvas case with fitted
pockets for anemometer, compass, sling psychrometer, slide Clearcutting - Removal of the entire standing,
rule, water bottle, pencils, and book of weather report forms. merchantable timber crop.

Blackline - Preburning of fuels, either adjacent to a control Cold Front - The leading edge of a mass of air that is colder
line before igniting the main prescribed fire, or along a and drier than the air mass being replaced.
roadway as a deterrent to human-caused fires. Blackline
denotes a condition in which there is no unburned fine fuel.

71
Control line - Comprehensive term for all constructed or drip Torch - Hand-held apparatus used to ignite fires by
natural fire barriers and treated fire edges used to control dripping flaming liquid fuel, at an adjustable rate, on the
a fire. materials to be burned. The fuel is generally a mixture of 65
to 80 percent diesel and 20 to 35 percent gasoline.
Convection Column - The rising column of gases, smoke
and debris produced by a fire. The column has a strong drought Index (Keetch-Byram drought Index) - A
vertical component indicating that buoyant forces override numerical rating of the net effect of evapotranspiration and
the ambient surface wind (See Smoke Plume). precipitation in producing cumulative moisture depletion in
deep duff or upper soil layers.
Convergence Zone - The area of increased flame heights
and fire intensity produced when two or more flame fronts dry-bulb Temperature - The temperature of the air.
burn together.
duff - The layer of decomposing organic materials lying
Crown Scorch - Browning of needles or leaves in the crown below the litter layer and immediately above the mineral
of a tree or shrub caused by heat from a fire. soil. It is comprised of the Fermentation (F) and Humus (H)
layers of the forest floor.
Cured - Debris or herbaceous vegetation that has dried and
lost its green color. edge - As used in this manual, the boundary between two
fairly distinct fuel types.
dAId (delayed Aerial Ignition device) - See Ping-pong
Ball System. emission Factor - The amount of pollution (pounds per
ton) released to the atmosphere per unit weight of dry fuel
debris Burning - In this publication, defined as any consumed during combustion.
prescribed fire used to dispose of scattered, piled, or
windrowed dead woody fuel in the absence of an overstory. emission rate - The quantity of pollutant released to the
Such a burn often accomplishes the objectives of a Site Prep atmosphere per unit length of fire front per unit time.
Burn as well.
equilibrium Moisture Content (eMC) - The moisture
dew Point - Temperature to which air must be cooled to content that a fuel would eventually attain if exposed for
reach saturation at a constant atmospheric pressure. The an infinite period to specified constant values of dry-bulb
dew point is always lower than the wet-bulb temperature, temperature and relative humidity.
which in turn is always lower than the dry-bulb temperature.
The only exception to this is when the air is saturated (i.e., Fine Fuels (Flash fuels) - Fast-drying, dead fuels which
relative humidity is 100 percent), in which case all three have a timelag constant of 1 hour or less. These fuels ignite
values are equal. readily and are consumed rapidly when dry. Included are
grass, leaves, draped pine needles, and small twigs.
dispersion - The decrease in concentration of airborne
pollutants as they spread throughout an increasing volume Fire Behavior - A general term that refers to the combined
of atmosphere. effect of fuel, weather and topography on a fire.

dispersion Index - A numerical index to estimate the Firebrand - Any flaming or smoldering material such as
atmosphere’s capacity to disperse smoke from prescribed leaves, pine cones, or glowing charcoal that could start
burns over a thousand square mile area. It is related to another fire.
the Ventilation Factor, but also considers the impact of
atmospheric stability on pollutant dispersal. Firebreak - Any natural or constructed discontinuity in a
fuelbed used to segregate, stop, or control the spread of fire
draped Fuels - Needles, leaves, twigs, etc., that have fallen or to provide a control line from which to suppress a fire.
from above and have lodged on lower branches and brush. Fire effects - Physical, biological and ecological impacts of
Part of aerial fuels. fire on the environment.

drift Smoke - Smoke that has been transported from its Fire Front - The strip within which continuous flaming
point of origin and in which convective motion no longer occurs along the fire perimeter (See Flame Depth).
dominates.

72
Fireline Intensity (Byram’s Intensity) - The rate of hygrothermograph - An instrument that continuously
heat release per unit time per unit length of fire front. records dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity.
Numerically, it is the product of the heat yield, the quantity
of fuel consumed in the fire front, and the rate of spread. Ignition Pattern - The manner in which a prescribed fire
is ignited. The distance between ignition lines or points
Fire Plow - Heavy-duty share or disk plow designed to be and the sequence of igniting them, as determined by fuel,
pulled by a tractor to construct firebreaks. topography, weather, ignition system, firing technique, and
other factors influencing fire behavior and the objectives of
Fire rake - A long-handled combination rake and cutting the burn (See Firing Technique).
tool, the blade of which is usually constructed of a single
row of 4 sharpened teeth. In-stand Wind (Midflame Wind) - Windspeed within a
stand at about eye level.
Firing Technique - The type(s) of fire resulting from one or
more ignition(s), e.g., backing fire, flanking fire, heading fire Inversion - In this publication, defined as a layer of the
(See Grid Ignition, Ignition Pattern). atmosphere through which the temperature increases with
increasing height.
Flame depth - The depth of the fire front at the fuel surface.
Keetch-Byram drought Index - See Drought Index.
Flame length - The distance between the flame tip and
the midpoint of the flame depth at the base of the flame ladder Fuels - Fuels that provide vertical continuity
(generally at the ground surface). between the ground and tree crowns, thus creating a
pathway for a surface fire to move into the overstory tree
Flanking Fire - A fire front spreading, or set to spread at crowns.
roughly right angles to the prevailing wind.
line Ignition - Setting a line of fire as opposed to
Flash Fuels - See fine fuels. individual spots.

Fuel Moisture Content - Water content of a fuel expressed litter - The top layer (L layer) of the forest floor directly
as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the fuel. above the fermentation layer (F layer), composed mainly
of recently fallen leaves and pine needles, but also includes
Fuel Moisture Indicator Sticks - A specially manufactured dead twigs, bark fragments, etc. (See Duff).
set of sticks of known dry weight continuously exposed to
the weather and periodically weighed to determine changes logging debris - Unwanted tree parts remaining after
in moisture content. The changes are an indication of harvest, including tree crowns, unutilized logs, and
changes in the moisture status and relative flammability of uprooted stumps.
dead fuels that roughly correspond to Ten-hour
Timelag Fuels. low-level Jet - A rapid increase with height to a maximum
wind speed within 1,000 feet above ground and then a slow
Grid Ignitions - Method of igniting fires in which ignition decrease above that peak. One form of adverse wind profile.
points are set individually at predetermined spacing with
predetermined timing throughout the area to be burned (see Midflame Wind - See In-stand wind.
Ping-pong Ball System).
Mineral Soil - Soil layers below the predominantly
hazard reduction - Treatment of living and dead forest organic horizons.
fuels to reduce the likelihood of a fire starting and to lessen
its damage potential and resistance to control. Mixing height - The height to which relatively vigorous
mixing of the atmosphere occurs.
heading Fire - A fire front spreading or set to spread with
the wind or upslope. Mopup - Extinguishing or removing burning material,
herbaceous Fuels - Grasses and other plants that contain especially near control lines after an area has burned to
little woody tissue. make it safe, or to reduce residual smoke.

humus - The layer of decomposed organic matter on the Muck - See Organic Soil.
forest floor beneath the partially decomposed litter layer (F
layer) and directly above the soil.

73
National Fire danger rating System (NFdrS) – A residence Time - The time (seconds) required for the fire
method to integrate the effects of topography, fuels, and front to pass a stationary point at the surface of the fuel.
weather into numerical indices of fire danger on a day-to- Numerically, it is the flame depth divided by the rate
day basis. of spread.

one-hour Timelag Fuels - Fine fuels consisting mainly of residual Smoke - Smoke produced by smoldering material
dead herbaceous plants, sticks less than about 1/4-inch in behind the actively burning fire front.
diameter, and the uppermost litter layer.
ring Fire - A fire started by igniting the perimeter of the
organic Soil - Any soil or soil horizon containing at least intended burn area so that the ensuing Fire Fronts converge
30 percent organic matter; examples are peat and muck. toward the center of the block.

Particulate (Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) - Any rough - The live understory and dead fuels that build up on
liquid or solid particles temporarily suspended in the the forest floor over time.
atmosphere. See PM-10 or PM-2.5.
Scorch height (Scorch line) - The average height to which
Peat - See Organic Soil. foliage has been browned by fire.

Ping-pong Ball System - A method of igniting fires with the Site Prep Burn - A fire set to reduce logging debris
use of a Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (DAID). The device after clearcutting and control competing vegetation until
is a polystyrene ball, 1.25 inches in diameter that contains seedlings of the desired species become established (See
a combustible chemical. The balls are fed into a dispenser, Debris Burning).
generally mounted in a helicopter, where they are injected
with another chemical and drop through a chute leading out Slash - Debris resulting from such natural events as wind,
of the helicopter. The chemicals react thermally and ignite fire, or snow breakage, or such human activities as logging
in about 30 seconds. The space between ignition points on or road construction.
the ground is primarily a function of helicopter speed, gear
ratio of the dispenser, and the number of chutes used (up to Smoke Concentration - The weight of combustion products
4) (See Grid Ignition). (micrograms or cubic meter) found in a given volume of air.

PM-10 - Particulate with an aerodynamic diameter smaller Smoke Management - Application of knowledge of fire
than or equal to 10 micrometers. behavior and meteorological processes to minimize air
quality degradation during prescribed burning.
PM-2.5 - Particulate with an aerodynamic diameter smaller
than or equal to 2.5 micrometers. Smoke Plume - The gases, smoke, and debris that rise
slowly from a fire while being carried along the ground
Prescribed Burning - fire applied in a knowledgeable because the buoyant forces are exceeded by those of the
manner to forest and grassland fuels on a specific land ambient surface wind (See Convection Column).
area under selected weather conditions to accomplish
predetermined, well-defined management objectives. Smoke-Sensitive Area (SSA) - An area in which smoke
from outside sources is intolerable.
Psychrometer - The general name for instruments designed
to determine the moisture content of air. A psychrometer Smoldering Combustion Phase - Combustion associated
consists of dry and wet-bulb thermometers that give the with residual burning of forest fuels behind the fire front.
dry-and wet-bulb temperatures, which in turn are used to Emissions are at least twice that of the fire front, and consist
determine relative humidity and dew point. mainly of tars.

Spot Fire - Fire ignited outside the perimeter of the main

relative humidity - The ratio, expressed as a percentage of fire by a fire brand.
the amount of moisture in the air, to the maximum amount Spot Weather Forecast - Special prediction of atmospheric
of moisture the air is capable of holding under the conditions at a specific site, sometimes requested by the
same conditions. burn boss before igniting a prescribed fire.

74
Stagnant Conditions - Conditions under which pollutants Ventilation Factor - An indicator of the lower atmosphere’s
build up faster than the atmosphere can disperse them. potential to diffuse and disperse smoke. Numerically, it is
the product of the mixing height and the transport
Strip-heading Fire - A series of lines of fire upwind (or wind speed.
downslope) of a firebreak or backing fire that will burn with
the wind toward the firebreak or backing fire. Vertical Fuels - Fuels that provide vertical continuity
between the ground and tree crowns, thus creating a
Ten-hour Timelag Fuels - Dead wood ¼ to 1 inch in pathway for a surface fire to move into the overstory tree
diameter and, approximately the top 3/4 inch of the crowns, also known as ladder fuels.
litter layer.
Wet-bulb Temperature - Technically, the temperature
Timelag - The drying time, under specified conditions, registered by the wet-bulb thermometer of a psychrometer.
required for a dead fuel to lose about 63 percent of the It is the lowest temperature to which air can be cooled by
difference between its initial moisture content and its evaporating water into it at a constant atmospheric pressure.
equilibrium moisture content. Providing conditions remain
unchanged, a fuel will reach 95 percent of its EMC after Wetline - A line of water, or water and chemical retardant,
four timelag periods. sprayed along the ground and which serves as a temporary
control line from which to ignite or stop a low-intensity fire.
Tractor-Plow - Any tracked vehicle, with a plow for
exposing mineral soil, with transportation and personnel for Wind direction - Compass direction from which the wind
its operation. is blowing.

Transport Wind Speed - A measure of the average rate of Wind Profile - A plot of wind speed with height above the
the horizontal movement of air throughout the mixing layer. earth’s surface.
Underburning - Prescribed burning under a forest canopy.
Windrow - Woody debris that has been piled into a long
continuous row.

75
Suggested Reading
Anderson, h. (1982). United States Department of Agriculture Brose, Patrick; Wade, Dale 2002. Potential fire behavior in
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment pine flatwood forests following three different fuel reduction
Station. General Technical Report. INT-122, 22 pp. techniques. Forest Ecology and Management 163 (2002) 71-84.

Andrews, Patricia l. 2007. BehavePlus fire modeling system: Brose, Patrick h.; Waldrop, Thomas A. 2006. Fire and the
Past, present, and future. In: Proceedings of 7th Symposium on Fire orgin of the Table Mountain pine - pitch pine communities in the
and Forest Meteorology; 23-25 October 2007, Bar Harbor, Maine. southern Appalachian mountains, USA. Can. J. Forest Res.,
Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society. 13 p. Vol. 36: 710-718.

Andrews, Patricia l.; Bevins, Collin D.; Seli, Robert C. 2005. Brown, A.A.; Davis, K.P. 1973. Forest fire: control and use. 2d ed.
BehavePlus fire modeling system, version 4.0: User’s Guide. New York: McGraw-Hill. 584 p.
Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-106WWW Revised. Ogden, UT:
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Buckner, ed. 2000. In Summary: Fire in the Evolution of the
Research Station. 132p. Eastern Landscape—A Timeline. In: Yaussy, Daniel A., comp.
2000. Proceedings: workshop on fire, people, and the central
Boerner, ralph e.J. 2006. Soil, fire, water, and wind: how the hardwoods landscape; 2000 March 12-14; Richmond, KY. Gen.
elements conspire in the forest context. In: Dickinson, Matthew Tech. Rep. NE-274. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of
B., ed. 2006. Fire in eastern oak forests: delivering science to land Agriculture Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: 120.
managers, proceedings of a conference; 2005 November 15-17;
Columbus, OH. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: Byram, George M. 1954. Atmospheric conditions related to
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northern Research blowup fires. Station Pap. 35. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department
Station: 104-12. of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station. 34 p.
Boerner, r.e.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Shelburne, V.B. 2006. Wildfire
mitigation strategies affect soil enzyme activity and soil organic Cerulean, Susan I.; Engstrom, R. Todd. Editors. 1995.
carbon in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) forests. Can. J. For. Res., Proceedings 19th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire in
Vol. 36: 3148-3154 Wetlands: A Management Perspective. Tallahassee, Florida. Tall
Timbers Research, Inc., 175 p
Boyer, William d. 1987. Volume growth loss: a hidden cost of
periodic prescribed burning in longleaf pine. Southern Journal of Clinton, Barton d.; Vose, James M. 2007. Fuels consumption
Applied Forestry. 11(3): 154-157. and nitrogen loss following prescribed fire: a comparison of
prescription types in the Southern appalachians. Gen. Tech. Rep.
Brockway, dale G.; Gatewood, Richard G.; Paris, Randi B. SRS–101. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern
2002. Restoring fire as an ecological process in shortgrass Research Station: 231-240 [CD-ROM].
prairie ecosystems: initial effects of prescribed burning during
the dormant and growing seasons. Journal of Environmental Clinton, Barton d.; Vose, James M.; Swank, Wayne T.; Berg, Erik
Management (2002) 65, 135-152. C.; Loftis, David L. 1998. Fuel consumption and fire characteristics
during understory burning in a mixed white pine-hardwood stand
Brockway, dale G.; Lewis, Clifford E. 2003. Influence of deer, in the Southern Appalachians. Res. Pap. SRS-12. Asheville, NC:
cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research
in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem. Forest Ecology and Station. 8p.
Management 175 (2003) 49-69.
Coates, T. Adam; Boerner, Ralph E.J.; Waldrop, Thomas A.;
Brockway, dale G.; Outcalt, Kenneth W.; Boyer, William D. 2005. Yaussy, Daniel A. 2008. Soil nitrogen transformations under
Longleaf pine regeneration ecology and methods. The Longleaf alternative management strategies in Appalachian forests. Soil
Pine Ecosystem: Ecology, Silviculture, and Restoration 40 p. Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 72(2): 558-565.

Brose, Patrick. 2004. Fitting Fire into Oak Management. Gen. Countryman, Clive M. 1971. This humidity business: what its
Tech. Rep. SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture all about and its use in fire control? Berkeley, CA: United States
Forest Service, Southern Research Station. pp. 263. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 15p.
Brose, Patrick h.; Van Lear, David H.; Keyser, Patrick D. 1999. A
Shelterwood-Burn Technique for Regenerating Productive Upland Croker, Thomas C., Jr. 1967. Crop-seedling method for planning
Oak Sites in the Piedmont Region. South. J. Appl. 16(3):158-163. brownspot burns in longleaf pine. Journal of Forestry. 65(7): 488.

76
dickinson, Matthew B., ed. 2006. Fire in eastern oak forests: haywood, James d.; Harris, Finis L. 1999. Description of
delivering science to land managers. Fire in eastern oak forests: Vegetation in Several Periodically Burned Longleaf Pine Forests
delivering science to land managers, proceedings of a conference; on the Kisatchie National Forest. In: USDA Forest Service
2005 November 15-17; Columbus, OH. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Southern Research Station, General Technical Report SRS-030,
Newtown Square, PA: United States Department of Agriculture Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research
Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 303 p. Conference, pp. 217-222.

elliott, Katherine J.; Vose, James M. 2005. Effects of understory haywood, James d.; Harris, Finis L.; Grelen, Harold E.; Pearson,
prescribed burning on shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.)/mixed- Henry A. 2001. Vegetative response to 37 years of seasonal
hardwood forests. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society burning on a Louisiana longleaf pine site. Southern Journal of
132(2), p. 236-251. Applied Forestry. 25(3): 122-130.

elliott, Katherine J.; Vose, James M. 2005. Initial effects of haywood, James d.; Sword, Mary Anne; Harris, Finis L. 2004.
prescribed fire on quality of soil solution and streamwater in the Fire Monitoring: Effects of Scorch in Louisiana’s Pine Forests.
Southern Appalachian Mountains. South. J. Appl. For. 29(1):5-15. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. pp. 65-67.
elliott, Katherine J.; Vose, James M. 2006. Vegetation response
to prescribed fire across a moisture/productivity gradient in the hough, W.A. 1968. Fuel consumption and fire behavior of hazard
southern Appalachians. In: Dickinson, Matthew B., ed. 2006. reduction burns. Res. Pap. SE-36. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department
Fire in eastern oak forests: delivering science to land managers, of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment
proceedings of a conference; 2005 November 15-17; Columbus, Station. 7 p.
OH. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northern Research hough, W.A.; Mbini, F.A. 1978. Predicting fire behavior in
Station: 275. palmetto-gallberry fuel complexes. Res. Pap. SE-174. Asheville,
NC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
Fischer, William C. 1991. Index to the Proceedings of the Tall Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 44 p.
Timbers Fire Ecology Conferences, Numbers 1-15, 1962-1976.
USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-87. 140 p. hughes, ralph. 1975. The native vegetation in south Florida
related to month of burning. Res. Note. SE-222. Asheville, NC:
Grano, Charles X. 1970. Eradicating understory hardwoods by U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest
repeated prescribed burning. Res. Pap. 50-56. New Orleans, LA: Experiment Station. 8 p.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Forest
Experiment Station. 11 p. Johansen, ragnar W. 1981. Windrows vs. small piles for forest
debris disposal. Fire Management Notes. 42(2): 7-9.
Greene, Thomas A.; Shilling, Charles L. 1987. Predicting girdling
probability for pine and hardwood saplings in low-intensity Johansen, ragnar W.; Wade, Dale D. 1987. Effects of crown
backfires. Forest Science. 33(4): 1010-1021. scorch on survival and diameter growth of slash pines. Southern
Journal of Applied Forestry. 11(4): 180A84.
haines, d.A. 1988. A lower atmospheric severity index for
wildland fires. National Weather Digest, 13, 23-27. Johnson, Von J. 1984. Estimating moisture content in litter.
Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 8(4): 197-201.
hardy, Colin C.; Ottmar, Roger D.; Peterson, Janice L; Core,
John E.; Seamon, Paula, eds. 2001. Smoke management guide for Komerek, e.V., Sr. 1979. Proceedings 16th Tall Timbers Ecology
prescribed and wildland fire: 2001 edition.. PMS 420-2. NFES and Management Conference. The Role of the Plantation in
1279. Boise, ID: National Wildfire Coodination Group. 226 p. Southern Agriculture. Thomasville, Georgia, 206 p.

hermann, Sharon M. Editor. 1993. Proceedings 18th Tall Timbers lavdas, leonidas G. 1986. An atmospheric dispersion index
Fire Ecology Conference. The Longleaf Pine Ecosystem: Ecology, for prescribed burning. Res. Pap. SE-256. Asheville, NC: U.S.
Restoration and Management. Tallahassee, Florida. Tall Timbers Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest
Research, Inc., 418 p. Experiment Station. 33 p.

haywood, James d. 2007. Restoring fire-adapted forested lavdas, l.G.; Achtemeier, G.L. 1995. A Fog and Smoke Risk
ecosystems—research in longleaf pine on the Kisatchie National Index for Estimating Roadway Visibility Hazard. National Weather
Forest. Restoring fire-adapted ecosystems: proceedings of the 2005 Digest 20(1) 2633.
national silviculture workshop, Gen. Tech. Rep PSW-GTR-203,
p. 87-105. lewis, Clifford e.; Harshbarger, Thomas J. 1986. Burning and
grazing effects on bobwhite foods in the southeastern Coastal
Plain. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 14(4): 455-459.

77
liliehoim, robert J.; Hu, ShibChang. 1987. Effect of crown National Association of State Foresters; Coalition of Prescribed
scorch on mortality and diameter growth of 19-year-old-loblolly Fire Councils, Inc. 2012. 2012 National Prescribed Fire Use
pine. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 11(4): 209-211. Survey Report. Coalition of Prescribed Fire Councils, Inc.;
Technical Report 01-12. 19 pp.
lloyd, F. Thomas; Waldrop, Thomas A. 1999. Backburning as an
Alternative to Traditional Pre-Commercial Thinning. Tree Farmer: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A.; [Editors] 1991. Fire
The Practical Guide to Sustainable Forestry, May/June 1999. and the Environment: Ecological and Cultural Perspectives. Gen.
Tech. Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture
loftis, david l.; McGee, Charles E.; [Editors] 1993. Oak Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 429p.
Regeneration: Serious Problems Practical Recommendations
(Symposium Proceedings). Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-84. Asheville, NC: outcalt, Kenneth W. 2000. Occurrence of fire in longleaf pine
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest stands in the Southeastern United States. In: Moser, W. Keith;
Experiment Station. 319 p. Moser, Cynthia E., eds. Fire and forest ecology: innovative
silviculture and vegetation management. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology
lunsford, James. 1987. Prescribed fire in the Southeast-five steps Conference Proceedings, No. 21. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers
to a successful burn. Fire Management Notes. 48(3): 30-35. Research Station: 178-182.

Masters, ronald e. 2007. The importance of shortleaf pine for outcalt, Kenneth W. 2003. Developing management options for
wildlife and diversity in mixed oak-pine forests and in pine- longleaf communities of the gulf coastal plain. In: Proceedings of
grassland woodlands. In: Kabrick, John M.; Dey, Daniel C.; the Fourth Longleaf Alliance Regional Conference, November 17-
Gwaze, David, eds. Shortleaf pine restoration and ecology in 20, Southern Pines, North Carolina, p. 1-4.
the Ozarks: proceedings of a symposium; 2006 November 7-9;
Springfield, MO. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-15. Newtown Square, outcalt, Kenneth W. 2006. Managing composition of piedmont
PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northern forests with prescribed fire. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville,
Research Station: 35-46. NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern
Research Station. pp. 531.
Masters, ronald e.; Galley, Krista E.M. Editors. 2007.
Proceedings 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire in outcalt, Kenneth W.; Wade, Dale D. 2004. Fuels Management
Grassland & Shrubland Ecosystems. Reduces Tree Mortality from Wildfires In Southeastern United
States. South. J. Appl. For. 28(1):28-34.
McNab, W. henry. 1976. Prescribed burning and direct-seeding
old clearcuts in the Piedmont. Res. Note SE-229. Asheville, NC: Phillips, d.r.; Abercrombie, J.A., Jr. 1987. Pine-hardwood
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest mixtures – a new concept in regeneration. Southern Journal of
Experiment Station. 4 p. Applied Forestry 11(4):192-197.

Melton, M. 1989. Keetch-Byram Drought Index: A guide to fire Phillips, ross; Hutchinson, Todd; Brudnak, Lucy; Waldrop,
conditions and suppression problems. Fire Management Notes Thomas 2007. Fire and fire surrogate treatments in mixed-oak
50(4), 3034. forests: Effects on herbaceous layer vegetation. In: Butler, Bret
W.; Cook, Wayne, comps. The fire environment--innovations,
Melton, M. 1996. Keetch-Byram Drought Index Revisited: management, and policy; conference proceedings. 26-30 March
Prescribed Fire Applications. Fire Management Notes, 56(4) 7-11. 2007; Destin, FL. Proceedings RMRS-P-46CD. Fort Collins, CO:
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
Mobley, hugh e.; Kerr, Ed. 1973. Wildfire versus prescribed Research Station. CD-ROM. p. 475-485.
fire in the southern environment. Atlanta: U.S. Department of
Agriculture Southeastern Area, State and Private Forestry. 6 p. Phillips, ross J.; Waldrop, Thomas A.; Simon, Dean M. 2006.
Assessment of the FARSITE model for predicting fire behavior
Mohr, helen h.; Waldrop, Thomas A.; Rideout, Sandra; Phillips, in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. Proceedings of the 13th
Ross J.; Flint, Charles T. 2004. Effectiveness of Fire and Fire biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. Gen. Tech.
Surrogate Treatments For Controlling Wildfire Behavior in Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture
Piedmont Forests: A Simulation Study. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 521-525.
Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
Southern Research Station. pp. 71-73. Potter, B.e. 1996. Atmospheric properties associated with large
wildfires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 6, 71-76.
Moser, W. Keith; Moser, Cynthia F. Editors. 2000. Proceedings
21st Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire and Forest Potter, B.e. 1997. Making sense of fire weather. Fire Management
Ecology: Innovative Silviculture and Vegetation Management. Today, 57(2) 26-27.
Tallahassee, Florida. Tall Timbers Research, Inc., 225 p.

78
Pruden, Teresa l.; Brennen, Leonard A. Editors. 1998. Van lear, d. h.; Harlow, R. F. 2002. Fire in the eastern United
Proceedings 20th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire in States: influence on wildlife habitat. In: Ford, W. Mark; Russell,
Ecosystem Management: Shifting Paradign from Suppression to Kevin R.; Moorman, Christopher E., eds. Proceedings: the role of
Prescription. Tallahassee, Florida. Tall Timbers Research, fire for nongame wildlife management and community restoration:
Inc., 459 p. traditional uses and new directions. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-288.
Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest
rothermel, richard. 1983. How to predict the spread and Service, Northeastern Research Station. pp. 2-10.
intensity of forest and range fires. Gen Tech. Rep. INT-143. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Intermountain Van lear, d.h.; Harper, R.A.; Kapeluck, P.R.; Carroll, W.D.
Forest and Range Experiment Station. 161 p. 2004. History of Piedmont Forests: Implications For Current Pine
Management. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S.
Sackett, Steven S. 1975. Scheduling prescribed burns for hazard Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research
reduction in the Southeast. Journal of Forestry. 73(3): 143-147. Station. pp. 127-131.

Saveland, J.M.; Wade, D.D. 1991. Fire Management Van lear, david h.; Waldrop, Thomas A. 1989. History, Uses,
Ramifications of Hurricane Hugo. Eleventh Conference on Fire and Effects of Fire in the Appalachians. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-54.
and Forest Meteorology, April 16-19, Missoula, MT. Society of Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
American Foresters. p. 124-131 Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 20 p.

Schroeder, Mark J.; Buck, Charles C. 1970. Fire weather. Agric. Vose, James M. 2000. Perspectives on using prescribed fire to
Handb. 360. Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest achieve desired ecosystem conditions. In: Moser, W. Keith; Moser,
Service. 229 p. Cynthia E., eds. Fire and forest ecology: innovative silviculture and
vegetation management. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference
Seigel, William C. 1985. Legal implications of prescribed burning Proceedings, No. 21. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research
in the South. In: Proceedings on Prescribed Fire and Smoke Station. pp.12-17.
Management in the South Conference; 1984 September 12-14;
Atlanta, GA. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Vose, James M.; Swank, Wayne T.; Clinton, Barton D.; Knoepp,
Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 77-85. Jennifer D.; Swift, Lloyd W. 1999. Using stand replacement fires
to restore southern Appalachian pine-hardwood ecosystems:
Stanturf, John A.; Gardiner, Emile S.; Outcalt, Kenneth; Conner, effects on mass, carbon, and nutrient pools. Forest Ecology and
William H.; Guldin, James M. 2004. Restoration of southern Management. 114: 215-226.
ecosystems. In: Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–75. Asheville, NC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Wade, dale d.; Johansen, R.W.1986. Effects of fire on southern
Station. Chapter 13. p. 123-131. pine: observations and recommendafions. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-41.
Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
Stanturf, John A.; Rummer, Robert.; Wimberly, M.; Rials, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 14 p.
Timothy G.; Araman, Philip. A.; Busby, Rodney.; Granskog,
James.; Groom, Leslie 2003. Developing an integrated system for Wade, dale d.; Lewis, Clifford E. 1987. Managing southern
mechanical reduction of fuel loads at the wildland/urban interface grazing ecosystems with fire. Rangelands. 9(3): 115-119.
in the southern United States. Proceedings, 2d Forest Engineering
Conference. 135-138. Wade, dale; Miller, Steven; Stowe, Johnny; Brenner, James 2006.
Rx fire laws: tools to protect fire: the ‘ecological imperative?’
Stanturf, John A.; Wade, Dale D.; Waldrop, Thomas A. [and In: Dickinson, Matthew B., ed. 2006. Fire in eastern oak forests:
others]. 2002. Fire in southern forest landscapes. In: Wear, D.M delivering science to land managers, proceedings of a conference;
and Greis, J. editors. 2002. Southern Forest Resource Assessment. 2005 November 15-17; Columbus, OH. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1.
P. 607-630 (Chapter 25) Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-53. Asheville, NC: Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Service, Northern Research Station: 233-262.
Station.
Wade, dale; Mobley, Hugh 2007. Managing smoke at the
U.S. department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern wildland-urban interface. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-103. Asheville,
Region. 1988. Draft environmental impact statement: vegetation NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern
management in the Costal Plain/Piedmont. Vol. I and II. Mange. Research Station. 28 p.
Bull. R8-MB 15. Atlanta.
Waldrop, Thomas A. (and others). 1987. Long term studies of
Van lear, d.h; Danielovich, S.J. 1988. Soil movement after prescribed burning in loblolly pine forests of the Southeastern
broadcast burning in the southern Appalachians. Southern Journal Coastal Plain. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-45. Asheville, NC: U.S.
of Applied Science. 12(1): 49-53. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest
Experiment Station. 23 p.

79
Waldrop, Thomas A.; Brose, Patrick H. 1999. A Comparison of THE RAINBOW SERIES OF WIlDlAND FIRE IN
Fire Intensity levels for stand replacement of table mountain pine ECOSYSTEMS:
(Pinus pungens Lamb.). Forest Ecology and Management.
113: 155-166. Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler 2000. Wildland fire in
ecosystems: effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-
Waldrop, Thomas A.; Brudnak, Lucy; Phillips, Ross J.; Brose, 42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest
Patrick H. 2006. Research efforts on fuels, fuel models, and fire Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 257 p.
behavior in eastern hardwood forests. In: Dickinson, Matthew B.,
ed. 2006. Fire in eastern oak forests: delivering science to land Neary, daniel G.; Ryan, Kevin C.; DeBano, Leonard F. 2005.
managers, proceedings of a conference; 2005 November 15-17; Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on soils and water. Gen.
Columbus, OH. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol.4. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northern Research Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Station. pp. 90-103. 250 p.

Waldrop, Thomas A.; Brudnak, Lucy; Rideout-Hanzak, Sandra Sandberg, david V.; Ottmar, Roger D.; Peterson, Janice L. 2002.
2007. Fuels on disturbed and undisturbed sites in the southern Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on air. Gen. Tech.
Appalachian Mountains, USA. Can. J. For. Res., Vol. 37: Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
1134-1141. Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
79 p.
Waldrop, Thomas A.; White, David L.; Jones, Steven M. 1992.
Fire regimes for pine-grassland communities in the southeastern Smith, Jane Kapler. 2000. Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of
United States. Forest Ecology and Management, 47 (1992). fire on fauna. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest
pp. 195-210. 1992 - Elsevier Science. Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 83 p.

Waldrop, Thomas A.; Yaussy, Daniel A.; Phillips, Ross J.; Zouhar, Kristin; Smith, Jane Kapler; Sutherland, Steve; Brooks,
Hutchinson, Todd A.; Brudnak, Lucy; Boerner, Ralph E.J. 2008. Matthew L. 2008. Wildland fire in ecosystems: fire and nonnative
Fuel reduction treatments affect stand structure of hardwood invasive plants. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 6. Ogden,
forests in Western North Carolina and Southern Ohio, USA. Forest UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky
Ecology and Management, Vol. 255: 3117-3129. Mountain Research Station. 355 p.

Weise, david r.; Johansen, R.W.; Wade, Dale D. 1987. Effects

of spring defoliation on first-year growth of young loblolly and
slash pines. Res. Note SE-347. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department
of Agriculture Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station. 4 p.

80
 Waldrop, Thomas A.; Goodrick, Scott l. 2012. Introduction to prescribed
fires in Southern ecosystems. Science Update SRS-054. Asheville, NC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 80 p.

This publication is a guide for resource managers on planning and

excecuting prescribed burns in Southern forests and grasslands.
It includes explanations of reasons for prescribed burning, environmental
effects, weather, and techniques as well as general information on
prescribed burning.

Scan this code to submit your feedback,

or go to www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubeval

You may request additional copies of this publication by e-mail at [email protected].

Please, limit requests to two copies per individual.
 The Forest Service, United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA), is dedicated to the principle
of multiple use management of the Nation’s forest
resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife,
and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with
the States and private forest owners, and management of
the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives—as
directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service
to a growing Nation.

The USDA prohibits discrimination in all its programs and

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age,
disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial
status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic
information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of
an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance
program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.)
Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for
communication of program information (Braille, large print,
audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at
(202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA,

Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue,
SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272
(voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). The USDA is an equal
opportunity provider and employer.